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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grammatical_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammatical_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Grammatical numbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatical_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammatical_genders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammatical_genders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Grammatical genders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatical_genders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Lexicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Old Persian</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">54 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="اللغة الفارسية القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الفارسية القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persa_antiguu" title="Persa antiguu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Persa antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="اسکی فارس دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اسکی فارس دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Староперсийски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Староперсийски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persa_antic" title="Persa antic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Persa antic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Авалхи перс чĕлхи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Авалхи перс чĕлхи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroper%C5%A1tina" title="Staroperština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Staroperština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldpersisk" title="Oldpersisk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oldpersisk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altpersische_Sprache" title="Altpersische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altpersische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Αρχαία περσική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία περσική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persa_antiguo" title="Persa antiguo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Persa antiguo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnovpersa_lingvo" title="Malnovpersa lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malnovpersa lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_persiera" title="Antzinako persiera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako persiera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زبان فارسی باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان فارسی باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieux_perse" title="Vieux perse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vieux perse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%ED%8E%98%EB%A5%B4%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84%EC%96%B4" title="고대 페르시아어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 페르시아어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Հին պարսկերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին պարսկերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Persia_Kuno" title="Bahasa Persia Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Persia Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornpersneska" title="Fornpersneska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornpersneska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_persiana_antica" title="Lingua persiana antica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua persiana antica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="פרסית עתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרסית עתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8B_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Көне парсы тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Көне парсы тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Важ перс кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ перс кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farisiya_kevn" title="Farisiya kevn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Farisiya kevn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Persica_antiqua" title="Lingua Persica antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Persica antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senpersie%C5%A1u_valoda" title="Senpersiešu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senpersiešu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senoji_pers%C5%B3_kalba" title="Senoji persų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senoji persų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Староперсиски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Староперсиски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_persana_taloha" title="Fiteny persana taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny persana taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پارسی باستان – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="پارسی باستان" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Parsi_Kuno" title="Bahasa Parsi Kuno – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Parsi Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Сире персиень – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Сире персиень" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%83%9A%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="古代ペルシア語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代ペルシア語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammelpersisk" title="Gammelpersisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gammelpersisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammalpersisk" title="Gammalpersisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gammalpersisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A8rsa_ancian" title="Pèrsa ancian – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pèrsa ancian" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadimgi_fors_tili" title="Qadimgi fors tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qadimgi fors tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="قدیم فارسی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="قدیم فارسی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%90_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%93%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="لرغونې پاړسي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونې پاړسي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_staroperski" title="Język staroperski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język staroperski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_persa_antiga" title="Língua persa antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua persa antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_persan%C4%83_veche" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86" title="زمانی پارسیی کۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی پارسیی کۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinaispersian_kieli" title="Muinaispersian kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Muinaispersian kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornpersiska" title="Fornpersiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Old Iranian language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the racehorse, see <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_(horse)" title="Old Persian (horse)">Old Persian (horse)</a>. For the Unicode block, see <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_(Unicode_block)" title="Old Persian (Unicode block)">Old Persian (Unicode block)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old Persian</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo">𐎠𐎼𐎹</span></span> <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">Ariya</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Classical_antiquity" title="History of Iran">Ancient Iran</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Evolved into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> by <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300</span> BCE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Iranian_languages" title="Western Iranian languages">Western</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Iranian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwestern Iranian languages">Southwestern</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Old Persian</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=355">peo</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/peo" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:peo">peo</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/peo">peo</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oldp1254">oldp1254</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Old Persian</b> is one of two directly attested <a href="/wiki/Old_Iranian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Iranian languages">Old Iranian languages</a> (the other being <a href="/wiki/Avestan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Avestan language">Avestan</a>) and is the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> (the language of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">ariya</i></span> (Iranian).<sup id="cite_ref-Gershevitch_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gershevitch-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old Persian is close to both <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> and the language of the <a href="/wiki/Rig_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a>, the oldest form of the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> language. All three languages are highly <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflected</a>. </p><p>Old Persian appears primarily in the inscriptions, <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seal_(device)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (device)">seals</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid</a> era (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BCE</span> to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gherla" title="Gherla">Gherla</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhrt2013197_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhrt2013197-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1984103_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1984103-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200053_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200053-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the most important attestation by far being the contents of the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a> (dated to 525 BCE). </p><p>In 2007, research into the vast <a href="/wiki/Persepolis_Fortification_Archive" class="mw-redirect" title="Persepolis Fortification Archive">Persepolis Fortification Archive</a> at the Oriental Institute at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> unearthed Old Persian tablets, which suggest Old Persian was a written language in use for practical recording and not only for royal display.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_overview">Origin and overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin and overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a>, Old Persian is attested in royal <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> inscriptions. It is an <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian language</a> and as such a member of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language family</a>. The oldest known text written in Old Persian is from the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscriptions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200880–81_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200880–81-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which are attested in original texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian._10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian.-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest date of use of Old Persian as a spoken language is not precisely known. According to certain historical assumptions about the early history and origin of ancient Persians in <a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Southwestern Iran</a> (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by a tribe called <span title="uncoded-language romanization"><i lang="mis-Latn">Parsuwash</i></span>, who arrived in the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian Plateau</a> early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fārs province</a>. Their language, Old Persian, became the official language of the Achaemenid kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian._10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian.-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> records, which in fact appear to provide the earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give a good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians. In these records of the 9th century BCE, <span title="uncoded-language romanization"><i lang="mis-Latn">Parsuwash</i></span> (along with <span title="uncoded-language romanization"><i lang="mis-Latn">Matai</i></span>, presumably Medians) are first mentioned in the area of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Urmia" title="Lake Urmia">Lake Urmia</a> in the records of <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(1)._Earliest_Evidence_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(1)._Earliest_Evidence-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact identity of the Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> viewpoint the word matches Old Persian <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">pārsa</i></span> itself coming directly from the older word <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">*pārćwa</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(1)._Earliest_Evidence_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(1)._Earliest_Evidence-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, <a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Prods_Oktor_Skjaervo" title="Prods Oktor Skjaervo">P. O. Skjærvø</a> it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before the formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of the first half of the first millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian._10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian.-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages#Proto-Iranian_and_Old_Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Old Iranian languages</a></div> <p>Old Persian belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian language family</a>, a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Iranian language">Indo-Iranian language</a> family, itself within the large family of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. The common <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranians" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranians">ancestors of Indo-Iranians</a> came from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> sometime in the first half of the <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC" title="2nd millennium BC">2nd millennium BCE</a>. The extinct and unattested <a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median language</a> is another Old Iranian language related to Old Persian; both are classified as <a href="/wiki/Western_Iranian_languages" title="Western Iranian languages">Western Iranian languages</a>, and many Median names appear in Old Persian texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200876_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200876-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group of Old Iranian languages was presumably large; however, knowledge of it is restricted mainly to Old Persian, <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a>, and Median. The first two are the only languages in that group to have left written original texts, while Median is known mostly from <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> in Old Persian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_evolution">Language evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Language evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 4th century BCE, the late <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid period">Achaemenid period</a>, the inscriptions of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> differ enough from the language of Darius' inscriptions to be called a "pre-Middle Persian," or "post-Old Persian."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old Persian subsequently evolved into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, which is in turn the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/New_Persian" title="New Persian">New Persian</a>. </p><p>Professor <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Lazard" title="Gilbert Lazard">Gilbert Lazard</a>, a famous <a href="/wiki/Iranian_studies" title="Iranian studies">Iranologist</a> and the author of the book <i>Persian Grammar</i>, states:<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soghdian" class="mw-redirect" title="Soghdian">Soghdian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a>, etc., Old, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">New Persian</a> represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in <a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Fars</a> and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, also sometimes called Pahlavi, is a direct continuation of Old Persian and was used as the written official language of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Ulrich_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulrich-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparison of the evolution at each stage of the language shows great simplification in grammar and syntax. However, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Persian" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Persian">New Persian</a> is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Substrates">Substrates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Substrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Persian "presumably"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has a <a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median language</a> <a href="/wiki/Substrata_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrata (linguistics)">substrate</a>. The Median element is readily identifiable because it did not share in the developments that were peculiar to Old Persian. Median forms "are found only in personal or geographical names [...] and some are typically from religious vocabulary and so could in principle also be influenced by <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a>." "Sometimes, both Median and Old Persian forms are found, which gave Old Persian a somewhat confusing and inconsistent look: 'horse,' for instance, is [attested in Old Persian as] both <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">asa</i></span> (OPers.) and <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">aspa</i></span> (Med.)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Script">Script</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg/250px-BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg/375px-BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg/500px-BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="841" /></a><figcaption>Close-up of the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Behistun inscription">Behistun inscription</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pers%C3%A9polis._Inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Pers%C3%A9polis._Inscription.jpg/250px-Pers%C3%A9polis._Inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Pers%C3%A9polis._Inscription.jpg/375px-Pers%C3%A9polis._Inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Pers%C3%A9polis._Inscription.jpg/500px-Pers%C3%A9polis._Inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1675" data-file-height="1107" /></a><figcaption>An Old Persian inscription in <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Old Persian texts were written from left to right in the syllabic Old Persian cuneiform script and had 36 phonetic characters and 8 <a href="/wiki/Logograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Logograms">logograms</a>. The usage of logograms is not obligatory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200878_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200878-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The script was surprisingly<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not a result of evolution of the script used in the nearby civilisation of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200877_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200877-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the fact that Old Persian was written in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> script, the script was not a direct continuation of Mesopotamian tradition and in fact, according to Schmitt, was a "deliberate creation of the sixth century BCE".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200877_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200877-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The origin of the Old Persian cuneiform script and the identification of the date and process of introduction are a matter of debate among Iranian scholars with no general agreement having been reached. The factors making the consensus difficult are, among others, the difficult passage <a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">DB</a> (IV lines 88–92) from <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> who speaks of a new "form of writing" being made by himself which is said to be "in <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Languages">Aryan</a>": </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda this is the inscription which I have made. Besides, it was in Aryan ("<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">ariyâ</span></span>") script, and it was composed on clay tablets and on parchment. Besides, a sculptured figure of myself I made.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a> (IV lines 88–92)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Also, the analysis of certain Old Persian inscriptions are "supposed or claimed" to predate Darius the Great. Although it is true that the oldest attested Old Persian inscriptions are found on the Behistun monument from Darius, the creation of this "new type of writing" seems, according to Schmitt, "to have begun already under <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200880–81_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200880–81-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The script shows a few changes in the shape of characters during the period it was used. This can be seen as a standardization of the heights of wedges, which in the beginning (i.e. in <a href="/wiki/Behistun_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Behistun inscription">DB</a>) took only half the height of a line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200879_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200879-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following phonemes are expressed in the Old Persian script: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Front </th> <th colspan="2">Back </th></tr> <tr> <th>Close </th> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Open </th> <td style="border-width:0"> </td> <td style="border-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> </td> <td style="border-width:0"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td style="border-width:0"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td style="border-right-width:0"></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Sibilant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibilant consonant">Sibilant</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td style="border-right-width:0"></td> <td style="border-left-width:0"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Notes: <a href="/wiki/Lycian_language" title="Lycian language">Lycian</a> <span title="Lycian-language text"><span lang="xlc">𐊋𐊆𐊈𐊈𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀</span></span> <span title="Lycian-language romanization"><i lang="xlc-Latn">Kizzaprñna</i></span> ~ <span title="Lycian-language text"><span lang="xlc">𐊈𐊆𐊖𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀</span></span> <span title="Lycian-language romanization"><i lang="xlc-Latn">Zisaprñna</i></span> for (genuine) Old Persian <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">*Ciçafarnā</i></span> (besides the <a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a> form <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">*Ciθrafarnah</i></span>) = <a href="/wiki/Tissaphernes" title="Tissaphernes">Tissaphernes</a> suggests <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡s/</span> as the pronunciation of <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">ç</i></span> (compare <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121117015833/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cirafarnah-elamite-zi-ut-ra-bar-na-assyrian-si-dir-pa-ar-na-ni-gk">[1]</a> and Kloekhorst 2008, p. 125 in <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.academia.edu/345130/Studies_in_Lycian_and_Carian_phonology_and_morphology">[2]</a> for this example, who, however, mistakenly writes <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">Çiçafarnā</i></span>, which contradicts the etymology [<a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">PIIr.</a> <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">*Čitra-swarnas-</i></span>] and the Middle Persian form <span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">Čehrfar</i></span> [<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">ç</i></span> gives Middle Persian <span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">s</i></span>]).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (August 2023)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> does not occur in native Iranian vocabulary, only in borrowings from <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> (a new <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> develops in Middle Persian from Old Persian <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/rd/</span> and the change of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/rθ/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hl/</span>). The phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> can also form a syllable peak; both the way Persian names with syllabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> (such as <a href="/wiki/Bardiya" title="Bardiya">Brdiya</a>) are rendered in <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a> and its further development in Middle Persian suggest that before the syllabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, an <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic</a> vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> had developed already in the Old Persian period, which later became <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> after labials. For example, Old Persian <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">Vᵃ-rᵃ-kᵃ-a-nᵃ</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wr̩kaːna/</span> is rendered in Elamite as <span title="Elamite-language romanization"><i lang="elx-Latn">Mirkānu-</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rendering transcriptions such as <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">V(a)rakāna</i></span>, <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">Varkāna</i></span> or even <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">Vurkāna</i></span> questionable and making <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">Vrkāna</i></span> or <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">Virkāna</i></span> much more realistic (and equally for <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">vrka-</i></span> "wolf", <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">Brdiya</i></span> and other Old Persian words and names with syllabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>). </p><p>While <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">v</i></span> usually became <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span> in Middle Persian, it became <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> word-initially in New Persian, except before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> (including the epenthetic vowel mentioned above), where it became <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span>. This suggests that it was really pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammatical_numbers">Grammatical numbers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Grammatical numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Persian has 3 types of grammatical number: singular, dual and plural. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammatical_genders">Grammatical genders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Grammatical genders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Persian has three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a>: masculine, feminine and neuter. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Persian" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Persian">Modern Persian</a> (as well as <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Genderless_language" title="Genderless language">genderless language</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Persian stems: </p> <ul><li>a-stems (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-a, -am, -ā</span></span>)</li> <li>i-stems (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-iš, iy</span></span>)</li> <li>u- (and au-) stems (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-uš, -uv</span></span>)</li> <li>consonantal stems (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">n, r, h</span></span>)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-a</span></span> </th> <th colspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-am</span></span> </th> <th colspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span> </th></tr> <tr style="font-size:small"> <th><a href="/wiki/Singular_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Singular number">Singular</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">Dual</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Plural_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Plural number">Plural</a> </th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Dual</th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Dual</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a> </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-a</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā, -āha</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-am</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">Vocative</a> </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative</a> </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-am</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ām</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Ablative</a> </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aibiyā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aibiš</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aibiyā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aibiš</span></span></td> <td rowspan="4"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-āyā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ābiyā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ābiš</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a> </th> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ahyā, -ahya</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ahyā, -ahya</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a> </th> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-āyā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ānām</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-āyā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ānām</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-āyā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ānām</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aiy</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aišuvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aiy</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aišuvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-āšuvā</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-iš</span></span> </th> <th colspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-iy</span></span> </th> <th colspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-uš</span></span> </th> <th colspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-uv</span></span> </th></tr> <tr style="font-size:small"> <th>Singular</th> <th>Dual</th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Dual</th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Dual</th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Dual</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-iš</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-īy</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-iya</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-iy</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-in</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-īn</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-uš</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūv</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-uva</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-uv</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-un</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūn</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-i</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-u</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-im</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-iš</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-um</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūn</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental/<br />Ablative </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-auš</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ībiyā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ībiš</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-auš</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ībiyā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ībiš</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-auv</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūbiyā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūbiš</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-auv</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūbiyā</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūbiš</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aiš</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-aiš</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-auš</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-auš</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-īyā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-īnām</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-īyā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-īnām</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūnām</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ūnām</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-auv</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-išuvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-auv</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-išuvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-āvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ušuvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-āvā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ušuvā</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Adjectives are declined in a similar way. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Voices</b><br /> Active, Middle (them. pres. <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">-aiy-</i></span>, <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">-ataiy-</i></span>), Passive (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">-ya-</i></span>). </p><p>Mostly the forms of first and third persons are attested. The only preserved <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">Dual</a> form is <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><i lang="peo-Latn">ajīva<b>tam</b></i></span> 'both lived'. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Present Active </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </th> <th>Athematic </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Thematic_vowel" title="Thematic vowel">Thematic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>'be'</th> <th>'bring' </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Sg. </th> <th>1.pers. </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">aʰ<b>miy</b></span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">bar<b>āmiy</b></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3.pers. </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">as<b>tiy</b></span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">bar<b>atiy</b></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Pl. </th> <th>1.pers. </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">aʰ<b>mahiy</b></span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">bar<b>āmahiy</b></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3.pers. </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">h<b>atiy</b></span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">bar<b>atiy</b></span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Imperfect Active </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </th> <th>Athematic </th> <th>Thematic </th></tr> <tr> <th>'do, make'</th> <th>'be, become' </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Sg. </th> <th>1.pers. </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><b>a</b>kunav<b>am</b></span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><b>a</b>bav<b>am</b></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3.pers. </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><b>a</b>kunau<b>š</b></span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><b>a</b>bav<b>a</b></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Pl. </th> <th>1.pers. </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><b>a</b>ku<b>mā</b></span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><b>a</b>bav<b>āmā</b></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3.pers. </th> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><b>a</b>kunav<b>a</b></span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><b>a</b>bav<b>a</b></span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">Present participle</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Active </th> <th>Middle </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-nt-</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-amna-</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">Past participle</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-ta-</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">-tanaiy</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexicon">Lexicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Lexicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a></th> <th>Old Persian</th> <th>Middle Persian</th> <th>Modern Persian</th> <th>meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">Háhurah mazdáH</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">Auramazdā</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎠𐎢𐎼𐎶𐏀𐎭𐎠</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">Ohrmazd</span></span> <span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">𐭠𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭬𐭦𐭣</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">Hormazd</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">هرمزد</span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a> (supreme God) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">Hácwah</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">asa</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎠𐎿</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">asp</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">asb</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">اسب</span></span> / <span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">asp</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">اسپ</span></span></td> <td>horse </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">káHmah</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">kāma</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎣𐎠𐎶</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">kām</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">kām</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">کام</span></span></td> <td>desire </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">daywáh</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Daiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Daiva">daiva</a></span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎭𐎡𐎺</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">dēw</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">dīv</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">دیو</span></span></td> <td>devil </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">jráyah</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">drayah</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎭𐎼𐎹</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">drayā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">daryā</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">دریا</span></span></td> <td>sea </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">jástah</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">dasta</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎭𐎿𐎫</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">dast</span></span> <span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">𐭩𐭣𐭤</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">dast</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">دست</span></span></td> <td>hand </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">bāǰíš</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">bājiš</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎲𐎠𐎩𐎡𐏁</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">bāj</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">bāj</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">باج</span></span> / <span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">bāž</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">باژ</span></span></td> <td>toll </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">bráHtā</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">brātā</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎲𐎼𐎠𐎫𐎠</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">brād(ar)</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">barādar</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">برادر</span></span></td> <td>brother </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">búHmiš</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">būmiš</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐏏</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">būm</span></span> <span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">𐭡𐭥𐭬</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">būm</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">بوم</span></span></td> <td>region, land </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">mártyah</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">martya</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎶𐎼𐎫𐎡𐎹</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">mard</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">mard</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">مرد</span></span></td> <td>man </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">mā́Hah</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">māha</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎶𐎠𐏃</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">māh</span></span> <span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">𐭡𐭩𐭥𐭧</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">māh</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">ماه</span></span></td> <td>moon, month </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">wáhr̥</span></span></td> <td>derivative <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">vāhara</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎺𐎠𐏃𐎼</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">wahār</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">bahār</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">بهار</span></span></td> <td>spring </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">stuHnáH</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">stūnā</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎿𐎬𐎢𐎴𐎠</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">stūn</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">sotūn</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">ستون</span></span></td> <td>stand (column) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">čyaHtáh</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">šiyāta</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐏁𐎡𐎹𐎠𐎫</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">šād</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">šād</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">شاد</span></span></td> <td>happy </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">Hr̥tám</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Asha" title="Asha">artam</a></span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎶</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">ard</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">ord</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">ارد</span></span></td> <td>order, truth </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">dráwgah</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Asha" title="Asha">drauga</a></span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎭𐎼𐎢𐎥</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">drōw</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">dorūğ</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">دروغ</span></span></td> <td>lie </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Iranian-language text">*<span lang="ira" style="font-style: normal;">cwáHdaH</span></span></td> <td><span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="peo-Latn">spāda</span></span> (<span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo" style="font-style: normal;">𐎿𐎱𐎠𐎭</span></span>)</td> <td><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="pal-Latn">spah</span></span> <span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">𐭮𐭯𐭠𐭧</span></span></td> <td><span title="Persian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="fa-Latn">sepāh</span></span> <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">سپاه</span></span></td> <td>army </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Old_Persian_language" title="Category:Old Persian language">Category:Old Persian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Persian" title="New Persian">New Persian</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gershevitch-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gershevitch_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup><i>cf.</i></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGershevitch1968" class="citation book cs1">Gershevitch, Ilya (1968). "Old Iranian Literature". <i>Handbuch der Orientalistik, Literatur I</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 1–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Old+Iranian+Literature&rft.btitle=Handbuch+der+Orientalistik%2C+Literatur+I&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=1-31&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Gershevitch&rft.aufirst=Ilya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGnoli2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gherardo_Gnoli" title="Gherardo Gnoli">Gnoli, Gherardo</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period">"Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. Vol. 13. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. <q>... in the Old Persian version, whose language was called "Iranian" or <i>ariya</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iranian+Identity+ii.+Pre-Islamic+Period&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Gnoli&rft.aufirst=Gherardo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Firanian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhrt2013197-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhrt2013197_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuhrt2013">Kuhrt 2013</a>, p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1984103-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1984103_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrye1984">Frye 1984</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200053-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200053_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2000">Schmitt 2000</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avesta.org/op/op.htm">"Old Persian Texts"</a>. <i>Avesta – Zoroastrian Archives</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Avesta+%E2%80%93+Zoroastrian+Archives&rft.atitle=Old+Persian+Texts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avesta.org%2Fop%2Fop.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kent, R. G. (1950) "Old Persian: Grammar Texts Lexicon", p. 6. American Oriental Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171016070202/http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/07/070615.oldpersian.shtml">"Everyday text shows that Old Persian was probably more commonly used than previously thought"</a>. University of Chicago News Office (archived). June 15, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/07/070615.oldpersian.shtml">the original</a> on 2017-10-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Everyday+text+shows+that+Old+Persian+was+probably+more+commonly+used+than+previously+thought&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+News+Office+%28archived%29&rft.date=2007-06-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-news.uchicago.edu%2Freleases%2F07%2F070615.oldpersian.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200880–81-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200880–81_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200880–81_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2008">Schmitt 2008</a>, pp. 80–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian.-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian._10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian._10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(2)._Documentation._Old_Persian._10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkjærvø2006">Skjærvø 2006</a>, vi(2). Documentation. Old Persian..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(1)._Earliest_Evidence-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(1)._Earliest_Evidence_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006vi(1)._Earliest_Evidence_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkjærvø2006">Skjærvø 2006</a>, vi(1). Earliest Evidence.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200876-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200876_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2008">Schmitt 2008</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2006_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkjærvø2006">Skjærvø 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2005_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkjærvø2005">Skjærvø 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazard,_Gilbert1975" class="citation book cs1">Lazard, Gilbert (1975). "The Rise of the New Persian Language". In Frye, R. N. (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i>. Vol. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 595–632.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+the+New+Persian+Language&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=595-632&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.au=Lazard%2C+Gilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ulrich-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ulrich_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlrich_AmmonNorbert_DittmarKlaus_J._MattheierPeter_Trudgill2006" class="citation book cs1">Ulrich Ammon; Norbert Dittmar; Klaus J. Mattheier; Peter Trudgill (2006). <i>An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society</i>. Sociolinguistics. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Walter de Gruyter. p. 1912. <q>Middle Persian, also called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country." "However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, Arabic became the dominant language of the country and Pahlavi lost its importance, and was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+International+Handbook+of+the+Science+of+Language+and+Society&rft.series=Sociolinguistics&rft.pages=1912&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Ulrich+Ammon&rft.au=Norbert+Dittmar&rft.au=Klaus+J.+Mattheier&rft.au=Peter+Trudgill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBo_Utas2005" class="citation book cs1">Bo Utas (2005). "Semitic on Iranian". In Éva Ágnes Csató; Bo Isaksson; Carina Jahani (eds.). <i>Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic</i>. Routledge. p. 71. <q>As already mentioned, it is not likely that the scribes of Sassanian chanceries had any idea about the Old Persian cuneiform writing and the language couched in it. Still, the Middle Persian language that appeared in the third century AD may be seen as a continuation of Old Persian</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semitic+on+Iranian&rft.btitle=Linguistic+convergence+and+areal+diffusion%3A+case+studies+from+Iranian%2C+Semitic+and+Turkic&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Bo+Utas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200878-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200878_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2008">Schmitt 2008</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2008">Schmitt 2008</a>, p. 78 Excerpt: "It remains unclear why the <a href="/wiki/Persian_people#Ancient" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a> did not take over the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia#Language_and_writing" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian system</a> in earlier times, as the Elamites and other peoples of the Near East had, and, for that matter, why the Persians did not adopt the Aramaic consonantal script.."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200877-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200877_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200877_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2008">Schmitt 2008</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-t-42/"><i>Behistun T 42 – Livius</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behistun+T+42+%E2%80%93+Livius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fsources%2Fcontent%2Fbehistun-persian-text%2Fbehistun-t-42%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt200879-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt200879_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2008">Schmitt 2008</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStolper1997" class="citation book cs1">Stolper, M. W. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O1yFrzi-MgYC&q=vrkana+elamite&pg=PA221">"Mirkānu"</a>. In Ebeling, Erich; Meissner, Bruno; Edzard, Dietz Otto (eds.). <i>Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie</i>. Volume 8: Meek – Mythologie. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-014809-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-014809-1"><bdi>978-3-11-014809-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mirk%C4%81nu&rft.btitle=Reallexikon+der+Assyriologie+und+vorderasiatischen+Arch%C3%A4ologie&rft.place=Berlin+and+New+York&rft.series=Volume+8%3A+Meek+%E2%80%93+Mythologie&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-3-11-014809-1&rft.aulast=Stolper&rft.aufirst=M.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO1yFrzi-MgYC%26q%3Dvrkana%2Belamite%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandenstein1964" class="citation cs2">Brandenstein, Wilhelm (1964), <i>Handbuch des Altpersischen</i>, Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbuch+des+Altpersischen&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=O.+Harrassowitz&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Brandenstein&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinz1966" class="citation cs2">Hinz, Walther (1966), <i>Altpersischer Wortschatz</i>, Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altpersischer+Wortschatz&rft.place=Nendeln%2C+Liechtenstein&rft.pub=Kraus&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Hinz&rft.aufirst=Walther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrye1984" class="citation book cs1">Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye"><i>Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft: Alter Orient-Griechische Geschichte-Römische Geschichte. Band III,7: The History of Ancient Iran</i></a></span>. C.H.Beck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3406093975" title="Special:BookSources/978-3406093975"><bdi>978-3406093975</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbuch+der+Altertumswissenschaft%3A+Alter+Orient-Griechische+Geschichte-R%C3%B6mische+Geschichte.+Band+III%2C7%3A+The+History+of+Ancient+Iran&rft.pub=C.H.Beck&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-3406093975&rft.aulast=Frye&rft.aufirst=Richard+Nelson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofancient0000frye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKent1953" class="citation cs2">Kent, Roland G. (1953), <i>Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon</i>, New Haven: American Oriental Society</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Persian%3A+Grammar%2C+Texts%2C+Lexicon&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=American+Oriental+Society&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Kent&rft.aufirst=Roland+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhrt2013" class="citation book cs1">Kuhrt, A. (2013). <i>The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136016943" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136016943"><bdi>978-1136016943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Empire%3A+A+Corpus+of+Sources+from+the+Achaemenid+Period&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1136016943&rft.aulast=Kuhrt&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSims-Williams1996" class="citation cs2">Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1996), "Iranian languages", <i>Encyclopedia Iranica</i>, vol. 7, Costa Mesa: Mazda</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iranian+languages&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Iranica&rft.place=Costa+Mesa&rft.pub=Mazda&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sims-Williams&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span>: 238-245</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt1989" class="citation cs2">Schmitt, Rüdiger (1989), "Altpersisch", in R. Schmitt (ed.), <i>Compendium linguarum Iranicarum</i>, Wiesbaden: Reichert</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Altpersisch&rft.btitle=Compendium+linguarum+Iranicarum&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Reichert&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span>: 56–85</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt2000" class="citation book cs1">Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). <i>The Old Persian Inscriptions of Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis</i>. Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum by School of Oriental and African Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0728603141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0728603141"><bdi>978-0728603141</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Persian+Inscriptions+of+Naqsh-i+Rustam+and+Persepolis&rft.pub=Corpus+Inscriptionum+Iranicarum+by+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0728603141&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt2008" class="citation cs2">Schmitt, R. (2008), "Old Persian", in Roger D. Woodard (ed.), <i>The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas</i> (illustrated ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 76–100, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521684941" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521684941"><bdi>978-0521684941</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Old+Persian&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Asia+and+the+Americas&rft.pages=76-100&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0521684941&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkjærvø2005" class="citation cs2">Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/OldPersian/opcomplete.pdf"><i>An Introduction to Old Persian</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+Persian&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Skj%C3%A6rv%C3%B8&rft.aufirst=Prods+Oktor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.harvard.edu%2F~iranian%2FOldPersian%2Fopcomplete.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkjærvø2006" class="citation cs2">Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi-iranian-languages-and-scripts">"Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Iranica"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i></a>, vol. 13</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iran%2C+vi.+Iranian+languages+and+scripts&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Skj%C3%A6rv%C3%B8&rft.aufirst=Prods+Oktor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Firan-vi-iranian-languages-and-scripts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolman1908" class="citation cs2">Tolman, Herbert Cushing (1908), <i>Ancient Persian Lexicon and the Texts of the Achaemenidan Inscriptions Transliterated and Translated with Special Reference to Their Recent Re-examination</i>, New York/Cincinnati: American Book Company</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Persian+Lexicon+and+the+Texts+of+the+Achaemenidan+Inscriptions+Transliterated+and+Translated+with+Special+Reference+to+Their+Recent+Re-examination&rft.place=New+York%2FCincinnati&rft.pub=American+Book+Company&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Tolman&rft.aufirst=Herbert+Cushing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Persian&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwin_Lee_Johnson1917" class="citation cs2">Edwin Lee Johnson (1917), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKIfAAAAMAAJ"><i>Historical grammar of the ancient Persian language</i></a>, Volume 8 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American book company<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+grammar+of+the+ancient+Persian+language&rft.series=Volume+8+of+Vanderbilt+oriental+series&rft.pub=American+book+company&rft.date=1917&rft.au=Edwin+Lee+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZKIfAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwin_Lee_Johnson1917" class="citation cs2">Edwin Lee Johnson (1917), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xu3VOxbgDNsC"><i>Historical grammar of the ancient Persian language</i></a>, Volume 8 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American book company<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+grammar+of+the+ancient+Persian+language&rft.series=Volume+8+of+Vanderbilt+oriental+series&rft.pub=American+book+company&rft.date=1917&rft.au=Edwin+Lee+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXu3VOxbgDNsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_Cushing_Tolman1892" class="citation cs2">Herbert Cushing Tolman (1892), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lQsVAAAAYAAJ"><i>Grammar of the Old Persian language: with the inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings and vocabulary</i></a>, Ginn<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+of+the+Old+Persian+language%3A+with+the+inscriptions+of+the+Achaemenian+kings+and+vocabulary&rft.pub=Ginn&rft.date=1892&rft.au=Herbert+Cushing+Tolman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlQsVAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_Cushing_Tolman1893" class="citation cs2">Herbert Cushing Tolman (1893), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IisOAAAAIAAJ"><i>A guide to the Old Persian inscriptions</i></a>, American book company<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+guide+to+the+Old+Persian+inscriptions&rft.pub=American+book+company&rft.date=1893&rft.au=Herbert+Cushing+Tolman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIisOAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwin_Lee_Johnson1910" class="citation cs2">Edwin Lee Johnson (1910), Herbert Cushing Tolman (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JiVgAAAAMAAJ"><i>Cuneiform supplement (autographed) to the author's Ancient Persian lexicon and texts: with brief historical synopsis of the language</i></a>, Volume 7 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American Book Co.<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cuneiform+supplement+%28autographed%29+to+the+author%27s+Ancient+Persian+lexicon+and+texts%3A+with+brief+historical+synopsis+of+the+language&rft.series=Volume+7+of+Vanderbilt+oriental+series&rft.pub=American+Book+Co.&rft.date=1910&rft.au=Edwin+Lee+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJiVgAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_Cushing_Tolman1908" class="citation cs2">Herbert Cushing Tolman (1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-iRgAAAAMAAJ"><i>Ancient Persian 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id="CITEREFHerbert_Cushing_Tolman1908" class="citation cs2">Herbert Cushing Tolman (1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dPlfAAAAMAAJ"><i>Ancient Persian lexicon and the texts of the Achaemenidan inscriptions transliterated and translated with special reference to their recent re-examination, by Herbert Cushing Tolman ..</i></a>, Volume 6 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American Book Company<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span></cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Behistan+inscription+of+King+Darius%3A+translation+and+critical+notes+to+the+Persian+text+with+special+reference+to+recent+re-examinations+of+the+rock&rft.series=Volume+1%2C+Issue+1+of+Vanderbilt+University+studies+ATLA+monograph+preservation+program+Volume+3384+of+Harvard+College+Library+preservation+microfilm+program&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Vanderbilt+University&rft.date=1908&rft.isbn=9780790531892&rft.au=Darius+I+%28King+of+Persia%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_AYVAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarius_I_(King_of_Persia)1908" class="citation cs2">Darius I (King of Persia) (1908), Herbert Cushing Tolman (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T7JFAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Behistan inscription of King Darius: translation and critical notes to the Persian text with special reference to recent re-examinations of the rock</i></a>, Volume 1, Issue 1 of Vanderbilt University studies, Vanderbilt university<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Behistan+inscription+of+King+Darius%3A+translation+and+critical+notes+to+the+Persian+text+with+special+reference+to+recent+re-examinations+of+the+rock&rft.series=Volume+1%2C+Issue+1+of+Vanderbilt+University+studies&rft.pub=Vanderbilt+university&rft.date=1908&rft.au=Darius+I+%28King+of+Persia%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT7JFAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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(1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071104230552/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v5f1/v5f1a008.html">"Cases in Iranian languages and dialects"</a>, <i>Encyclopedia Iranica</i>, vol. 5, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp. 25–37, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v5f1/v5f1a008.html">the original</a> on 2007-11-04</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cases+in+Iranian+languages+and+dialects&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Iranica&rft.place=Costa+Mesa&rft.pages=25-37&rft.pub=Mazda&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Windfuhr&rft.aufirst=Gernot+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranica.com%2Fnewsite%2Farticles%2Fv5f1%2Fv5f1a008.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStolperTavernier2007" class="citation journal cs1">Stolper, Matthew W.; Tavernier, Jan (2007). "From the Persepolis Fortification Archive Project, 1: An Old Persian Administrative Tablet from the Persepolis Fortification". <i>Arta</i>. <b>1</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arta&rft.atitle=From+the+Persepolis+Fortification+Archive+Project%2C+1%3A+An+Old+Persian+Administrative+Tablet+from+the+Persepolis+Fortification&rft.volume=1&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Stolper&rft.aufirst=Matthew+W.&rft.au=Tavernier%2C+Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persepolistablets.blogspot.com/2007/06/old-persian-text-in-persepolis.html">"An Old Persian text in the Persepolis Fortification Archive"</a>. <i>Persepolis Fortification Archive Project</i>. Posted by Chuck Jones. June 18, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Persepolis+Fortification+Archive+Project&rft.atitle=An+Old+Persian+text+in+the+Persepolis+Fortification+Archive&rft.date=2007-06-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersepolistablets.blogspot.com%2F2007%2F06%2Fold-persian-text-in-persepolis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Persian" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsatrian2010" class="citation cs2">Asatrian, Garnik (2010), <i>Etymological Dictionary of Persian</i>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/15px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/23px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/30px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Achaemenid Empire">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Falcon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/150px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/225px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/300px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persian_Lion_Rhyton" title="Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton">Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_coinage" title="Achaemenid coinage">Achaemenid coinage</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Apadana_hoard" title="Apadana hoard">Apadana hoard</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Danake" title="Danake">Danake</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Daric" title="Daric">Daric</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Tachara" title="Tachara">Tachara</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa" title="Palace of Darius in Susa">Palace of Darius in Susa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Cyrus">Tomb of Cyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_column" title="Persian column">Persian column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Ka'ba-ye Zartosht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus" title="Mausoleum at Halicarnassus">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombs_at_Xanthos" title="Tombs at Xanthos">Tombs at Xanthos</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Harpy_Tomb" title="Harpy Tomb">Harpy Tomb</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nereid_Monument" title="Nereid Monument">Nereid Monument</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Payava" title="Tomb of Payava">Tomb of Payava</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_music" title="Achaemenid music">Achaemenid music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I%27s_inscription_at_Van" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I's inscription at Van">Xerxes I's inscription at Van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganjnameh" title="Ganjnameh">Ganjnameh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Revolt">Persian Revolt</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hyrba" title="Battle of Hyrba">Battle of Hyrba</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Border" title="Battle of the Persian Border">Battle of the Persian Border</a></span></li></ul></li> <li>Lydian-Persian Wars <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pteria" title="Battle of Pteria">Battle of Pteria</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thymbra" title="Battle of Thymbra">Battle of Thymbra</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sardis_(547_BC)" title="Siege of Sardis (547 BC)">Siege of Sardis (547 BC)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Battle of Opis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">Scythian campaign of Darius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Naxos_(499_BC)" title="Siege of Naxos (499 BC)">Siege of Naxos (499 BC)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Battle of Lade</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Eretria" title="Siege of Eretria">Siege of Eretria</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Battle of Artemisium</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens" title="Achaemenid destruction of Athens">Destruction of Athens</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Battle of Mycale</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_revolts_(484_BC)" title="Babylonian revolts (484 BC)">Babylonian revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Battle of the Eurymedon</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus" title="Battle of Cyzicus">Battle of Cyzicus</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Battle of Cunaxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cnidus" title="Battle of Cnidus">Battle of Cnidus</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Satraps%27_Revolt" title="Great Satraps' Revolt">Great Satraps' Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Second Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">Second conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus">Siege of Miletus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Siege of Halicarnassus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre (332 BC)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Siege of Gaza</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Battle of the Persian Gate</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_and_water" title="Earth and water">Earth and water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Callias" title="Peace of Callias">Peace of Callias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Antalcidas" title="Peace of Antalcidas">Peace of Antalcidas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Capitals <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Babylon#Persian_conquest" title="Babylon">Babylon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">Satrapies</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Districts of the Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives" title="Persepolis Administrative Archives">Persepolis Administrative Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Chapar_Khaneh" title="Chapar Khaneh">Chapar Khaneh</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Angarium" title="Angarium">Angarium</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Angarum" title="Angarum">Angarum</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Dynasties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnacid_dynasty" title="Pharnacid dynasty">Pharnacid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_dynasty" title="Mithridatic dynasty">Mithridatic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathid_dynasty" title="Ariarathid dynasty">Ariarathid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lygdamid_dynasty" title="Lygdamid dynasty">Lygdamid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontid_dynasty" title="Orontid dynasty">Orontid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Achaemenid_clans" title="Seven Achaemenid clans">Seven Achaemenid clans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthian_Obelisk" title="Xanthian Obelisk">Xanthian Obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_calendar" title="Cappadocian calendar">Cappadocian calendar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Persian_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Persian_language" title="Template:Persian language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Persian_language" title="Template talk:Persian language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Persian_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Persian language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Persian_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Persian_language#History" title="Persian language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> <small>(c. 3000 BCE)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <small>(c. 2000 BCE)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a> <small>(c. 1500 BCE)</small></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Persian</a> <small>(c. 525 – 300 BCE)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> <small>(c. 300 BCE – 800 CE)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Persian" title="New Persian">New Persian</a> <small>(from 800)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Iranian_languages" title="Western Iranian languages">Western Iranian languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Persian_language#Varieties" title="Persian language">Dialects and varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Persian" title="Standard Persian">Standard Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Persian" title="Iranian Persian">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaragi_dialect" title="Hazaragi dialect">Hazaragi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aimaq_dialect" title="Aimaq dialect">Aimaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Persian" title="Kuwaiti Persian">Kuwaiti Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tat_language_(Caucasus)" title="Tat language (Caucasus)">Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat (<i>Juhuri</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhori_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukhori dialect">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistani_dialect" title="Sistani dialect">Sistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwari_language" title="Dehwari language">Dehwari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_vocabulary" title="Persian vocabulary">Vocabulary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_nouns" title="Persian nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_verbs" title="Persian verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_phonology" title="Persian phonology">Phonology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grammar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian grammar</a> <ul><li><small><a href="/wiki/Ez%C4%81fe" title="Ezāfe">Ezāfe</a></small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writing system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_alphabet" title="Persian alphabet">Persian alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_calligraphy" title="Persian calligraphy">Persian calligraphy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_alphabet" title="Tajik alphabet">Tajik alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian" title="Romanization of Persian">Romanized Persian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_literature" title="Middle Persian literature">Middle Persian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_literature" title="Tajik literature">Tajik literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Persian_Language_and_Literature" title="Academy of Persian Language and Literature">Academy of Persian Language and Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_Afghanistan" title="Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan">Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudaki_Institute_of_Language_and_Literature" title="Rudaki Institute of Language and Literature">Rudaki Institute of Language and Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Persian_origin" title="List of English words of Persian origin">List of English words of Persian origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_loanwords_in_Persian" title="List of French loanwords in Persian">List of French loanwords in Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_Persian_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language">List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Persian language in the Indian subcontinent">Persian language in South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iranian_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iranian_languages" title="Template:Iranian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iranian_languages" title="Template talk:Iranian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iranian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iranian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iranian_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages#Old_Iranian" title="Iranian languages">Old Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages#Middle_Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Middle Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages#New_Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">New Iranian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_languages" title="Eastern Iranian languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pamir_languages" title="Pamir languages">Pamir</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishkashimi_language" title="Ishkashimi language">Ishkashimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufi_language" title="Khufi language">Khufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munji_language" title="Munji language">Munji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rushani_language" title="Rushani language">Rushani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanglechi_language" title="Sanglechi language">Sanglechi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shughni_language" title="Shughni language">Shughni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bartangi_language" title="Bartangi language">Bartangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufi_language" title="Khufi language">Khufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oroshori_dialect" title="Oroshori dialect">Oroshori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarikoli_language" title="Sarikoli language">Sarikoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vanji_language" title="Vanji language">Vanji</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazghulami_language" title="Yazghulami language">Yazghulami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yidgha_language" title="Yidgha language">Yidgha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Khwarezmian_language" title="Khwarezmian language">Khwarezmian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parachi_language" title="Parachi language">Parachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Pashto" title="Central Pashto">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Pashto" title="Northern Pashto">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Pashto" title="Southern Pashto">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanetsi" title="Wanetsi">Wanetsi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ormuri" title="Ormuri">Ormuri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarghulami" title="Sarghulami">Sarghulami</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scythian_languages" title="Scythian languages">Scythian</a></i> <ul><li><i>Alanian</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_language" title="Ossetian language">Ossetian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digor_Ossetian" title="Digor Ossetian">Digor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Ossetian" title="Iron Ossetian">Iron</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jassic_dialect" title="Jassic dialect">Jassic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yaghnobi_language" title="Yaghnobi language">Yaghnobi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Iranian_languages" title="Western Iranian languages">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashtiani_language" title="Ashtiani language">Ashtiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makrani_dialect" title="Makrani dialect">Makrani</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daylami_language" title="Daylami language">Daylami</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Fars" title="Dialects of Fars">Fars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilaki_language" title="Gilaki language">Gilaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorani_language" title="Gorani language">Gorani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgani_language" title="Gorgani language">Gorgani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karingani_language" title="Karingani language">Karingani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurmanji" title="Kurmanji">Kurmanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorani" title="Sorani">Sorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kurdish" title="Southern Kurdish">Xwarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kordali_language" title="Kordali language">Kordali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laki_language" title="Laki language">Laki</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazanderani_language" title="Mazanderani language">Mazanderani</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tabaroid_dialects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tabaroid dialects (page does not exist)">Tabaroid</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Azeri" title="Old Azeri">Old Azeri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnani_languages" title="Semnani languages">Semnani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lasgerdi_language" title="Lasgerdi language">Lasgerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangsari_language" title="Sangsari language">Sangsari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnani_language" title="Semnani language">Semnani proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorkhei_language" title="Sorkhei language">Sorkhei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talysh_language" title="Talysh language">Talysh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tati_language_(Iran)" title="Tati language (Iran)">Tati</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tatoid_dialects" title="Tatoid dialects">Tatoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaza_language" title="Zaza language">Zaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari_language" title="Zoroastrian Dari language">Zoroastrian Dari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achomi_language" title="Achomi language">Achomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkardi_language" title="Bashkardi language">Bashkardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garmsiri_language" title="Garmsiri language">Garmsiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuhmareyi_language" title="Kuhmareyi language">Kuhmareyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumzari_language" title="Kumzari language">Kumzari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luri_language" title="Luri language">Luri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bakhtiari_dialect" title="Bakhtiari dialect">Bakhtiari</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pahlavani_language" title="Pahlavani language">Pahlavani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tat_language_(Caucasus)" title="Tat language (Caucasus)">Caucasian Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Dari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaragi_dialect" title="Hazaragi dialect">Hazaragi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Persian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Badeshi" title="Badeshi">Badeshi</a> (unknown further classification)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct</a> or <a href="/wiki/Historical_language" title="Historical language">historical languages</a>.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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