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vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Process_of_electrolysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process_of_electrolysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Process of electrolysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process_of_electrolysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decomposition_potential" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decomposition_potential"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Decomposition potential</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decomposition_potential-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxidation_and_reduction_at_the_electrodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxidation_and_reduction_at_the_electrodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Oxidation and reduction at the electrodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxidation_and_reduction_at_the_electrodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_changes_during_electrolysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_changes_during_electrolysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Energy changes during electrolysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_changes_during_electrolysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Related processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Industrial uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Industrial_uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Industrial uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Industrial_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chloralkali_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chloralkali_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Chloralkali process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chloralkali_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrofluorination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrofluorination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Electrofluorination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrofluorination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrodimerization_of_acrylonitrile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrodimerization_of_acrylonitrile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Hydrodimerization of acrylonitrile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrodimerization_of_acrylonitrile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electroplating_and_electrowinning_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electroplating_and_electrowinning_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Electroplating and electrowinning processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electroplating_and_electrowinning_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrochemical_machining_(ECM)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrochemical_machining_(ECM)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Electrochemical machining (ECM)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrochemical_machining_(ECM)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Competing_half-reactions_in_solution_electrolysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competing_half-reactions_in_solution_electrolysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Competing half-reactions in solution electrolysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competing_half-reactions_in_solution_electrolysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Research trends</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_trends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research trends subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electrolysis_of_carbon_dioxide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrolysis_of_carbon_dioxide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Electrolysis of carbon dioxide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrolysis_of_carbon_dioxide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrolysis_of_acidified_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrolysis_of_acidified_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Electrolysis of acidified water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrolysis_of_acidified_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon/hydrocarbon_assisted_water_electrolysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon/hydrocarbon_assisted_water_electrolysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon/hydrocarbon_assisted_water_electrolysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrocrystallization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrocrystallization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Electrocrystallization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrocrystallization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrolysis_of_Iron_Ore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrolysis_of_Iron_Ore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Electrolysis of Iron Ore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrolysis_of_Iron_Ore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrolysis_of_seawater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrolysis_of_seawater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Electrolysis of seawater</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrolysis_of_seawater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet 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Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolise" title="Elektrolise – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektrolise" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="تحليل كهربائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تحليل كهربائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3lisis" title="Electrólisis – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Electrólisis" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliz" title="Elektroliz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elektroliz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3" title="তড়িৎ বিশ্লেষণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তড়িৎ বিশ্লেষণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7" title="Электроліз – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электроліз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Електролиза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Електролиза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliza" title="Elektroliza – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Elektroliza" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B2lisi" title="Electròlisi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Electròlisi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrol%C3%BDza" title="Elektrolýza – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektrolýza" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funguragetsi" title="Funguragetsi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Funguragetsi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolyse" title="Elektrolyse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektrolyse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolyse" title="Elektrolyse – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektrolyse" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrol%C3%BC%C3%BCs" title="Elektrolüüs – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elektrolüüs" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BB%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Ηλεκτρόλυση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτρόλυση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3lisis" title="Electrólisis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Electrólisis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolizo" title="Elektrolizo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektrolizo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolisi" title="Elektrolisi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Elektrolisi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="برق‌کافت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برق‌کافت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lectrolyse" title="Électrolyse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Électrolyse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leictreal%C3%BA" title="Leictrealú – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leictrealú" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3lise" title="Electrólise – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Electrólise" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%A4_%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%A8_(%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B8)" title="વિદ્યુત વિભાજન (ઇલેક્ટ્રોલિસિસ) – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વિદ્યુત વિભાજન (ઇલેક્ટ્રોલિસિસ)" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0_%EB%B6%84%ED%95%B4" title="전기 분해 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전기 분해" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6" title="Էլեկտրոլիզ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրոլիզ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="विद्युत अपघटन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विद्युत अपघटन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliza" title="Elektroliza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Elektroliza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolizo" title="Elektrolizo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Elektrolizo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolisis" title="Elektrolisis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Elektrolisis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafgreining" title="Rafgreining – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rafgreining" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettrolisi" title="Elettrolisi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elettrolisi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%94" title="אלקטרוליזה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלקטרוליזה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86_(%E0%B2%8E%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D)" title="ವಿದ್ಯುದ್ವಿಭಜನೆ (ಎಲೆಕ್ಟ್ರೋಲೈಸಿಸ್) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿದ್ಯುದ್ವಿಭಜನೆ (ಎಲೆಕ್ಟ್ರೋಲೈಸಿಸ್)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="ელექტროლიზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ელექტროლიზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Электролиз – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электролиз" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektwoliz" title="Elektwoliz – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Elektwoliz" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lektroliz" title="Élektroliz – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Élektroliz" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Электролиз – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Электролиз" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%84%E0%BA%9F%E0%BA%9F%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%B2" title="ໄຟຟ້າ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ໄຟຟ້າ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Electrolysis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrol%C4%ABze" title="Elektrolīze – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Elektrolīze" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliz%C4%97" title="Elektrolizė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Elektrolizė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrol%C3%ADzis" title="Elektrolízis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Elektrolízis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Електролиза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електролиза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="വൈദ്യുതവിശ്ലേഷണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈദ്യുതവിശ്ലേഷണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolisis" title="Elektrolisis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Elektrolisis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolyse" title="Elektrolyse – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elektrolyse" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B0%97%E5%88%86%E8%A7%A3" title="電気分解 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電気分解" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolyse" title="Elektrolyse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektrolyse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolyse" title="Elektrolyse – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektrolyse" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolise" title="Elektrolise – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Elektrolise" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolisi" title="Electrolisi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Electrolisi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliz" title="Elektroliz – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektroliz" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80-%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%96%E0%A9%87%E0%A9%9C" title="ਬਿਜਲੀ-ਨਿਖੇੜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਿਜਲੀ-ਨਿਖੇੜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B3%D8%B3" title="الیکٹرولائسس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الیکٹرولائسس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilekchalisis" title="Ilekchalisis – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ilekchalisis" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletrolisi" title="Eletrolisi – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Eletrolisi" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolys" title="Elektrolys – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Elektrolys" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliza" title="Elektroliza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Elektroliza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletr%C3%B3lise" title="Eletrólise – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Eletrólise" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroliz%C4%83" title="Electroliză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Electroliză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Электролиз – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электролиз" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliza" title="Elektroliza – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Elektroliza" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electrolysis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrol%C3%BDza" title="Elektrolýza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Elektrolýza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliza" title="Elektroliza – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Elektroliza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="شیکردنەوەی کارەبایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شیکردنەوەی کارەبایی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Електролиза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Електролиза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroliza" title="Elektroliza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Elektroliza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9ktrolisis" title="Éléktrolisis – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Éléktrolisis" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolyysi" title="Elektrolyysi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elektrolyysi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrolys" title="Elektrolys – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektrolys" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="மின்னாற்பகுப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்னாற்பகுப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Technique in chemistry and manufacturing</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the chemical process. For the cosmetic hair removal procedure, see <a href="/wiki/Electrology" title="Electrology">Electrology</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hofmann_voltameter_fr.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hofmann_voltameter_fr.svg/220px-Hofmann_voltameter_fr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hofmann_voltameter_fr.svg/330px-Hofmann_voltameter_fr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hofmann_voltameter_fr.svg/440px-Hofmann_voltameter_fr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a <a href="/wiki/Hofmann_voltameter" title="Hofmann voltameter">Hofmann electrolysis apparatus</a> used in a school laboratory</figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Articles about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Solenoid"><img alt="Solenoid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/190px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/285px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/380px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_electromagnetics" title="Computational electromagnetics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism" title="List of textbooks in electromagnetism">Textbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electrical_phenomena" title="List of electrical phenomena">Phenomena</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charge_density" title="Charge density">Charge density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">Conductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electret" title="Electret">Electret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Electric charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_dipole_moment" title="Electric dipole moment">Electric dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">Electric field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_flux" title="Electric flux">Electric flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">Electric potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">Electrostatic discharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_induction" title="Electrostatic induction">Electrostatic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law" title="Gauss's law">Gauss law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">Insulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permittivity" title="Permittivity">Permittivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization_density" title="Polarization density">Polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">Static electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">Triboelectricity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetostatics" title="Magnetostatics">Magnetostatics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_circuital_law" title="Ampère's circuital law">Ampère law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biot%E2%80%93Savart_law" title="Biot–Savart law">Biot–Savart law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law_for_magnetism" title="Gauss's law for magnetism">Gauss magnetic law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">Magnetic dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">Magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux" title="Magnetic flux">Magnetic flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_scalar_potential" title="Magnetic scalar potential">Magnetic scalar potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_vector_potential" title="Magnetic vector potential">Magnetic vector potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetization" title="Magnetization">Magnetization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(electromagnetism)" title="Permeability (electromagnetism)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-hand_rule#Electromagnetism" title="Right-hand rule">Right-hand rule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Electrodynamics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotron_radiation" title="Cyclotron radiation">Cyclotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_current" title="Displacement current">Displacement current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_current" title="Eddy current">Eddy current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">Electromagnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">Electromagnetic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction" title="Faraday's law of induction">Faraday law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefimenko%27s_equations" title="Jefimenko's equations">Jefimenko equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larmor_formula" title="Larmor formula">Larmor formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenz%27s_law" title="Lenz's law">Lenz law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A9nard%E2%80%93Wiechert_potential" title="Liénard–Wiechert potential">Liénard–Wiechert potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_equations" title="London equations">London equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">Lorentz force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_stress_tensor" title="Maxwell stress tensor">Maxwell tensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poynting_vector" title="Poynting vector">Poynting vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">Electrical network</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">Alternating current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">Capacitance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_density" title="Current density">Current density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">Direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">Electromotive force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_impedance" title="Electrical impedance">Impedance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">Inductance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws" title="Kirchhoff's circuit laws">Kirchhoff laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_analysis_(electrical_circuits)" title="Network analysis (electrical circuits)">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohm%27s_law" title="Ohm's law">Ohm law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Parallel_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">Parallel circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance" title="Electrical resistance and conductance">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonator#Electromagnetics" title="Resonator">Resonant cavities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Series_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">Series circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">Voltage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">Watt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waveguide_(radio_frequency)" title="Waveguide (radio frequency)">Waveguides</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_circuit" title="Magnetic circuit">Magnetic circuit</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_motor" title="AC motor">AC motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DC_motor" title="DC motor">DC motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_machine" title="Electric machine">Electric machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrator%E2%80%93capacitor_model" title="Gyrator–capacitor model">Gyrator–capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">Induction motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_motor" title="Linear motor">Linear motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetomotive_force" title="Magnetomotive force">Magnetomotive force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeance" title="Permeance">Permeance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_complex_reluctance" title="Magnetic complex reluctance">Reluctance (complex)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reluctance" title="Magnetic reluctance">Reluctance (real)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotor_(electric)" title="Rotor (electric)">Rotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stator" title="Stator">Stator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Covariant_formulation_of_classical_electromagnetism" title="Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism">Covariant formulation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_tensor" title="Electromagnetic tensor">Electromagnetic tensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism_and_special_relativity" title="Classical electromagnetism and special relativity">Electromagnetism and special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-current" title="Four-current">Four-current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential" title="Electromagnetic four-potential">Four-potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_descriptions_of_the_electromagnetic_field" title="Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field">Mathematical descriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations_in_curved_spacetime" title="Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime">Maxwell equations in curved spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_electromagnetism" title="Relativistic electromagnetism">Relativistic electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor" title="Electromagnetic stress–energy tensor">Stress–energy tensor</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">Ampère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Biot" title="Jean-Baptiste Biot">Biot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Davy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Faraday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Fizeau" title="Hippolyte Fizeau">Fizeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Gauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Helmholtz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Hertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hopkinson" title="John Hopkinson">Hopkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_D._Jefimenko" title="Oleg D. Jefimenko">Jefimenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">Joule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Kelvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Kirchhoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Larmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Lenz" title="Emil Lenz">Lenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred-Marie_Li%C3%A9nard" title="Alfred-Marie Liénard">Liénard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Ernst_Neumann" title="Franz Ernst Neumann">Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Ohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Ørsted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Poynting" title="John Henry Poynting">Poynting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ritchie_(physicist)" title="William Ritchie (physicist)">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Savart" title="Félix Savart">Savart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Singer" title="George Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Proteus_Steinmetz" title="Charles Proteus Steinmetz">Steinmetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Wiechert" title="Emil Wiechert">Wiechert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electromagnetism" title="Template:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electromagnetism" title="Template talk:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>, <b>electrolysis</b> is a technique that uses <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct electric current</a> (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a>. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> from naturally occurring sources such as <a href="/wiki/Ores" class="mw-redirect" title="Ores">ores</a> using an <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_cell" title="Electrolytic cell">electrolytic cell</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential. The word "lysis" means to separate or break, so in terms, electrolysis would mean "breakdown via electricity." </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word "electrolysis" was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> in 1834,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> words <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἤλεκτρον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="grc-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ɛ̌ːlektron]</a></span> "amber", which since the 17th century was associated with <a href="/wiki/Electrical_phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical phenomena">electrical phenomena</a>, and <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">λύσις</span></span></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="grc-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lýsis]</a></span> meaning "dissolution". Nevertheless, electrolysis, as a tool to study chemical reactions and obtain pure <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a>, precedes the coinage of the term and formal description by Faraday. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early nineteenth century, <a href="/wiki/William_Nicholson_(chemist)" title="William Nicholson (chemist)">William Nicholson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Carlisle" title="Anthony Carlisle">Anthony Carlisle</a> sought to further <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta's</a> experiments. They attached two wires to either side of a <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a> and placed the other ends in a tube filled with water. They noticed when the wires were brought together that each wire produced bubbles. One type was hydrogen, the other was oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1785 a Dutch scientist named <a href="/wiki/Martin_van_Marum" title="Martin van Marum">Martin van Marum</a> created an electrostatic generator that he used to reduce tin, zinc and antimony from their salts using a process later known as electrolysis. Though he unknowingly produced electrolysis, it was not until 1800 when William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle discovered how electrolysis works.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1791 <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a> experimented with frog legs. He claimed that placing animal muscle between two dissimilar metal sheets resulted in electricity. Responding to these claims, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> conducted his own tests.<sup id="cite_ref-Ihde1964_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ihde1964-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would give insight to <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>'s ideas on electrolysis. During preliminary experiments, Humphry Davy hypothesized that when two elements combine to form a compound, electrical energy is released. Humphry Davy would go on to create Decomposition Tables from his preliminary experiments on Electrolysis. The Decomposition Tables would give insight on the energies needed to break apart certain compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1817 <a href="/wiki/Johan_August_Arfwedson" title="Johan August Arfwedson">Johan August Arfwedson</a> determined there was another element, lithium, in some of his samples; however, he could not isolate the component. It was not until 1821 that <a href="/wiki/William_Thomas_Brande" title="William Thomas Brande">William Thomas Brande</a> used electrolysis to single it out. Two years later, he streamlined the process using lithium chloride and potassium chloride with electrolysis to produce lithium and lithium hydroxide.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the later years of Humphry Davy's research, Michael Faraday became his assistant. While studying the process of electrolysis under Humphry Davy, Michael Faraday discovered two <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_electrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of electrolysis">laws of electrolysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the time of Maxwell and Faraday, concerns came about<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (June 2022)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> for <a href="/wiki/Electropositive" class="mw-redirect" title="Electropositive">electropositive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electronegative" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronegative">electronegative</a> activities.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 1875, <a href="/wiki/Paul_%C3%89mile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran">Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a> using electrolysis of gallium hydroxide, producing 3.4 mg of gallium. The following December, he presented his discovery of gallium to the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie des sciences">Académie des sciences</a> in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 26, 1886, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Frederick_Henri_Moissan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand Frederick Henri Moissan">Ferdinand Frederick Henri Moissan</a> finally felt comfortable performing electrolysis on <a href="/wiki/Anhydrous" title="Anhydrous">anhydrous</a> hydrogen fluoride to create a gaseous fluorine pure element. Before he used hydrogen fluoride, Henri Moissan used fluoride salts with electrolysis. Thus on June 28, 1886, he performed his experiment in front of the Académie des sciences to show his discovery of the new element fluorine.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While trying to find elemental fluorine through electrolysis of fluoride salts, many chemists perished including Paulin Louyet and Jérôme Nicklès.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1886 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martin_Hall" title="Charles Martin Hall">Charles Martin Hall</a> from America and <a href="/wiki/Paul_H%C3%A9roult" title="Paul Héroult">Paul Héroult</a> from France both filed for American patents for the electrolysis of aluminum, with Héroult submitting his in May, and Hall, in July.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hall was able to get his patent by proving through letters to his brother and family evidence that his method was discovered before the French patent was submitted.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Hall–Héroult process</a> which benefited many industries because aluminum's price then dropped from four dollars to thirty cents per pound.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1902 Polish engineer and inventor Stanisław Łaszczyński filed for and obtained Polish patent for the electrolysis of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1785 – <a href="/wiki/Martinus_van_Marum" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus van Marum">Martinus van Marum</a>'s electrostatic generator was used to reduce <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a> from their salts using electrolysis.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1800 – <a href="/wiki/William_Nicholson_(chemist)" title="William Nicholson (chemist)">William Nicholson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Carlisle" title="Anthony Carlisle">Anthony Carlisle</a> (and also <a href="/wiki/Johann_Ritter" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Ritter">Johann Ritter</a>), decomposed <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> into <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>.</li> <li>1808 – <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> (1807), <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> (1807), <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> were discovered by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Humphry_Davy#Elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> using electrolysis.</li> <li>1821 – <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> was discovered by the English chemist <a href="/wiki/William_Thomas_Brande" title="William Thomas Brande">William Thomas Brande</a>, who obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide.</li> <li>1834 – <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> published his <a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_laws_of_electrolysis" title="Faraday's laws of electrolysis">two laws of electrolysis</a>, provided a mathematical explanation for them, and introduced terminology such as electrode, electrolyte, anode, cathode, anion, and cation.</li> <li>1875 – <a href="/wiki/Paul_%C3%89mile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran">Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a> using electrolysis.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1886 – <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Moissan" title="Henri Moissan">Henri Moissan</a> using electrolysis.</li> <li>1886 – <a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Hall–Héroult process</a> developed for making <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>.</li> <li>1890 – <a href="/wiki/Castner%E2%80%93Kellner_process" title="Castner–Kellner process">Castner–Kellner process</a> developed for making <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a>.</li> <li>1902 – Stanisław Łaszczyński obtained <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> using electrolysis.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1930 – Development of the modern chlor-alkali process (electrolysis of brine to produce chlorine and sodium hydroxide), which became an important industrial method.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electrolysis is the passing of a <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct electric current</a> through an <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> which is producing chemical reactions at the <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_decomposition" title="Chemical decomposition">decomposition</a> of the materials. </p><p>The main components required to achieve electrolysis are an <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a>, electrodes, and an external power source. A partition (e.g. an <a href="/wiki/Ion-exchange_membrane" title="Ion-exchange membrane">ion-exchange membrane</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">salt bridge</a>) is optional to keep the products from diffusing to the vicinity of the opposite electrode. </p><p>The electrolyte is a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substance</a> which contains <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">free ions</a> and carries <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> (e.g. an ion-conducting <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a>, solution, or a <a href="/wiki/Ionic_liquid" title="Ionic liquid">ionic liquid</a> compound). If the ions are not mobile, as in most solid <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a>, then electrolysis cannot occur. A liquid electrolyte is produced by: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">Solvation</a> or reaction of an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic compound">ionic compound</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a> (such as water) to produce mobile ions</li> <li>An ionic compound melted by heating</li></ul> <p>The electrodes are immersed separated by a distance such that a current flows between them through the <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> and are connected to the power source which completes the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical circuit">electrical circuit</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> supplied by the power source drives the reaction causing ions in the electrolyte to be attracted toward the respective oppositely charged electrode. </p><p>Electrodes of <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> material are widely used. Choice of suitable <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrode</a> depends on chemical reactivity between the electrode and electrolyte and manufacturing cost. Historically, when non-reactive anodes were desired for electrolysis, graphite (called plumbago in Faraday's time) or platinum were chosen.<sup id="cite_ref-Faraday1849_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faraday1849-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were found to be some of the least reactive materials for anodes. Platinum erodes very slowly compared to other materials, and graphite crumbles and can produce carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions but otherwise does not participate in the reaction. Cathodes may be made of the same material, or they may be made from a more reactive one since anode wear is greater due to oxidation at the anode. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process_of_electrolysis">Process of electrolysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Process of electrolysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The key process of electrolysis is the interchange of atoms and ions by the removal or addition of electrons due to the applied potential. The desired products of electrolysis are often in a different physical state from the electrolyte and can be removed by mechanical processes (e.g. by collecting gas above an electrode or precipitating a product out of the electrolyte). </p><p>The quantity of the products is proportional to the current, and when two or more electrolytic cells are connected in series to the same power source, the products produced in the cells are proportional to their <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_weight" title="Equivalent weight">equivalent weight</a>. These are known as <a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_laws_of_electrolysis" title="Faraday's laws of electrolysis">Faraday's laws of electrolysis</a>. </p><p>Each electrode attracts ions that are of the opposite <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charge</a>. Positively charged ions (<a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a>) move towards the electron-providing (negative) cathode. Negatively charged ions (<a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anions</a>) move towards the electron-extracting (positive) anode. In this process <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> are effectively introduced at the cathode as a <a href="/wiki/Reagent" title="Reagent">reactant</a> and removed at the anode as a <a href="/wiki/Product_(chemistry)" title="Product (chemistry)">product</a>. In chemistry, the loss of electrons is called <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>, while electron gain is called <a href="/wiki/Reduction_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduction (chemistry)">reduction</a>. </p><p>When neutral atoms or molecules, such as those on the surface of an electrode, gain or lose electrons they become ions and may dissolve in the electrolyte and react with other ions. </p><p>When ions gain or lose electrons and become neutral, they will form compounds that separate from the electrolyte. Positive metal ions like Cu<sup>2+</sup> deposit onto the cathode in a layer. The terms for this are <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrowinning" title="Electrowinning">electrowinning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrorefining" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrorefining">electrorefining</a>. </p><p>When an ion gains or loses electrons without becoming neutral, its electronic charge is altered in the process. </p><p>For example, the <a href="/wiki/Chloralkali_process" title="Chloralkali process">electrolysis of brine</a> produces hydrogen and chlorine gases which bubble from the electrolyte and are collected. The initial overall reaction is thus:<sup id="cite_ref-Tilley2004_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tilley2004-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>2 NaCl + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O → 2 NaOH + H<sub>2</sub> + Cl<sub>2</sub></dd></dl> <p>The reaction at the anode results in chlorine gas from chlorine ions: </p> <dl><dd>2 Cl<sup>−</sup> → Cl<sub>2</sub> + 2 e<sup>−</sup></dd></dl> <p>The reaction at the cathode results in hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions: </p> <dl><dd>2 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 e<sup>−</sup> → H<sub>2</sub> + 2 OH<sup>−</sup></dd></dl> <p>Without a partition between the electrodes, the OH<sup>−</sup> ions produced at the cathode are free to diffuse throughout the electrolyte to the anode. As the electrolyte becomes more <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">basic</a> due to the production of OH<sup>−</sup>, less Cl<sub>2</sub> emerges from the solution as it begins to react with the hydroxide producing <a href="/wiki/Hypochlorite" title="Hypochlorite">hypochlorite</a> (ClO<sup>−</sup>) at the anode: </p> <dl><dd>Cl<sub>2</sub> + 2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H<sub>2</sub>O</dd></dl> <p>The more opportunity the Cl<sub>2</sub> has to interact with NaOH in the solution, the less Cl<sub>2</sub> emerges at the surface of the solution and the faster the production of hypochlorite progresses. This depends on factors such as solution temperature, the amount of time the Cl<sub>2</sub> molecule is in contact with the solution, and concentration of NaOH. </p><p>Likewise, as hypochlorite increases in concentration, chlorates are produced from them: </p> <dl><dd>3 NaClO → NaClO<sub>3</sub> + 2 NaCl</dd></dl> <p>Other reactions occur, such as the <a href="/wiki/Self-ionization_of_water" title="Self-ionization of water">self-ionization of water</a> and the decomposition of hypochlorite at the cathode, the rate of the latter depends on factors such as <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> and the surface area of the cathode in contact with the electrolyte.<sup id="cite_ref-Thom1911_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thom1911-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decomposition_potential">Decomposition potential</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Decomposition potential"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Decomposition potential or decomposition voltage refers to the minimum voltage (difference in <a href="/wiki/Electrode_potential" title="Electrode potential">electrode potential</a>) between <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> of an electrolytic cell that is needed for electrolysis to occur.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The voltage at which electrolysis is thermodynamically preferred is the difference of the electrode potentials as calculated using the <a href="/wiki/Nernst_equation" title="Nernst equation">Nernst equation</a>. Applying additional voltage, referred to as <a href="/wiki/Overpotential" title="Overpotential">overpotential</a>, can increase the rate of reaction and is often needed above the thermodynamic value. It is especially necessary for electrolysis reactions involving gases, such as <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxidation_and_reduction_at_the_electrodes">Oxidation and reduction at the electrodes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Oxidation and reduction at the electrodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">Oxidation</a> of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a>. For example, it is possible to oxidize ferrous ions to ferric ions at the anode: </p> <dl><dd>Fe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>(aq) → Fe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>(aq) + e<sup>−</sup></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">Reduction</a> of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a>. It is possible to reduce <a href="/wiki/Ferricyanide" title="Ferricyanide">ferricyanide</a> ions to <a href="/wiki/Ferrocyanide" title="Ferrocyanide">ferrocyanide</a> ions at the cathode: </p> <dl><dd>Fe(CN)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3-</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">6</sub></span></span> + e<sup>−</sup> → Fe(CN)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4-</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">6</sub></span></span></dd></dl> <p>Neutral molecules can also react at either of the electrodes. For example: <i>p</i>-benzoquinone can be reduced to hydroquinone at the cathode: </p> <dl><dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P-Benzochinon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/P-Benzochinon.svg/35px-P-Benzochinon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/P-Benzochinon.svg/53px-P-Benzochinon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/P-Benzochinon.svg/70px-P-Benzochinon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="176" /></a></span> + 2 e<sup>−</sup> + 2 H<sup>+</sup> → <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrochinon2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Hydrochinon2.svg/90px-Hydrochinon2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Hydrochinon2.svg/135px-Hydrochinon2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Hydrochinon2.svg/180px-Hydrochinon2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="174" /></a></span></dd></dl> <p>In the last example, H<sup>+</sup> ions (hydrogen ions) also take part in the reaction and are provided by the acid in the solution, or by the solvent itself (water, methanol, etc.). Electrolysis reactions involving H<sup>+</sup> ions are fairly common in acidic solutions. In aqueous alkaline solutions, reactions involving OH<sup>−</sup> (hydroxide ions) are common. </p><p>Sometimes the solvents themselves (usually water) are oxidized or reduced at the electrodes. It is even possible to have electrolysis involving gases, e.g. by using a <a href="/wiki/Gas_diffusion_electrode" title="Gas diffusion electrode">gas diffusion electrode</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_changes_during_electrolysis">Energy changes during electrolysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Energy changes during electrolysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amount of electrical energy that must be added equals the change in <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a> of the reaction plus the losses in the system. The losses can (in theory) be arbitrarily close to zero, so the maximum <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic</a> efficiency equals the <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> change divided by the free energy change of the reaction. In most cases, the electric input is larger than the enthalpy change of the reaction, so some energy is released in the form of heat. In some cases, for instance, in the electrolysis of <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> into hydrogen and oxygen at high temperature, the opposite is true and heat energy is absorbed. This heat is absorbed from the surroundings, and the <a href="/wiki/Heating_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Heating value">heating value</a> of the produced hydrogen is higher than the electric input. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations">Variations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pulsed_DC" title="Pulsed DC">Pulsating current</a> results in products different from DC. For example, pulsing increases the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> to oxygen produced at the anode in the electrolysis of an aqueous acidic solution such as dilute sulphuric acid.<sup id="cite_ref-Kremann1903_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kremann1903-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrolysis of ethanol with pulsed current evolves an aldehyde instead of primarily an acid.<sup id="cite_ref-Hale1919_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hale1919-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_processes">Related processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Related processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">batteries</a> use spontaneous, energy-releasing <a href="/wiki/Redox_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Redox reactions">redox reactions</a> to generate an electrical potential that provides useful power. When a <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery#Types" title="Electric battery">secondary battery</a> is charged, its redox reaction is run in reverse and the system can be considered as an <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_cell" title="Electrolytic cell">electrolytic cell</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industrial_uses">Industrial uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Industrial uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chloralkali_process">Chloralkali process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Chloralkali process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chloralkali_process" title="Chloralkali process">chloralkali process</a> is a large scale application of electrolysis. This technology supplies most of the chlorine and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> required by many industries. The cathode is a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_metal_oxide_electrode" title="Mixed metal oxide electrode">mixed metal oxide clad titanium anode</a> (also called a dimensionally stable anode).<sup id="cite_ref-Ru_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ru-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Land1972_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Land1972-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chloralkali_membrane.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Chloralkali_membrane.svg/660px-Chloralkali_membrane.svg.png" decoding="async" width="660" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Chloralkali_membrane.svg/990px-Chloralkali_membrane.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Chloralkali_membrane.svg/1320px-Chloralkali_membrane.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption>Basic membrane cell used in the electrolysis of brine. At the anode (<b>A</b>), chloride (Cl<sup>−</sup>) is oxidized to chlorine. The ion-selective membrane (<b>B</b>) allows the counterion Na+ to freely flow across, but prevents anions such as hydroxide (OH<sup>−</sup>) and chloride from diffusing across. At the cathode (<b>C</b>), water is reduced to hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The net process is the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of NaCl into industrially useful products sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and chlorine gas.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrofluorination">Electrofluorination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Electrofluorination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Organofluorine_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organofluorine compound">organofluorine compounds</a> are produced by <a href="/wiki/Electrofluorination" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrofluorination">electrofluorination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One manifestation of this technology is the <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_fluorination" title="Electrochemical fluorination">Simons process</a>, which can be described as: </p> <dl><dd>R<sub>3</sub>C–H + HF → R<sub>3</sub>C–F + H<sub>2</sub></dd></dl> <p>In the course of a typical synthesis, this reaction occurs once for each C–H bond in the precursor. The cell potential is maintained near 5–6 <a href="/wiki/Volts" class="mw-redirect" title="Volts">V</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a>, the electrocatalyst, is <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>-plated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrodimerization_of_acrylonitrile">Hydrodimerization of acrylonitrile</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hydrodimerization of acrylonitrile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile" title="Acrylonitrile">Acrylonitrile</a> is converted to <a href="/wiki/Adiponitrile" title="Adiponitrile">adiponitrile</a> on an industrial scale via electrocatalysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Ind_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ind-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png/330px-Hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png/495px-Hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Hall–Héroult process</a> for producing <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electroplating_and_electrowinning_processes">Electroplating and electrowinning processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Electroplating and electrowinning processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copper_extraction_techniques#Refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper extraction techniques">Purifying copper</a> from refined <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrometallurgy" title="Electrometallurgy">Electrometallurgy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>.</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">Electroplating</a>, where a thin film of metal is deposited over a substrate material. Electroplating is used in many industries for either functional or decorative purposes, as in-vehicle bodies and nickel coins. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrochemical_machining_(ECM)"><span id="Electrochemical_machining_.28ECM.29"></span>Electrochemical machining (ECM)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Electrochemical machining (ECM)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_machining" title="Electrochemical machining">Electrochemical machining</a>, an electrolytic cathode is used as a shaped tool for removing material by anodic oxidation from a workpiece. ECM is often used as a technique for <a href="/wiki/Burr_(edge)" title="Burr (edge)">deburring</a> or for etching metal surfaces like tools or knives with a permanent mark or logo. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Production of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chlorate" title="Sodium chlorate">sodium chlorate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chlorate" title="Potassium chlorate">potassium chlorate</a>.</li> <li>Production of fuels such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> for <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarines" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear submarines">nuclear submarines</a> and <a href="/wiki/FCEV" class="mw-redirect" title="FCEV">vehicles</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rust#Treatment" title="Rust">Rust removal</a> and cleaning of old coins and other metallic objects.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Competing_half-reactions_in_solution_electrolysis">Competing half-reactions in solution electrolysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Competing half-reactions in solution electrolysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using a cell containing inert platinum electrodes, electrolysis of aqueous solutions of some salts leads to the reduction of the cations (such as metal deposition with, for example, zinc salts) and oxidation of the anions (such as the evolution of bromine with bromides). However, with salts of some metals (such as sodium) hydrogen is evolved at the cathode, and for salts containing some anions (such as sulfate <span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>) oxygen is evolved at the anode. In both cases, this is due to water being reduced to form hydrogen or oxidized to form oxygen. In principle, the voltage required to electrolyze a salt solution can be derived from the <a href="/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential" title="Standard electrode potential">standard electrode potential</a> for the reactions at the anode and cathode. The standard electrode potential is directly related to the <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a>, Δ<i>G</i>, for the reactions at each electrode and refers to an electrode with no current flowing. An extract from the <a href="/wiki/Table_of_standard_electrode_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Table of standard electrode potentials">table of standard electrode potentials</a> is shown below. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Half-reaction" title="Half-reaction">Half-reaction</a> </th> <th><i>E</i>° (V) </th> <th>Ref. </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a><sup>+</sup> + e<sup>−</sup> ⇌ Na<abbr title="solid">(s)</abbr> </td> <td>−2.71</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Atk_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atk-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a><sup>2+</sup> + 2 e<sup>−</sup> ⇌ Zn<abbr title="solid">(s)</abbr> </td> <td>−0.7618</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-van88_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van88-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>2 H<sup>+</sup> + 2 e<sup>−</sup> ⇌ H<sub>2</sub><abbr title="gaseous">(g)</abbr></b> </td> <td><b>≡ 0</b></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-van88_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van88-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Br<sub>2</sub><abbr title="aqueous">(aq)</abbr> + 2 e<sup>−</sup> ⇌ 2 Br<sup>−</sup> </td> <td>+1.0873</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-van88_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van88-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>O<sub>2</sub><abbr title="gaseous">(g)</abbr> + 4 H<sup>+</sup> + 4 e<sup>−</sup> ⇌ 2 H<sub>2</sub>O </td> <td>+1.23</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Atk_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atk-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cl<sub>2</sub><abbr title="gaseous">(g)</abbr> + 2 e<sup>−</sup> ⇌ 2 Cl<sup>−</sup> </td> <td>+1.36</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Atk_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atk-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="chemf nowrap">S<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><sup>2−</sup></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">8</sub></span></span></span> + 2 e<sup>−</sup> ⇌ 2 <span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span> </td> <td>+2.07</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Atk_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atk-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>In terms of electrolysis, this table should be interpreted as follows: </p> <ul><li>Moving <i>down</i> the table, <i>E</i>° becomes more positive, and species on the <i>left</i> are more likely to be <i>reduced</i>: for example, zinc ions are more likely to be reduced to zinc metal than sodium ions are to be reduced to sodium metal.</li> <li>Moving <i>up</i> the table, <i>E</i>° becomes more negative, and species on the <i>right</i> are more likely to be <i>oxidized</i>: for example, sodium metal is more likely to be oxidized to sodium ions than zinc metal is to be oxidized to zinc ions.</li></ul> <p>Using the <a href="/wiki/Nernst_equation" title="Nernst equation">Nernst equation</a> the <a href="/wiki/Electrode_potential" title="Electrode potential">electrode potential</a> can be calculated for a specific concentration of ions, temperature and the number of electrons involved. For pure water (<a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> 7): </p> <ul><li>the electrode potential for the reduction producing hydrogen is −0.41 V,</li> <li>the electrode potential for the oxidation producing oxygen is +0.82 V.</li></ul> <p>Comparable figures calculated in a similar way, for 1 M <a href="/wiki/Zinc_bromide" title="Zinc bromide">zinc bromide</a>, ZnBr<sub>2</sub>, are −0.76 V for the reduction to Zn metal and +1.10 V for the oxidation producing bromine. The conclusion from these figures is that hydrogen should be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode from the electrolysis of water—which is at variance with the experimental observation that zinc metal is deposited and bromine is produced.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The explanation is that these calculated potentials only indicate the thermodynamically preferred reaction. In practice, many other factors have to be taken into account such as the kinetics of some of the reaction steps involved. These factors together mean that a higher potential is required for the reduction and oxidation of water than predicted, and these are termed <a href="/wiki/Overpotential" title="Overpotential">overpotentials</a>. Experimentally it is known that overpotentials depend on the design of the cell and the nature of the electrodes. </p><p>For the electrolysis of a neutral (pH 7) sodium chloride solution, the reduction of sodium ion is thermodynamically very difficult and water is reduced evolving hydrogen leaving hydroxide ions in solution. At the anode the oxidation of chlorine is observed rather than the oxidation of water since the overpotential for the oxidation of <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> is lower than the overpotential for the oxidation of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxide ion">hydroxide ions</a> and dissolved chlorine gas react further to form <a href="/wiki/Hypochlorous_acid" title="Hypochlorous acid">hypochlorous acid</a>. The aqueous solutions resulting from this process is called <a href="/wiki/Electrolyzed_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolyzed water">electrolyzed water</a> and is used as a disinfectant and cleaning agent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_trends">Research trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Research trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrolysis_of_carbon_dioxide">Electrolysis of carbon dioxide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Electrolysis of carbon dioxide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_reduction_of_carbon_dioxide" title="Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide">Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide</a></div> <p>The electrochemical reduction or electrocatalytic conversion of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> can produce value-added chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electrolysis of carbon dioxide gives formate or carbon monoxide, but sometimes more elaborate organic compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technology is under research as a carbon-neutral route to organic compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrolysis_of_acidified_water">Electrolysis of acidified water</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Electrolysis of acidified water"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water" title="Electrolysis of water">Electrolysis of water</a></div> <p>Electrolysis of water produces <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and oxygen in a ratio of 2 to 1 respectively. </p> <dl><dd>2 H<sub>2</sub>O<abbr title="liquid">(l)</abbr> → 2 H<sub>2</sub><abbr title="gaseous">(g)</abbr> + O<sub>2</sub><abbr title="gaseous">(g)</abbr> <span style="padding-left:2em;"> </span> <i>E</i>° = +1.229 V</dd></dl> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Energy_conversion_efficiency" title="Energy conversion efficiency">energy efficiency</a> of water electrolysis varies widely. The efficiency of an electrolyser is a measure of the enthalpy contained in the hydrogen (to undergo combustion with oxygen or some other later reaction), compared with the input electrical energy. Heat/enthalpy values for hydrogen are well published in science and engineering texts, as 144 MJ/kg (40 kWh/kg). Note that fuel cells (not electrolysers) cannot use this full amount of heat/enthalpy, which has led to some confusion when calculating efficiency values for both types of technology. In the reaction, some energy is lost as heat. Some reports quote efficiencies between 50% and 70% for alkaline electrolysers (50 kWh/kg);<sup id="cite_ref-polly2023_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-polly2023-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, higher practical efficiencies are available with the use of <a href="/wiki/Polymer_electrolyte_membrane_electrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis">polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis</a> and catalytic technology, such as 95% efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-carmo2013a_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carmo2013a-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> estimated in 2006 that 1 kg of hydrogen (roughly equivalent to 3 kg, or 4 liters, of petroleum in energy terms) could be produced by wind powered electrolysis for between US$5.55 in the near term and US$2.27 in the longer term.<sup id="cite_ref-NRELElectrolysis_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRELElectrolysis-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 4% of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is generated by electrolysis, and normally used onsite. Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the <a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber process</a>, and converting heavy petroleum sources to lighter fractions via <a href="/wiki/Hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocracking">hydrocracking</a>. Onsite electrolysis has been utilized to capture hydrogen for hydrogen fuel-cells in <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen vehicles">hydrogen vehicles</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon/hydrocarbon_assisted_water_electrolysis"><span id="Carbon.2Fhydrocarbon_assisted_water_electrolysis"></span>Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">Hydrogen production</a></div> <p>Recently, to reduce the energy input, the utilization of carbon (<a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>), <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohols</a> (hydrocarbon solution), and organic solution (<a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a>, formic acid, <a href="/wiki/Ethylene_glycol" title="Ethylene glycol">ethylene glycol</a>, etc.) with co-electrolysis of water has been proposed as a viable option.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (so-called CAWE) process for hydrogen generation would perform this operation in a single <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> reactor. This system energy balance can be required only around 40% electric input with 60% coming from the chemical energy of carbon or hydrocarbon.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process utilizes solid coal/carbon particles or powder as fuels dispersed in acid/alkaline electrolyte in the form of slurry and the carbon contained source co-assist in the electrolysis process as following theoretical overall reactions:<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>Carbon/Coal slurry (C + 2H<sub>2</sub>O) → CO<sub>2</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub> <span style="padding-left:2em;"> </span> <i>E</i>′ = 0.21 V (reversible voltage) / <i>E</i>′ = 0.46 V (thermo-neutral voltage)</dd></dl> <p>or </p> <dl><dd>Carbon/Coal slurry (C + H<sub>2</sub>O) → CO + H<sub>2</sub> <span style="padding-left:2em;"> </span> <i>E</i>′ = 0.52 V (reversible voltage) / <i>E</i>′ = 0.91 V (thermo-neutral voltage)</dd></dl> <p>Thus, this CAWE approach is that the actual cell overpotential can be significantly reduced to below 1.0 V as compared to 1.5 V for conventional water electrolysis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrocrystallization">Electrocrystallization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Electrocrystallization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A specialized application of electrolysis involves the growth of conductive crystals on one of the electrodes from oxidized or reduced species that are generated in situ. The technique has been used to obtain single crystals of low-dimensional electrical conductors, such as <a href="/wiki/Charge-transfer_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge-transfer salt">charge-transfer salts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linear_chain_compound" title="Linear chain compound">linear chain compounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrolysis_of_Iron_Ore">Electrolysis of Iron Ore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Electrolysis of Iron Ore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The current method of producing steel from <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> is very carbon intensive, in part to the direct release of CO<sub>2</sub> in the blast furnace. A study of steel making in Germany found that producing 1 ton of steel emitted 2.1 tons of <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">CO<sub>2</sub>e</a> with 22% of that being direct emissions from the blast furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2022, steel production contributes 7–9% of global emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrolysis of iron can eliminate direct emissions and further reduce emissions if the electricity is created from green energy. </p><p>The small-scale electrolysis of iron has been successfully reported by dissolving it in molten <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> salts and using a platinum anode.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxygen anions form oxygen gas and electrons at the anode. Iron cations consume electrons and form iron metal at the cathode. This method was performed a temperature of 1550 °C which presents a significant challenge to maintaining the reaction. Particularly, anode <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> is a concern at these temperatures. </p><p>Additionally, the low temperature reduction of iron oxide by dissolving it in alkaline water has been reported.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The temperature is much lower than traditional iron production at 114 °C. The low temperatures also tend to correlate with higher current efficiencies, with an efficiency of 95% being reported. While these methods are promising, they struggle to be cost competitive because of the large economies of scale keeping the price of blast furnace iron low. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrolysis_of_seawater">Electrolysis of seawater</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Electrolysis of seawater"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2020 study investigated direct electrolysis of seawater, alkaline electrolysis, <a href="/wiki/Proton-exchange_membrane" title="Proton-exchange membrane">proton-exchange membrane electrolysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solid_oxide_electrolyser_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid oxide electrolyser cell">solid oxide electrolysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct electrolysis of seawater follows known processes, forming an electrolysis cell in which the seawater acts as the electrolyte to allow for the reaction at the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">2 Cl<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup>(aq) → Cl<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(g) + 2e<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup></span> and the reaction at the <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">2 H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O(l) + 2 e<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup> → H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(g) + 2OH<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup>(aq)</span>. The inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> in the seawater makes the production of alkali <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxides</a> possible that could form scales in the electrolyser cell, cutting down on lifespan and increasing the need for maintenance. The alkaline electrolysers operate with the following reactions at the anode, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">2 OH<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup>(aq) → 1/<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub> O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(g) + H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O(l) + 2 e<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup></span>and cathode, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">2 H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O(l) + 2 e<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup> → H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(g) + 2 OH<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup>(aq)</span>, and use high base solutions as electrolytes, operating at 60–90 °C (140–194 °F) and need additional separators to ensure the gas phase hydrogen and oxygen remain separate. The electrolyte can easily get contaminated, but the alkaline electrolyser can operate under pressure to improve energy consumption. The electrodes can be made of inexpensive materials and there's no requirement for an expensive catalyst in the design. Proton-exchange membrane electrolysers operate with the reactions at the anode, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O(l) → 1/<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub> O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(g) + 2 H<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup>(aq) + 2 e<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup></span> and cathode, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">2 H<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup>(aq) + 2 e<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup> → H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(g)</span>, at temperatures of 60–80 °C (140–176 °F), using a solid polymer electrolyte and requiring higher costs of processing to allow the solid electrolyte to touch uniformly to the electrodes. Similar to the alkaline electrolyser, the proton exchange membrane electrolyser can operate at higher pressures, reducing the energy costs required to compress the hydrogen gas afterward, but the proton exchange membrane electrolyser also benefits from rapid response times to changes in power requirements or demands and not needing maintenance, at the cost of having a faster inherent degradation rate and being the most vulnerable to impurities in the water. Solid oxide electrolysers run the reactions <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>2</span></span>(g) → 1/<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub> O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(g) + 2 e<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup></span> at the anode and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O(g) + 2 e<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup> → H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(g) + O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>2</span></span>(g)</span> at the cathode.The solid oxide electrolysers require high temperatures (700–1,000 °C (1,292–1,832 °F)) to operate, generating superheated steam. They suffer from degradation when turned off, making it a more inflexible hydrogen generation technology. In a selected series of <a href="/wiki/Multiple-criteria_decision_analysis" title="Multiple-criteria decision analysis">multiple-criteria decision-analysis</a> comparisons in which the highest priority was placed on economic operation costs followed equally by environmental and social criteria, it was found that the proton exchange membrane electrolyser offered the most suitable combination of values (e.g., investment cost, maintenance, and operation cost, resistance to impurities, specific energy for hydrogen production at sea, risk of environmental impact, etc.), followed by the alkaline electrolyser, with the alkaline electrolyser being the most economically feasible, but more hazardous in terms of safety and environmental concerns due to the need for basic electrolyte solutions as opposed to the solid polymers used in proton-exchange membranes. Due to the methods conducted in multiple-criteria decision analysis, non-objective weights are applied to the various factors, and so multiple methods of decision analysis were performed simultaneously to examine the electrolysers in a way that minimizes the effects of bias on the performance conclusions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-manufacturing-7481278.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Noun-manufacturing-7481278.svg/27px-Noun-manufacturing-7481278.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Noun-manufacturing-7481278.svg/40px-Noun-manufacturing-7481278.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Noun-manufacturing-7481278.svg/53px-Noun-manufacturing-7481278.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="101" data-file-height="106" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Manufacturing" title="Portal:Manufacturing">Manufacturing portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_water_electrolysis" title="Alkaline water electrolysis">Alkaline water electrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castner%E2%80%93Kellner_process" title="Castner–Kellner process">Castner–Kellner process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_hydrogen_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle hydrogen power plant">Combined cycle hydrogen power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_electrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday's law of electrolysis">Faraday's law of electrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraday_constant" title="Faraday constant">Faraday constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraday_efficiency" title="Faraday efficiency">Faraday efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galvanic_corrosion" title="Galvanic corrosion">Galvanic corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galvanoluminescence" title="Galvanoluminescence">Galvanoluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_cracker" title="Gas cracker">Gas cracker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Hall–Héroult process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_electrolysis" title="High-pressure electrolysis">High-pressure electrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterson_Power_Cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Patterson Power Cell">Patterson Power Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemical_cycle" title="Thermochemical cycle">Thermochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies" title="Timeline of hydrogen technologies">Timeline of hydrogen technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PEM_electrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="PEM electrolysis">PEM electrolysis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolysis&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOesperSpeter1937" class="citation journal cs1">Oesper, Ralph; Speter, Max (1937). 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colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electrolysis" title="Template:Electrolysis"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electrolysis" title="Template talk:Electrolysis"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electrolysis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electrolysis"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Articles_related_to_electrolysis_/_Standard_electrode_potential135" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to <a class="mw-selflink selflink">electrolysis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential" title="Standard electrode potential">Standard electrode potential</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electrolytic processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betts_electrolytic_process" title="Betts electrolytic process">Betts electrolytic process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castner_process" title="Castner process">Castner process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castner%E2%80%93Kellner_process" title="Castner–Kellner process">Castner–Kellner process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloralkali_process" title="Chloralkali process">Chloralkali process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downs_cell" title="Downs cell">Downs cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_reduction_of_carbon_dioxide" title="Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide">Electrolysis of carbon dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water" title="Electrolysis of water">Electrolysis of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrowinning" title="Electrowinning">Electrowinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Hall–Héroult process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hofmann_voltameter" title="Hofmann voltameter">Hofmann voltameter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolbe_electrolysis" title="Kolbe electrolysis">Kolbe electrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoopes_process" title="Hoopes process">Hoopes process</a></li> <li>Dow process <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dow_process_(bromine)" title="Dow process (bromine)">Bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dow_process_(magnesium)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dow process (magnesium)">Magnesium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_fluorination" title="Electrochemical fluorination">Electrochemical fluorination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wohlwill_process" title="Wohlwill process">Wohlwill process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials produced by electrolysis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Aluminium</a> <a href="/wiki/Bayer_process" title="Bayer process">(extraction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_extraction#Electrorefining" title="Copper extraction">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolysed_water" title="Electrolysed water">Electrolysed water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_evolution_reaction" title="Hydrogen evolution reaction">Hydrogen evolution reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">Sodium hydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_cracker" title="Gas cracker">Gas cracker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)" title="Standard electrode potential (data page)">Standard electrode potential (data page)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrology" title="Electrology">Electrology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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