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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Themes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Themes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Historical development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Reception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_scholarly_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_scholarly_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other scholarly trends</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_scholarly_trends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other scholarly trends subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_scholarly_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maslow’s_desacralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maslow’s_desacralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Maslow’s desacralization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maslow’s_desacralization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Other accounts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Spirituality" title="Category:Spirituality">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_spirituality" title="Outline of spirituality">Outline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Traditional</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elite_religion" title="Elite religion">Elite religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mysticism" title="Jewish mysticism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merkabah_mysticism" title="Merkabah mysticism">Merkabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidism">Hasidism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_spirituality" title="Catholic spirituality">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Modern</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_spirituality" title="Secular spirituality">Secular spirituality</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Spiritual_but_not_religious" title="Spiritual but not religious">Spiritual but not religious</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Spiritual experience</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lived_religion" title="Lived religion">Lived religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystical_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystical experience">Mystical experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_feeling" title="Oceanic feeling">Oceanic feeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">Religious ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_practice" title="Spiritual practice">Spiritual practice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Spiritual development</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ego_death" title="Ego death">Ego death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individuation" title="Individuation">Individuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-actualization" title="Self-actualization">Self-actualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_activism" title="Spiritual activism">Spiritual activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual development">Spiritual development</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:120%;background:lavender;"> Influences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Western</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"><b>General</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_illumination" title="Divine illumination">Divine illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li></ul> <p><b>Antiquity</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Western esotericism</a></li></ul> <p><b>Medieval</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li></ul> <p><b>Early modern</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennial philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Jakob Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a></li></ul> <p><b>Modern</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_(Boehmian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theosophy (Boehmian)">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occultism" class="mw-redirect" title="Occultism">Occultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Orientalist</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Advaita" title="Neo-Advaita">Neo-Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">Nonduality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Asian</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"><b>Pre-historic</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian religion</a></li></ul> <p><b>Iran</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> <p><b>India</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevala_jnana" title="Kevala jnana">Kevala jnana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul> <p><b>East-Asia</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Other non-Western</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">Totemism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Psychological</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-help" title="Self-help">Self-help</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_self_and_false_self" title="True self and false self">True self and false self</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:120%;background:lavender;"> Research</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Neurological</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mystical_psychosis" title="Mystical psychosis">Mystical psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neuroscience of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geschwind_syndrome" title="Geschwind syndrome">Geschwind syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spirituality" title="Category:Spirituality">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spirituality_sidebar" title="Template:Spirituality sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spirituality_sidebar" title="Template talk:Spirituality sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spirituality_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spirituality sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Tradition_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tradition (perennialism)">traditionalist philosophy</a>, <b>desacralization of knowledge</b> or <b>secularization of knowledge</b> is the process of separation of knowledge from its perceived <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a> source—<a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultimate Reality">Ultimate Reality</a>. The process reflects a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a> in modern conception of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> in that it has rejected <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">divine revelations</a> as well as the idea of <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> foundations of knowledge, confining knowledge to <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical domain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> alone. </p><p>The theme of desacralization frequently appears among <a href="/wiki/Traditionalism_(perennialism)" title="Traditionalism (perennialism)"> Traditionalist</a> writers, starting with <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> metaphysician <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a>, who earlier spoke of "the limitation of knowledge to its lowest order." <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a> most notably examined and defined the process of desacralization of knowledge in his 1981 <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Lectures" title="Gifford Lectures">Gifford Lectures</a>, which were later published as <i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_the_Sacred" title="Knowledge and the Sacred">Knowledge and the Sacred</a></i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_the_concept">Origin of the concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin of the concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The theme of desacralization of knowledge has been an important topic among writers of the traditionalist school,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> going back to the French mystic and intellectual René Guénon, who previously spoke of "the limitation of knowledge to its lowest order", that is, the reduction of knowledge to "the empirical and analytic study".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the systematic conceptualization of the desacralization of knowledge or secularization of knowledge was first introduced by the Iranian philosopher Seyyed Hossein Nasr in his 1981 Gifford Lectures.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These lectures were subsequently published as a book titled "Knowledge and the Sacred".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Themes">Themes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Themes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Nasr, desacralization of knowledge is one of the most significant aspects of <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>, which he defines as "everything whose origin is merely human and therefore non-divine and whose metaphysical basis lies in [its] <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> hiatus between man and God".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The core idea of desacralization of knowledge is that modern civilization has lost the <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent</a> dimensions of knowledge, which are based on <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientia_sacra#Epistemological_perspectives" title="Scientia sacra">intellection</a>, by confining knowledge solely to <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">rational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> domains.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[Nasr's] central thesis is that true knowledge is profoundly and by its very essence related to the sacred. This idea, he argues, underlies the basic teachings of every traditional religion whether Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Islam or Christianity. Only in the Modern world, which he dates from the Renaissance, has the connection between knowledge and the sacred been lost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2003195_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2003195-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Micheal Allen, <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Literary_Biography" title="Dictionary of Literary Biography">Dictionary of Literary Biography</a></i>, 2003</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In Nasr's exposition, the terms <i>"to know"</i> and <i>"knowledge"</i> forfeit their unidimensional character. In his view, knowledge proceeds in a hierarchical order from empirical and rational modes of knowing to the supreme form of knowledge which he calls the "unitive knowledge" or <i>"<a href="/wiki/Ma%27rifa" title="Ma'rifa">al-ma’rifah</a>"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, "to know" begins with ratiocination and progresses to intellection,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a process that entails the attainment of spiritual knowledge through the <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">human intellect</a>—the perceived "universal faculty which is within the individual yet transcends his individuality".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nasr argues that while human beings possess the intellect, which is a divine gift that shines within their being, they are unable to fully utilize this gift because they have become too distant from their original nature or <a href="/wiki/Fitrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fitrah">fitrah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrel2000646_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrel2000646-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He contends that as knowledge is inseparable from being, it is inherently connected to the sacred,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is synonymous with the Ultimate Reality.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To be human is to know, which ultimately means knowing the Supreme Self—God—who is the source of all knowledge and consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Nasr, it is the post-medieval process of secularization and a humanism that have eventually forced the separation of knowledge from being and intelligence from the Sacred, which "is both the Knower and the Known, inner consciousness and outer reality".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Knowledge of the Absolute means knowledge of the existence of superior spiritual levels, of the interrelatedness of the phenomena of nature, of the interrelatedness of their respective elements, and most importantly, of the derivation of everything from the Absolute itself. However, the awareness (and therefore the usage) of Intellect according to Nasr has been lost, together with the awareness of the Absolute itself. In Nasr’s reconstruction such oblivion characterizes the whole course of human thought that, in its dominant manifestations, can be described as a continuous desacralization of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBigliardi2014a120_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBigliardi2014a120-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Stefano Bigliardi, <i>Above Analysis and Amazement. Some Contemporary Muslim Characterizations of "Miracle" and their Interpretation</i>, 2014</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In Nasr's view, modern science has reduced multiple domains of reality to a psycho-physical one. In the absence of a spiritual vision, science is said to become concerned with changes in the material world alone. According to this viewpoint, since modern science has rejected the notion of a <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">hierarchy of being</a>, scientific theories and discoveries are no longer capable of appreciating the truths that belong to a higher order of reality. Nasr thus views modern science as an "incomplete" or a "superficial science" that is only concerned with certain parts of reality while invalidating others.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed to be founded on the distinction between the knowing subject and the known object. This perspective maintains that modern science has lost its symbolic spirit and the transcendental dimension because it has repudiated the role of intellect in pursuing knowledge and truth by adopting a purely quantitative method.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nasr blames secularism for the desacralization of science and knowledge. In this process, science and knowledge is said to become separated, losing the uniformity that they had in the form of traditional <a href="/wiki/Scientia_sacra" title="Scientia sacra">sacred knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Nasr, the structure of reality remains constant, but human perception and vision of that reality change. Modern Western philosophy, with no perceived sense of permanence, has reduced reality to a temporal process. According to <a href="/wiki/Jane_Idleman_Smith" title="Jane Idleman Smith">Jane I. Smith</a>, this reductionism is what Nasr identifies as the desacralization of knowledge and the loss of the sense of the sacred,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> necessitating a choice between a form of knowledge that tends to focus on change, multiplicity, and outwardness, and "one that integrates change within the eternal, multiplicity within unity, and outward facts within inward principles."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_development">Historical development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historical development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/130px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/195px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/260px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>In saying "I think, therefore I am," Nasr contends, Descartes was not alluding to the "divine I" who proclaimed "I am the Truth" (ana’l-Haqq) through the mouth of <a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Hallaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansur al-Hallaj">Mansur al-Hallaj</a> seven centuries before Descartes, the Divine Self which alone has the authority to proclaim I.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The process of desacralization of knowledge began with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Nasr, the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skeptics</a> of ancient Greek philosophical traditions played a major role in the process of desacralization by reducing knowledge either to ratiocination or to cognitive exercise.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In substituting reason for intellect and sensuous knowledge for inner <a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">illumination</a>, the Greeks pioneered the process of desacralization of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other major stages in the process of desacralization include the formation of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> philosophical systems that had developed a concept of nature, which is independent and self-creative.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process, however, reached its climax in the thought of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "the father of modern Western philosophy," who "made thinking of the individual ego the center of reality and criterion of all knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter, knowledge eventually became rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">cogito</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <i>Dictionary of Literary Biography</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Nasr analyzes the modern desacralization of knowledge and the consequent eclipse of human intelligence ... ]The roots of the crisis, he says, go back as far as the rationalists and skeptics of ancient Greece, but more immediate and grave in effect was the humanism of the Renaissance which shifted the focus of knowledge from God to human beings and from the sacred cosmos to the secular order, and the full blown rationalism of the Enlightenment which reduced human knowledge to reason alone. Nasr contends that epistemology since Descartes has taken an increasingly reductionist trajectory in which the traditional doctrine of knowledge rooted in intellection and revelation was replaced by an idolatry of reason. Rationalism gave way to empiricism, with its tendency to reject metaphysics altogether; and empiricism has been followed by various forms of irrationalism, including existentialism and deconstructionism. The general course of modern history has been one of desacralization and decay, robbing humanity of intelligence and stripping the cosmos of beauty and meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2003195_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2003195-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Micheal Allen, <i>Dictionary of Literary Biography</i>, 2003</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hegel_by_Schlesinger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hegel_by_Schlesinger.jpg/130px-Hegel_by_Schlesinger.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hegel_by_Schlesinger.jpg/195px-Hegel_by_Schlesinger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hegel_by_Schlesinger.jpg/260px-Hegel_by_Schlesinger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2151" /></a><figcaption> Hegel is said to have taken a decisive step in the process of desacralization, turning the whole process of knowledge into a dialectic inseparable from change and becoming.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In his contribution to the volume of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Living_Philosophers" title="Library of Living Philosophers">Library of Living Philosophers</a>, which was devoted to Nasr's life and thought, <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shu-hsien" title="Liu Shu-hsien">Liu Shu-hsien</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucian</a> philosopher, writes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Nasr's critique of modem European philosophy has also presented a very interesting perspective. He pointed out that Descartes's individual was not referring to <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a> or the divine I, but rather the "illusory" self, which was placing its experience and consciousness of thinking as the foundation of all epistemology and ontology and the source of certitude. After the <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Humean</a> doubt, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> taught an agnosticism which in a characteristically subjective fashion denied to the intellect the possibility of knowing the essence of things. This situation further deteriorated into the <a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marxist</a> dialectics, as they denied that there is anything immutable behind the appearance, and this loss of the sense of permanence was characteristic of mainstream thought of modern Western philosophy. In the analytic philosophy and irrational philosophies that followed, the sacred quality of knowledge was completely destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShu-hsien2000258_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShu-hsien2000258-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Liu Shu-hsien, <i>Reflections on Tradition and Modernity: A Response to Seyyed Hossein Nasr from Neo-Confucian Perspective</i>, 2000</cite></div></blockquote> <p>One "powerful instrument" of desacralization in history includes the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which according to Nasr "is a desperate attempt to substitute a set of horizontal, material causes in a unidimensional world to explain effects whose causes belong to other levels of reality, to the vertical dimensions of existence".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He says the theory of evolution, and its use by modernists and liberal theologians including <a href="/wiki/Aurobindo_Ghose" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurobindo Ghose">Aurobindo Ghose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Pierre Teilhard de Chardin</a> has been a "major force" in the process of desacralization of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/David_Burrell" title="David Burrell">David Burrell</a>, the "roots of the betrayal" may be found "on the other side of Descartes", in the high <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> that includes the thought of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a>. According to Nasr, their syntheses "tended to become over-rationalistic in imprisoning intuitions of a metaphysical order in syllogistic categories which were to hide, rather than reveal, their properly speaking intellectual rather than purely rational character".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/150px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/225px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/300px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption>For Nasr, the adoption of the rationalist branch of ancient Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle, led to a shift away from sacred knowledge in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>According to the traditional perspective, externalization and desacralization of knowledge has led to the belief all that can be understood is science in terms of information, <a href="/wiki/Quantification_(science)" title="Quantification (science)">quantification</a>, analysis and their subsequent technological implications. The questions of religion, God, eternal life and the nature of the soul are all outside the realm of scientific knowledge and thus are only matters of faith.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The desacralized knowledge is said to have affected all areas of culture, including art, science and religion, and has also had an impact on human nature.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This account maintains that the effect of desacralized, profane knowledge is felt within the <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">value system</a>, thought processes and structure of feelings.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nasr says the desacralized knowledge and science affects the use of technology and has resulted in <a href="/wiki/Environmental_disaster" title="Environmental disaster">ecological catastrophes</a>. It results in highly compartmentalized science whose ignorance of the divine destroys the outward and inward spiritual ambience of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shu-hsien" title="Liu Shu-hsien">Liu Shu-hsien</a>, the process of desacralization of knowledge is not as bad as Nasr has anticipated. Shu-hsien says there is an overwhelming necessity for desacralization of knowledge within the domain of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical science</a> because the quest of certainty is no longer a viable objective.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a>, the Enlightenment thought sought demystification and desacralization of knowledge, and social organization to free humans from their bonds.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Svend_Brinkmann" title="Svend Brinkmann">Svend Brinkmann</a> says of the need for desacralization of knowledge; "if knowing is a human activity, it is always already situated somewhere – in some cultural, historical and social situation".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For <a href="/wiki/David_Burrell" title="David Burrell">David Burrell</a>, scholars are more at ease with Nasr's criticism of "enlightenment philosophical paradigm" in an explicitly <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodern</a> world. Those who would argue "if knowledge cannot be secured in Descartes’s fashion, it cannot be secured at all" might have <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modern presumptions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_scholarly_trends">Other scholarly trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other scholarly trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maslow’s_desacralization"><span id="Maslow.E2.80.99s_desacralization"></span>Maslow’s desacralization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Maslow’s desacralization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American psychologist <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a>'s (1966) concept of desacralization is based on "the type of science that lacks emotion, joy, wonder, awe, and rapture". He urged scientists to reintroduce values, creativity, emotion, and ritual to their work. For this, science must be resacralized, which means it needs to be imbued with ritual, passion, and human values. Astronomers, for instance, need to be astounded by the stars as much as study them. Psychologists must appreciate, be excited about, be in awe of, and have affection for the people they examine.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_accounts">Other accounts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other accounts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several other academics have discussed the theme of secularization of knowledge in a number of other contexts. In a 1989 paper, British historian of science <a href="/wiki/John_Hedley_Brooke" title="John Hedley Brooke">John Hedley Brooke</a>, for instance, described the secularization of knowledge in the context of the eighteenth century scientific developments, contending that the process of secularization of science is evident in the changes of the theories of matter, celestial mechanics, the earth sciences, and the life sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brad_S._Gregory" title="Brad S. Gregory">Brad S. Gregory</a>, a history professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a>, sought to examine the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Reformation_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformation era">Reformation era</a> on the field of knowledge in his 2019 article, in an effort to demonstrate how "religious disagreements" within the Christian tradition opened the way for the secularization of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disenchantment" title="Disenchantment">Disenchantment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientia_sacra" title="Scientia sacra">Scientia sacra</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Aalia Sohail Khan, traditionalists condemned "profane philosophy" and scientism "as the only legitimate manner of knowing the different levels of reality". Relying on the traditionalist framework, she argues that the "degeneration of science into scientism desacralizes knowledge as well as language". The sole dependence on science in the form of "scientific materialism" results in a truncated view of reality and Truth, obliterating the spiritual, moral, and ethical aspects of life. She says traditionalists critiqued modern science for "its reductionism and its imperial conceit and pretensions in claiming to be the only mode of knowing." In contrast to postmodern critiques, which focus solely on the social and political repercussions of modernity, their main criticism of modern science was that it lacked metaphysical principles and was disconnected from the Transcendental order and spiritual perspective. Their large body of work is founded on the "primacy of transcendence, sacred knowledge, value, truth and meaning created through intuition and revelation."<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Damian Howard states: "In <i>Knowledge and the Sacred</i>, Nasr, rather than start with the essentials of perennialist metaphysics, feels the need to explain at great length the ‘desacralization of knowledge’ and the subsequent ‘rediscovery of the sacred’. In other words, he seeks to explain to the western reader why they will not be able to grasp the truth of his substantial teaching."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alain Daniélou: "An intensive and well-documented analysis of the desacralization process in the West can be found in the first chapter of Seyyed Hossein Nasr’s Knowledge and Sacred, entitled "Knowledge and its Desacralization’ (Buffalo, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1989)."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Aslan" title="Adnan Aslan">Adnan Aslan</a>, for example, comments that "The secularization process first began when a line was drawn between the realm of the sacred and the realm of the profane." Humans asserted their freedom from God in a rebellion against Heaven. As a result, "the sacred qualities of the human faculty of knowledge were ignored, thereby initiating the process of secularization of knowledge."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his review of <i>Knowledge and the Sacred</i>, Gerald Largo states that Nasr analyzes "the causes of the intellectual and spiritual chaos of modern times, namely, the eclipse of the sapiential dimension and the secularization of knowledge."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhan2017">Khan 2017</a>, pp. 70, 74, 75–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChattopadhyayaGupta2005">Chattopadhyaya & Gupta 2005</a>, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward2011">Howard 2011</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniélou2005">Daniélou 2005</a>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAslan1998">Aslan 1998</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLargo1982">Largo 1982</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2003">Allen 2003</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAslan1998">Aslan 1998</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZebiri1998">Zebiri 1998</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDanner1982">Danner 1982</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeer1993">Heer 1993</a>, p. 145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2003195-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2003195_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2003195_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2003">Allen 2003</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlkatiri2016">Alkatiri 2016</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlkatiri2016">Alkatiri 2016</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton1983">Eaton 1983</a>, pp. 4, 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrel2000646-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrel2000646_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurrel2000">Burrel 2000</a>, p. 646.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone2005">Stone 2005</a>, p. 1801.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton1983">Eaton 1983</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone2005">Stone 2005</a>, p. 1801.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton1983">Eaton 1983</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBigliardi2014a120-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBigliardi2014a120_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBigliardi2014a">Bigliardi 2014a</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWidiyanto2017">Widiyanto 2017</a>, pp. 251, 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWidiyanto2017">Widiyanto 2017</a>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBigliardi2014">Bigliardi 2014</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStenberg1996">Stenberg 1996</a>, p. 278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1991">Smith 1991</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJawad2005">Jawad 2005</a>, pp. 58–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNasr1989">Nasr 1989</a>, p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAslan1998">Aslan 1998</a>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlatas1995">Alatas 1995</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBigliardi2014a">Bigliardi 2014a</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton1983">Eaton 1983</a>, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBigliardi2014a">Bigliardi 2014a</a>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton1983">Eaton 1983</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeer1993">Heer 1993</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeer1993">Heer 1993</a>, p. 145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNasr1989">Nasr 1989</a>, p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAslan1998">Aslan 1998</a>, p. 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShu-hsien2000258-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShu-hsien2000258_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShu-hsien2000">Shu-hsien 2000</a>, p. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBigliardi2014a">Bigliardi 2014a</a>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNasr1989">Nasr 1989</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaltzman2000">Saltzman 2000</a>, p. 595.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurrel2000">Burrel 2000</a>, p. 642.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward2011">Howard 2011</a>, p. 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaltzman2000">Saltzman 2000</a>, p. 589.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAslan1998">Aslan 1998</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhan2017">Khan 2017</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBigliardi2014a">Bigliardi 2014a</a>, p. 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBigliardi2014">Bigliardi 2014</a>, p. 169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShu-hsien2000">Shu-hsien 2000</a>, p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1991">Harvey 1991</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrinkmann2012">Brinkmann 2012</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurrel2000">Burrel 2000</a>, p. 642.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFeistFeistRoberts2014">Feist, Feist & Roberts 2014</a>, p. 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrooke1989">Brooke 1989</a>, pp. 45–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGregory2019">Gregory 2019</a>, pp. 163–183.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlatas1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Syed_Farid_Alatas" class="mw-redirect" 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"The Dark Age". <i>The Crisis of the Modern World</i>. Sophia Perennis; Revised Edition (June 24, 2004). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0900588242" title="Special:BookSources/978-0900588242"><bdi>978-0900588242</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dark+Age&rft.btitle=The+Crisis+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pub=Sophia+Perennis%3B+Revised+Edition+%28June+24%2C+2004%29&rft.date=1927&rft.isbn=978-0900588242&rft.aulast=Guenon&rft.aufirst=Rene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">Harvey, David</a> (1991). "The passage from modernity to postmodernity in contemporary culture". <i>The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change</i>. 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(1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24458501">"Review: Islamic Knowledge; Review of Knowledge and the Sacred by Seyyed Hossein Nasr"</a>. <i>CrossCurrents</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 219–221. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24458501">24458501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CrossCurrents&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Islamic+Knowledge%3B+Review+of+Knowledge+and+the+Sacred+by+Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219-221&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24458501%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Largo&rft.aufirst=Gerald+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24458501&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasr1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Nasr, Seyyed Hossein</a> (1989). "Knowledge and its Desacralization". <i>Knowledge and the Sacred</i>. State University of New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791401774" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791401774"><bdi>978-0791401774</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Knowledge+and+its+Desacralization&rft.btitle=Knowledge+and+the+Sacred&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0791401774&rft.aulast=Nasr&rft.aufirst=Seyyed+Hossein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaltzman2000" class="citation book cs1">Saltzman, Judy D. (2000). "The Concept of Spiritual Knowledge in the Philosophy of Seyyed Hossein Nasr". 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(ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dictionary_of_Modern_American_Philosophers" title="The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers">The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers</a></i>. Thoemmes Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1843710370" title="Special:BookSources/978-1843710370"><bdi>978-1843710370</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nasr%2C+Seyyed+Hossein&rft.btitle=The+Dictionary+of+Modern+American+Philosophers&rft.pub=Thoemmes+Continuum&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1843710370&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Lucian+W.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShu-hsien2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shu-hsien" title="Liu Shu-hsien">Shu-hsien, Liu</a> (2000). "Reflections on Tradition and Modernity: A Response to Seyyed Hossein Nasr from Neo-Confucian Perspective". In Hahn, Lewis Edwin; Auxier, Randall E.; Stone Jr., Lucian W. (eds.). <i>The Philosophy of Seyyed Hossein Nasr</i>. Open Court. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812694147" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812694147"><bdi>978-0812694147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+Tradition+and+Modernity%3A+A+Response+to+Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr+from+Neo-Confucian+Perspective&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr&rft.pub=Open+Court&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0812694147&rft.aulast=Shu-hsien&rft.aufirst=Liu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Idleman_Smith" title="Jane Idleman Smith">Smith, Jane I.</a> (1991). "Seyyed Hossein Nasr: Defender of the Sacred and Islamic Traditionalism". In Haddad, Yvonne (ed.). <i>The Muslims in America</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr%3A+Defender+of+the+Sacred+and+Islamic+Traditionalism&rft.btitle=The+Muslims+in+America&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jane+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStenberg1996" class="citation journal cs1">Stenberg, Leif (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02691729608578819">"Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Ziauddin Sardar on Islam and science: Marginalization or modernization of a religious tradition"</a>. <i>Social Epistemology: A Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Policy</i>. <b>9</b> (3–4): 273–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02691729608578819">10.1080/02691729608578819</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Epistemology%3A+A+Journal+of+Knowledge%2C+Culture+and+Policy&rft.atitle=Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr+and+Ziauddin+Sardar+on+Islam+and+science%3A+Marginalization+or+modernization+of+a+religious+tradition&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=273-287&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02691729608578819&rft.aulast=Stenberg&rft.aufirst=Leif&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F02691729608578819&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWidiyanto2017" class="citation journal cs1">Widiyanto, Asfa (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.iium.edu.my/intdiscourse/index.php/id/article/view/1000">"Traditional science and scientia sacra: Origin and dimensions of Seyyed Hossein Nasr's concept of science"</a>. <i>Intellectual Discourse</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 247–272.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intellectual+Discourse&rft.atitle=Traditional+science+and+scientia+sacra%3A+Origin+and+dimensions+of+Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr%27s+concept+of+science&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=247-272&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Widiyanto&rft.aufirst=Asfa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.iium.edu.my%2Fintdiscourse%2Findex.php%2Fid%2Farticle%2Fview%2F1000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZebiri1998" class="citation journal cs1">Zebiri, Kate (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09596419808721138">"Muslim anti‐secularist discourse in the context of Muslim‐Christian relations"</a>. <i>Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 47–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09596419808721138">10.1080/09596419808721138</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Islam+and+Christian%E2%80%93Muslim+Relations&rft.atitle=Muslim+anti%E2%80%90secularist+discourse+in+the+context+of+Muslim%E2%80%90Christian+relations&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-64&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09596419808721138&rft.aulast=Zebiri&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F09596419808721138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlkatiri2021" class="citation journal cs1">Alkatiri, Wardah (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journal.equinoxpub.com/CIS/article/view/20053">"The Loss of Tawhidi Worldview in Islamic World: Another Ecological Consequence of Modernization"</a>. <i>Comparative Islamic Studies</i>. <b>14</b> (1–2): 53–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fcis.20053">10.1558/cis.20053</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1743-1638">1743-1638</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247872624">247872624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Loss+of+Tawhidi+Worldview+in+Islamic+World%3A+Another+Ecological+Consequence+of+Modernization&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=53-120&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247872624%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1743-1638&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1558%2Fcis.20053&rft.aulast=Alkatiri&rft.aufirst=Wardah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournal.equinoxpub.com%2FCIS%2Farticle%2Fview%2F20053&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1997" class="citation journal cs1">Fuller, Steve (1997). "The secularization of science and a new deal for science policy". <i>Futures</i>. <b>29</b> (6). Elsevier BV: 483–503. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0016-3287%2897%2900024-4">10.1016/s0016-3287(97)00024-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-3287">0016-3287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Futures&rft.atitle=The+secularization+of+science+and+a+new+deal+for+science+policy&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=483-503&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0016-3287%2897%2900024-4&rft.issn=0016-3287&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalin2000" class="citation book cs1">Kalin, Ibrahim (2000). 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(2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k1gwEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Unintended Reformation: How a Religious Revolution Secularized Society</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-26407-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-26407-6"><bdi>978-0-674-26407-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unintended+Reformation%3A+How+a+Religious+Revolution+Secularized+Society&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-26407-6&rft.au=Gregory%2C+Brad+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk1gwEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKartanegara2014" class="citation book cs1">Kartanegara, Mulyadhi (2014). "Secularization of knowledge". <i>Essentials of Islamic Epistemology: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Foundation of Knowledge</i>. UBD Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-99917-1-273-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-99917-1-273-4"><bdi>978-99917-1-273-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Secularization+of+knowledge&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Islamic+Epistemology%3A+A+Philosophical+Inquiry+into+the+Foundation+of+Knowledge&rft.pub=UBD+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-99917-1-273-4&rft.aulast=Kartanegara&rft.aufirst=Mulyadhi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2017" class="citation journal cs1">Harrison, Peter (2017-01-02). "Science and secularization". <i>Intellectual History Review</i>. <b>27</b> (1). Informa UK Limited: 47–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17496977.2016.1255460">10.1080/17496977.2016.1255460</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1749-6977">1749-6977</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148131696">148131696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intellectual+History+Review&rft.atitle=Science+and+secularization&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-70&rft.date=2017-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148131696%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1749-6977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17496977.2016.1255460&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJun2011" class="citation journal cs1">Jun, Ren (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-HZYJ201104020.htm">"The Sacred Knowledge and the History and Intellectual Effect of Desacralization"</a>. <i>Journal of Hui Muslim Minority Studies</i>. <b>4</b> (84): 97–104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hui+Muslim+Minority+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Sacred+Knowledge+and+the+History+and+Intellectual+Effect+of+Desacralization&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=84&rft.pages=97-104&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Jun&rft.aufirst=Ren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cnki.com.cn%2FArticle_en%2FCJFDTOTAL-HZYJ201104020.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiddiqui1994" class="citation book cs1">Siddiqui, B. H. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mPEbPaIibfEC&pg=PA156">"Knowledge: An Islamic Perspective"</a>. In Ahmad, Naeem (ed.). <i>Philosophy in Pakistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56518-108-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56518-108-3"><bdi>978-1-56518-108-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Knowledge%3A+An+Islamic+Perspective&rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+Pakistan&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-56518-108-3&rft.aulast=Siddiqui&rft.aufirst=B.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmPEbPaIibfEC%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimons2019" class="citation journal cs1">Simons, Massimiliano (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fposc_a_00330">"Bruno Latour and the Secularization of Science"</a>. <i>Perspectives on Science</i>. <b>27</b> (6). MIT Press: 925–954. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fposc_a_00330">10.1162/posc_a_00330</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1063-6145">1063-6145</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208531593">208531593</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Science&rft.atitle=Bruno+Latour+and+the+Secularization+of+Science&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=925-954&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208531593%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1063-6145&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fposc_a_00330&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Massimiliano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1162%252Fposc_a_00330&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesacralization+of+knowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Desacralization_of_knowledge&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/knowledge-and-sacred/chapter-one-knowledge-and-its-desacralization">Chapter One: Knowledge and Its Desacralization From <i>Knowledge and the Sacred</i> by Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Template:Seyyed Hossein Nasr"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Template talk:Seyyed Hossein Nasr"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Seyyed Hossein Nasr"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Desacralization of knowledge</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Resacralization_of_knowledge" title="Resacralization of knowledge">Resacralization of knowledge</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Scientia_sacra" title="Scientia sacra">Scientia sacra</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tradition_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tradition (perennialism)">Tradition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pontifical_and_Promethean_man" title="Pontifical and Promethean man">Pontifical and Promethean man</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Resacralization_of_nature" title="Resacralization of nature">Resacralization of nature</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ecotheology" title="Ecotheology">Ecotheology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_environmentalism" title="Islamic environmentalism">Islamic environmentalism</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perennial philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_the_Sacred" title="Knowledge and the Sacred">Knowledge and the Sacred</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Need_for_a_Sacred_Science" title="The Need for a Sacred Science">The Need for a Sacred Science</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Islam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Study_Quran" title="The Study Quran">The Study Quran</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Philosophy_from_its_Origin_to_the_Present" title="Islamic Philosophy from its Origin to the Present">Islamic Philosophy from its Origin to the Present</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Expectation_of_the_Millennium" title="Expectation of the Millennium">Expectation of the Millennium‎</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Heart_of_Islam" title="The Heart of Islam">The Heart of Islam</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_Islamic_Cosmological_Doctrines" title="An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines">An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Ideals_and_Realities_of_Islam" title="Ideals and Realities of Islam">Ideals and Realities of Islam</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Muslim_Sages" title="Three Muslim Sages">Three Muslim Sages</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilization_in_Islam" title="Science and Civilization in Islam">Science and Civilization in Islam</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Islam_In_The_Modern_World" title="Traditional Islam In The Modern World">Traditional Islam In The Modern World</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/A_Young_Muslim%27s_Guide_to_the_Modern_World" title="A Young Muslim's Guide to the Modern World">A Young Muslim's Guide to the Modern World</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Modern_World" title="Islam in the Modern World">Islam in the Modern World</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Garden_Of_Truth" class="mw-redirect" title="The Garden Of Truth">The Garden Of Truth</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_the_Order_of_Nature" title="Religion and the Order of Nature">Religion and the Order of Nature</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Encounter_of_Man_and_Nature" title="The Encounter of Man and Nature">The Encounter of Man and Nature</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/In_Search_of_the_Sacred:_A_Conversation_with_Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr_on_His_Life_and_Thought" title="In Search of the Sacred: A Conversation with Seyyed Hossein Nasr on His Life and Thought">In Search of the Sacred</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Category:Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Category</a></b></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Commons</a></b></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wikiquote page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Wikiquotes</a></b></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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