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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Housing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Business" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Business</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nigerians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Nigerians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nigerians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notable people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="Special:EditPage/History of African Americans in Chicago">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago%22">"History of African Americans in Chicago"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Black Chicagoans</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:African_American_Population_in_Chicago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/African_American_Population_in_Chicago.jpg/220px-African_American_Population_in_Chicago.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/African_American_Population_in_Chicago.jpg/330px-African_American_Population_in_Chicago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/African_American_Population_in_Chicago.jpg/440px-African_American_Population_in_Chicago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">2017 Chicago data represents the African American population by Census Tract</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">757,971<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (2021, est.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Southside_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="Southside Chicago">Southside Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Side,_Chicago" title="West Side, Chicago">Westside Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Southland" title="Chicago Southland">South Suburbs</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Inland_Northern_American_English" title="Inland Northern American English">Inland Northern American English</a>, <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">African languages</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black Protestant</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a> who migrated to Chicago during the Great Migration, <a href="/wiki/Black_Caribbeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Caribbeans">Black Caribbeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_immigrants_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African immigrants in the United States">African immigrants</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:100%">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;font-size: 130%"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chicago" title="Ethnic groups in Chicago">Ethnic groups in Chicago</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanians_in_Chicago" title="Albanians in Chicago">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Appalachian_people_in_Chicago" title="History of the Appalachian people in Chicago">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusians_in_Chicago" title="Belarusians in Chicago">Belarusians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnians_in_Chicago" title="Bosnians in Chicago">Bosnians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of Chinese Americans in Chicago">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechs_in_Chicago" title="Czechs in Chicago">Czechs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germans_in_Chicago" title="Germans in Chicago">Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greektown,_Chicago" title="Greektown, Chicago">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Americans#Chicago" title="Iraqi Americans">Iraqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Side_Irish" title="South Side Irish">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indians_in_Chicago" title="Indians in Chicago">Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians_in_Chicago" title="Italians in Chicago">Italians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_Chicago" title="Japanese in Chicago">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chicago" title="History of the Jews in Chicago">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_Chicago" title="Koreans in Chicago">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvians_in_Chicago" title="Latvians in Chicago">Latvians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanians_in_the_Chicago_area" title="Lithuanians in the Chicago area">Lithuanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgers_in_Chicago" title="Luxembourgers in Chicago">Luxembourgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexicans_in_Chicago" title="Mexicans in Chicago">Mexicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chicago#Native_Americans" title="Ethnic groups in Chicago">Native peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Chicago" title="Poles in Chicago">Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_Chicago" title="Puerto Ricans in Chicago">Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Chicago" title="Romani people in Chicago">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedes_in_Chicago" title="Swedes in Chicago">Swedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Village,_Chicago" title="Ukrainian Village, Chicago">Ukrainians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_history_in_Chicago" 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typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_DuSable_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/The_DuSable_Museum.jpg/220px-The_DuSable_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/The_DuSable_Museum.jpg/330px-The_DuSable_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/The_DuSable_Museum.jpg/440px-The_DuSable_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/DuSable_Museum_of_African_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="DuSable Museum of African American History">DuSable Museum of African American History</a> in Chicago's Washington Park</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of African Americans in Chicago</b> or <b>Black Chicagoans</b> dates back to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Point_du_Sable" title="Jean Baptiste Point du Sable">Jean Baptiste Point du Sable</a>'s trading activities in the 1780s. Du Sable, the city's founder, was Haitian of African and French descent.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slaves">Fugitive slaves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_negro" class="mw-redirect" title="Free negro">freedmen</a> established the city's first Black community in the 1840s. By the late 19th century, the first Black person had been elected to office. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migrations</a> from 1910 to 1960 brought hundreds of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Americans">Black Americans</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, where they became an urban population. They created churches, community organizations, businesses, music, and literature. African Americans of all classes built a community on the <a href="/wiki/South_Side,_Chicago" title="South Side, Chicago">South Side</a> of Chicago for decades before the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>, as well as on the <a href="/wiki/West_Side,_Chicago" title="West Side, Chicago">West Side</a> of Chicago. Residing in segregated communities, almost regardless of income, the Black residents of Chicago aimed to create communities where they could survive, sustain themselves, and have the ability to determine for themselves their own course in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Chicago" title="History of Chicago">History of Chicago</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Census Bureau">U.S. Census Bureau</a>, African Americans accounted for 29% of the city's population, or approximately 800,000 people as of the 2020 census. As per 2023 Census estimates the metro area had just under 1.5 million residents claiming Black alone ancestry, making it the metropolitan area with the fourth-highest Black population after New York, Atlanta, and Washington DC.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Black population in Chicago has been shrinking. Many Black Chicagoans have moved to the suburbs or Southern cities such as Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chicago also has a foreign-born Black population. Many of the African immigrants in Chicago are from <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings">Beginnings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Beginnings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Illinois">Slavery in Illinois</a></div> <p>Jean Baptiste Point du Sable was a Haitian of French and African descent.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Mary_Richardson_Jones_1865.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Portrait_of_Mary_Richardson_Jones_1865.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Mary_Richardson_Jones_1865.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Portrait_of_Mary_Richardson_Jones_1865.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Mary_Richardson_Jones_1865.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Portrait_of_Mary_Richardson_Jones_1865.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Mary_Richardson_Jones_1865.jpg 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Jane_Richardson_Jones" title="Mary Jane Richardson Jones">Mary Richardson Jones</a>, a prominent member of Chicago's Black community, in 1865</figcaption></figure> <p>Although du Sable's settlement was established in the 1780s, African Americans would only become established as a community in the 1840s, with the population reaching 1,000 by 1860. Much of this population consisted of escaped slaves from the Upper South. Following the end of Reconstruction in 1877, African Americans flowed from the Deep South into Chicago, raising the population from approximately 4,000 in 1870 to 15,000 in 1890.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1853, <a href="/wiki/John_A._Logan" title="John A. Logan">John A. Logan</a> helped pass a law to prohibit all African Americans, including freedmen, from settling in the state. However, in 1865, the state repealed its "<a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Laws</a>" and became the first to ratify the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a>, partly due to the efforts of <a href="/wiki/John_Jones_(abolitionist)" title="John Jones (abolitionist)">John</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Jane_Richardson_Jones" title="Mary Jane Richardson Jones">Mary Jones</a>, a prominent and wealthy activist couple.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Especially after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, Illinois had some of the most progressive anti-discrimination legislation in the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-jimcrow_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimcrow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> School segregation was first outlawed in 1874, and segregation in public accommodations was first outlawed in 1885.<sup id="cite_ref-jimcrow_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimcrow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1870, Illinois extended voting rights to African-American men for the first time, and in 1871, John Jones, a tailor and <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> station manager who successfully lobbied for the repeal of the state's Black Laws, became the first African-American elected official in the state, serving as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Cook_County_Board_of_Commissioners" title="Cook County Board of Commissioners">Cook County Commission</a>. By 1879, <a href="/wiki/John_W._E._Thomas" title="John W. E. Thomas">John W. E. Thomas</a> of Chicago became the first African American elected to the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_General_Assembly" title="Illinois General Assembly">Illinois General Assembly</a>, beginning the longest uninterrupted run of African-American representation in any state legislature in U.S. history. After the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire" title="Great Chicago Fire">Great Chicago Fire</a>, Chicago mayor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Medill" title="Joseph Medill">Joseph Medill</a> appointed the city's first Black fire company of nine men and the first Black police officer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Migration">Great Migration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Great Migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration (African American)</a></div> <p>Chicago was the "Promised Land" to <a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a>. 500,000 African Americans moved to Chicago.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicagoracialhistory.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chicagoracialhistory.png/300px-Chicagoracialhistory.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Chicagoracialhistory.png 1.5x" data-file-width="447" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption>The Black population in Chicago significantly increased in the early to mid-1900s, due to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> out of the South. While African Americans made up less than two percent of the city's population in 1910, by 1960 the city was nearly 25 percent Black.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the 20th century began, southern states succeeded in passing new constitutions and laws that <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disfranchised</a> most Blacks and many poor Whites. Deprived of the right to vote, they could not sit on juries or run for office. They were subject to discriminatory laws passed by White legislators, including racial segregation of public facilities. Segregated education for Black children and other services were consistently underfunded in a poor, agricultural economy. As White-dominated legislatures passed Jim Crow laws to re-establish White supremacy and create more restrictions in public life, violence against Blacks increased, with <a href="/wiki/Lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynchings">lynchings</a> used as extrajudicial enforcement. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Boll_weevil" title="Boll weevil">boll weevil</a> infestation ruined much of the cotton industry. Voting with their feet, Blacks started migrating out of the South to the North, where they could live more freely, get their children educated, and get new jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Industry buildup for World War I pulled thousands of workers to the North, as did the rapid expansion of <a href="/wiki/Railroads" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroads">railroads</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Meatpacking" class="mw-redirect" title="Meatpacking">meatpacking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> industries. Between 1915 and 1960, hundreds of thousands of Black southerners migrated to Chicago to escape violence and segregation, and to seek <a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">economic freedom</a>. They went from being a mostly rural population to one that was mostly urban. "The migration of African Americans from the rural south to the urban north became a mass movement."<sup id="cite_ref-spear_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> radically transformed Chicago, both politically and culturally.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1910 to 1940, most African Americans who migrated north were from rural areas. They had been chiefly sharecroppers and laborers, although some were landowners pushed out by the boll weevil disaster. After years of underfunding of public education for Blacks in the South, they tended to be poorly educated, with relatively low skills to apply to urban jobs. Like the European rural immigrants, they had to rapidly adapt to a different urban culture. Many took advantage of better schooling in Chicago and their children learned quickly. After 1940, when the second larger wave of migration started, Black migrants tended to be already urbanized, from southern cities and towns. They were the most ambitious, better educated with more urban skills to apply in their new homes. </p><p>The masses of new migrants arriving in the cities captured public attention. At one point in the 1940s, 3,000 African Americans were arriving every week in Chicago—stepping off the trains from the South and making their ways to neighborhoods they had learned about from friends and the <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Defender">Chicago Defender</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Great Migration was charted and evaluated. Urban White northerners started to get worried, as their neighborhoods rapidly changed. At the same time, recent and older ethnic immigrants competed for jobs and housing with the new arrivals, especially on the South Side, where the steel and meatpacking industries had the most numerous working-class jobs. </p><p>With Chicago's industries steadily expanding, opportunities opened up for new migrants, including Southerners, to find work. The railroad and meatpacking industries recruited Black workers. Chicago's African-American newspaper, the <i>Chicago Defender</i>, made the city well known to southerners. It sent bundles of papers south on the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Central">Illinois Central</a> trains, and African-American <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Porters" class="mw-redirect" title="Pullman Porters">Pullman Porters</a> would drop them off in Black towns. "Chicago was the most accessible northern city for African Americans in Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas."<sup id="cite_ref-spear_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They took the trains north. "Then between 1916 and 1919, 50,000 Blacks came to crowd into the burgeoning Black belt, to make new demands upon the institutional structure of the South Side."<sup id="cite_ref-spear_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1919_race_riot">1919 race riot</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1919 race riot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a> was a violent <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">racial conflict</a> started by White Americans against Black Americans that began on the <a href="/wiki/South_Side,_Chicago" title="South Side, Chicago">South Side</a> on July 27 and ended on August 3, 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the riot, 38 people died (23 Black and 15 White).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the week, injuries attributed to the episodic confrontations stood at 537, with two thirds of the injured being Black and one third White, and approximately 1,000 to 2,000, most of whom were Black, lost their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-CTEB_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CTEB-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to its sustained violence and widespread economic impact, it is considered the worst of the scores of riots and civil disturbances across the nation during the <a href="/wiki/Red_Summer_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Summer (1919)">"Red Summer" of 1919</a>, so named because of the racial and labor violence and fatalities.<sup id="cite_ref-CRRo19_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRRo19-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Segregation">Segregation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Segregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicagoblackbelt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chicagoblackbelt.jpg/300px-Chicagoblackbelt.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chicagoblackbelt.jpg/450px-Chicagoblackbelt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chicagoblackbelt.jpg/600px-Chicagoblackbelt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption>Chicago's Black Belt, April 1941</figcaption></figure> <p>The increasingly large Black population in Chicago (40,000 in 1910, and 278,000 in 1940<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) faced some of the same discrimination as they had in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was hard for many Blacks to find jobs and find decent places to live because of the competition for housing among different ethnic groups at a time when the city was expanding in population so dramatically. At the same time that Blacks moved from the South in the Great Migration, Chicago had recently received hundreds of thousands of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. The groups competed with each other for working-class wages. </p><p>Though other techniques to maintain <a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing segregation">housing segregation</a> had been used, such as <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a> and exclusive zoning to single-family housing, by 1927 the political leaders of Chicago began to adopt racially restrictive <a href="/wiki/Covenant_(law)" title="Covenant (law)">covenants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jimcrow_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimcrow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chicago Real Estate Board promoted a racially restrictive covenant to <a href="/wiki/YMCA" title="YMCA">YMCAs</a>, churches, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_clubs" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's clubs">women's clubs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parent_teacher_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent teacher association">parent teacher associations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiwanis" title="Kiwanis">Kiwanis</a> clubs, chambers of commerce and property owners' associations.<sup id="cite_ref-jimcrow_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimcrow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At one point, as much as 80% of the city's area was included under restrictive covenants.<sup id="cite_ref-jimcrow_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimcrow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a></i> ruled in 1948 that racially restrictive covenants were unconstitutional, but this did not quickly solve Blacks' problems with finding adequate housing.<sup id="cite_ref-jimcrow_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimcrow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Homeowners' associations discouraged members from selling to Black families, thus maintaining <a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation" title="Residential segregation">residential segregation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jimcrow_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimcrow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European immigrants and their descendants competed with African Americans for limited affordable housing, and those who didn't get the house lived on the streets. </p><p>In a succession common to most cities, many middle and upper-class Whites were the first to move out of the city to new housing, aided by new commuter rail lines and the construction of new highway systems. Later arrivals, ethnic Whites and African-American families occupied the older housing behind them. The White residents who had been in the city longest were the ones most likely to move to the newer, most expensive housing, as they could afford it. After 1945, the early White residents (many Irish immigrants and their descendants) on the <a href="/wiki/South_side_(Chicago)" class="mw-redirect" title="South side (Chicago)">South Side</a> began to move away under pressure of new migrants and with newly expanding housing opportunities. African Americans continued to move into the area, which had become the Black capital of the country. The South Side became predominantly Black, and the Black Belt was solidified.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_economic_conditions">Social and economic conditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Social and economic conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing">Housing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Housing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:100%">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;font-size: 130%"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chicago" title="Ethnic groups in Chicago">Ethnic groups in Chicago</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanians_in_Chicago" title="Albanians in Chicago">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Appalachian_people_in_Chicago" title="History of the Appalachian people in Chicago">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusians_in_Chicago" title="Belarusians in Chicago">Belarusians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnians_in_Chicago" title="Bosnians in Chicago">Bosnians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of Chinese Americans in Chicago">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechs_in_Chicago" title="Czechs in Chicago">Czechs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germans_in_Chicago" title="Germans in Chicago">Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greektown,_Chicago" title="Greektown, Chicago">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Americans#Chicago" title="Iraqi Americans">Iraqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Side_Irish" title="South Side Irish">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indians_in_Chicago" title="Indians in Chicago">Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians_in_Chicago" title="Italians in Chicago">Italians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_Chicago" title="Japanese in Chicago">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chicago" title="History of the Jews in Chicago">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_Chicago" title="Koreans in Chicago">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvians_in_Chicago" title="Latvians in Chicago">Latvians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanians_in_the_Chicago_area" title="Lithuanians in the Chicago area">Lithuanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgers_in_Chicago" title="Luxembourgers in Chicago">Luxembourgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexicans_in_Chicago" title="Mexicans in Chicago">Mexicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chicago#Native_Americans" title="Ethnic groups in Chicago">Native peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Chicago" title="Poles in Chicago">Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_Chicago" title="Puerto Ricans in Chicago">Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Chicago" title="Romani people in Chicago">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedes_in_Chicago" title="Swedes in Chicago">Swedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Village,_Chicago" title="Ukrainian Village, Chicago">Ukrainians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_history_in_Chicago" title="Welsh history in Chicago">Welsh</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnic_Chicago_sidebar" title="Template:Ethnic Chicago sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnic_Chicago_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ethnic Chicago sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnic_Chicago_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnic Chicago sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Between 1900 and 1910, the African-American population rose rapidly in Chicago. White hostility and population growth combined to create the ghetto on the South Side. Nearby were areas dominated by ethnic Irish, who were especially territorial in defending against incursions into their areas by any other groups.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of this large population was composed of migrants.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1910 more than 75 percent of Blacks lived in predominantly Black sections of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eight or nine neighborhoods that had been set as areas of Black settlement in 1900 remained the core of the Chicago African-American community. The Black Belt slowly expanded as African Americans, despite facing violence and restrictive covenants, pushed forward into new neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the population grew, African Americans became more confined to a delineated area, instead of spreading throughout the city. When Blacks moved into mixed neighborhoods, ethnic White hostility grew. After fighting over the area, often Whites left the area to be dominated by Blacks. This is one of the reasons the Black belt region started. </p><p>The Black Belt of Chicago was the chain of neighborhoods on the <a href="/wiki/Neighborhoods_of_Chicago#South_side" class="mw-redirect" title="Neighborhoods of Chicago">South Side</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> where three-quarters of the city's African-American population lived by the mid-20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1940s Whites within residential blocks formed "restrictive covenants" that served as legal contracts restricting individual owners from renting or selling to Black people. The contracts limited the housing available to Black tenants, leading to the accumulation of Black residents within The Black Belt, one of the few neighborhoods open to Black tenants.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black Belt was an area that stretched 30 blocks along <a href="/wiki/State_Street_(Chicago)" title="State Street (Chicago)">State Street</a> on the South Side and was rarely more than seven blocks wide.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With such a large population within this confined area, overcrowding often led to numerous families living in old and dilapidated buildings. The South Side's "Black belt" also contained zones related to economic status. The poorest residents lived in the northernmost, oldest section of the Black belt, while the elite resided in the southernmost section.<sup id="cite_ref-chicagoD_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chicagoD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid-20th century, as African Americans across the United States struggled against the economic confines created by segregation, Black residents within the Black Belt sought to create more economic opportunity in their community through the encouragement of local Black businesses and entrepreneurs.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, Chicago was the capital of Black America. Many African Americans who moved to the Black Belt area of Chicago were from the Southeastern region of the United States. </p><p>Immigration to Chicago was another pressure of overcrowding, as primarily lower-class newcomers from rural Europe also sought cheap housing and working class jobs. More and more people tried to fit into converted "<a href="/wiki/Kitchenette" title="Kitchenette">kitchenette</a>" and basement apartments. Living conditions in the Black Belt resembled conditions in the <a href="/wiki/West_Side,_Chicago" title="West Side, Chicago">West Side</a> ghetto or in the stockyards district.<sup id="cite_ref-spear_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there were decent homes in the Negro sections, the core of the Black Belt was a slum. A 1934 census estimated that Black households contained 6.8 people on average, whereas White households contained 4.7.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Blacks lived in apartments that lacked plumbing, with only one bathroom for each floor.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the buildings so overcrowded, building inspections and garbage collection were below the minimum mandatory requirements for healthy sanitation. This unhealthiness increased the threat of disease. From 1940 to 1960, the infant death rate in the Black Belt was 16% higher than the rest of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crime in <a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">African-American neighborhoods</a> was a low priority to the police. Associated with problems of poverty and southern culture, rates of violence and homicide were high. Some women resorted to prostitution to survive. Both low life and middle-class strivers were concentrated in a small area.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1946, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Housing_Authority" title="Chicago Housing Authority">Chicago Housing Authority</a> (CHA) tried to ease the pressure in the overcrowded ghettos and proposed to put public housing sites in less congested areas in the city. The White residents did not take to this very well, so city politicians forced the CHA to keep the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a> and develop high rise projects in the Black Belt and on the West Side. Some of these became notorious failures. As industrial restructuring in the 1950s and later led to massive job losses, residents changed from working-class families to poor families on welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of May 2016 violence within some Chicago neighborhoods prompted Black middle-class people to move to the suburbs.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between 1916 and 1920, almost 50,000 Black Southerners moved to Chicago,<sup id="cite_ref-spear_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which profoundly shaped the city's development. Growth increased even more rapidly after 1940. In particular, the new citizens caused the growth of local churches, businesses and community organizations. A new musical culture arose, fed by all the traditions along the Mississippi River. The population continued to increase with new migrants, with the most arriving after 1940. </p><p>The Black arts community in Chicago was especially vibrant. Early <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">Vaudeville</a> performers and entrepreneurs like the <a href="/wiki/Griffin_Sisters" title="Griffin Sisters">Griffin Sisters</a> created and managed venues for Black performers in the 1910s. The Pekin Theater, built in 1905, was called "The Cradle of Negro Drama in the United States."<sup id="cite_ref-WTTW_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WTTW-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1920s were the height of the <a href="/wiki/Jazz_Age" title="Jazz Age">Jazz Age</a>, but music continued as the heart of the community for decades. Nationally renowned musicians rose within the Chicago world. Along the Stroll, a bright-light district on <a href="/wiki/State_Street_(Chicago)" title="State Street (Chicago)">State Street</a>, jazz greats like <a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ellington" title="Duke Ellington">Duke Ellington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cab_Calloway" title="Cab Calloway">Cab Calloway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bessie_Smith" title="Bessie Smith">Bessie Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Waters" title="Ethel Waters">Ethel Waters</a> headlined at nightspots including the Deluxe Cafe. </p><p>The literary creation of Black Chicago residents from 1925 to 1950 was also prolific, and the city's <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Black_Renaissance" title="Chicago Black Renaissance">Black Renaissance</a> rivaled that of the <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a>. Prominent writers included <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)" title="Richard Wright (author)">Richard Wright</a> (author of <a href="/wiki/Native_Son" title="Native Son">Native Son</a>), <a href="/wiki/Willard_Motley" title="Willard Motley">Willard Motley</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Attaway" title="William Attaway">William Attaway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Marshall_Davis" title="Frank Marshall Davis">Frank Marshall Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Clair_Drake" title="St. Clair Drake">St. Clair Drake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace_R._Cayton,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Horace R. Cayton, Jr.">Horace R. Cayton, Jr.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Walker" title="Margaret Walker">Margaret Walker</a>. Chicago was home to writer and poet <a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Brooks" title="Gwendolyn Brooks">Gwendolyn Brooks</a>, known for her portrayals of Black working-class life in crowded tenements of <a href="/wiki/Douglas,_Chicago#Bronzeville" title="Douglas, Chicago">Bronzeville</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Hansberry" title="Lorraine Hansberry">Lorraine Hansberry</a> channeled the experience of her family's attempt to move into a racially-restricted neighborhood on the city's South Side, as well as the broader conditions in working-class Black Chicago, into the renowned play <a href="/wiki/A_Raisin_in_the_Sun" title="A Raisin in the Sun">A Raisin in the Sun</a> - the first play written by an African American woman to be produced on Broadway.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These writers expressed the changes and conflicts Blacks found in urban life and the struggles of creating new worlds. </p><p>In Chicago, Black writers turned away from the folk traditions embraced by <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> writers, instead adopting a grittier, uncompromising style of "literary naturalism" to depict life in the urban ghetto. Furthermore, as compared with the Harlem Renaissance, the Chicago Black Renaissance blossomed without the involvement of well-known intellectuals such as W.E.B Du Bois and without the oftentimes heavy-handed role played by White entrepreneurs and benefactors.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that sense, the Chicago Black Renaissance was substantially more public-facing and approachable to the working class. Indeed, several artists from this area were significantly influenced by Marxist principles and infused their works with a sense of the class-consciousness that the Harlem Renaissance lacked. The classic <i><a href="/wiki/Black_Metropolis" title="Black Metropolis">Black Metropolis</a></i>, written by St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Jr., exemplified the style of the Chicago writers. Today it remains the most detailed portrayal of Black Chicago in the 1930s and 1940s. </p><p>Around the same time, the Nation of Islam (NOI) moved its headquarters to Chicago from Detroit. From their center on the South Side, Elijah Muhammad and his wife, Clara Muhammad, organized the most well-known and arguably most influential religious movement amongst Black Americans in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muhammad's message appealed to Black Chicagoans of the 1930s and 1940s who were disillusioned with traditional Protestantism and energized by his claim that African Americans would soon be restored to freedom. In 1960, Malcolm X, the organization's national spokesperson, founded the newspaper <i>Mr. Muhammad Speaks</i>, which quickly ascended into popularity for a brief period with more than 60,000 newspapers in circulation nationwide.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 2008 to the present, the West Side Historical Society under the guidance of Rickie P. Brown Sr. began to document the rich history of the <a href="/wiki/West_Side,_Chicago" title="West Side, Chicago">West Side</a> of Chicago. Their research provided proof of the Austin community having the largest population of Blacks in the city of Chicago. This proved that the largest population of Blacks are on its west side, when factoring in the Near West Side, North Lawndale, West Humboldt Park, Garfield Park, and Austin communities as well. Their efforts to build a museum on the west side and continuing to bring awareness to <a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a> as a national holiday was rewarded with a proclamation in 2011 by Governor Pat Quinn.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business">Business</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Business"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chicago's Black population developed a class structure, composed of a large number of domestic workers and other manual laborers, along with a small, but growing, contingent of middle-and-upper-class business and professional elites. In 1929, Black Chicagoans gained access to city jobs, and expanded their professional class. Fighting job discrimination was a constant battle for African Americans in Chicago, as foremen in various companies restricted the advancement of Black workers, which often kept them from earning higher wages.<sup id="cite_ref-chicagoD_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chicagoD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid-20th century, Blacks began slowly moving up to better positions in the work force.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The migration expanded the market for African-American business. According to Allen Spear, "The most notable breakthrough in Black business came in the insurance field."<sup id="cite_ref-spear_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were four major Black insurance companies founded in Chicago. Additionally, the African-American market on State Street during this time consisted of barber shops, restaurants, pool rooms, saloons, and beauty salons. African Americans used these trades to build their own communities. These shops gave the Blacks a chance to establish their families, earn money, and become an active part of the community. </p><p>Widely credited as Chicago's first Black banker, <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Binga" title="Jesse Binga">Jesse Binga</a> came to Chicago as a Pullman porter before opening the city's first Black bank, Binga Bank, in 1908 and amassing significant wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binga would go on to spearhead an integration campaign on the South Side that put him at odds with the White establishment, with some even attributing the lethal damage of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">1919 race riots</a> in part to the radical aversion to his efforts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics">Politics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Barack_Obama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/President_Barack_Obama.jpg/220px-President_Barack_Obama.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/President_Barack_Obama.jpg/330px-President_Barack_Obama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/President_Barack_Obama.jpg/440px-President_Barack_Obama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2687" data-file-height="3356" /></a><figcaption>President Barack Obama in 2012</figcaption></figure> <p>With a growing base and strong leadership in machine politics, Blacks began to win elective office in local and state government. The first Blacks had been elected to office in Chicago in the late 19th century, decades before the Great Migrations.<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chicago elected the first post-Reconstruction African-American member of Congress. He was Republican <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Stanton_De_Priest" title="Oscar Stanton De Priest">Oscar Stanton De Priest</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Illinois%27s_1st_congressional_district" title="Illinois's 1st congressional district">Illinois's 1st congressional district</a> (1929-1935). The district has continuously elected African-Americans to the office ever since. The Chicago area has elected 18 <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American United States Representatives">African Americans to the House of Representatives</a>, more than any state. <a href="/wiki/William_L._Dawson_(politician)" title="William L. Dawson (politician)">William L. Dawson</a> represented the Black Belt in Congress from 1943 to his death in office in 1970. He started as a Republican but switched to the Democrats like most of his constituents in the late 1930s. In 1949, he became the first African American to chair a congressional committee.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chicago is home to three of eight <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">African-American United States senators</a> who have served since <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction</a>, who are all Democrats: <a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a> (1993–1999), <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2005–2008), and <a href="/wiki/Roland_Burris" title="Roland Burris">Roland Burris</a> (2009–2010). </p><p>Barack Obama moved from the Senate to the White House in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electing_a_Black_mayor_in_1983">Electing a Black mayor in 1983</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Electing a Black mayor in 1983"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1983_Chicago_mayoral_election" title="1983 Chicago mayoral election">1983 Chicago mayoral election</a></div> <p>In the February 22, 1983, the democrats were split three ways. On the North and Northwest Sides, the incumbent mayor <a href="/wiki/Jane_Byrne" title="Jane Byrne">Jane Byrne</a> led and future mayor <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Daley" title="Richard M. Daley">Richard M. Daley</a>, son of the late Mayor <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Daley" title="Richard J. Daley">Richard J. Daley</a>, finished a close second. the Black leader <a href="/wiki/Harold_Washington" title="Harold Washington">Harold Washington</a> had massive majorities on the South and West Sides. Southwest Side voters overwhelmingly supported Daley. Washington won with 37% of the vote, versus 33% for Byrne and 30% for Daley. Although winning the Democratic primary was normally considered <a href="/wiki/Tantamount_to_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantamount to election">tantamount to election</a> in heavily Democratic Chicago, after his primary victory Washington found that his Republican opponent, former state legislator <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Epton" title="Bernard Epton">Bernard Epton</a> was supported by many high-ranking Democrats and their ward organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_19830412_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis_19830412-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epton's campaign referred to, among other things, Washington's conviction for failure to file income tax returns (he had paid the taxes, but had not filed a return). Washington, on the other hand, stressed reforming the Chicago patronage system and the need for a jobs program in a tight economy. In the April 12, 1983, mayoral general election, Washington defeated Epton by 3.7%, 51.7% to 48.0%, to become mayor of Chicago.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington was sworn in as mayor on April 29, 1983, and resigned his Congressional seat the following day.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Achievements">Achievements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Achievements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 19th and early 20th century many prominent African Americans were Chicago residents, including Republican and later Democratic congressman <a href="/wiki/William_L._Dawson_(politician)" title="William L. Dawson (politician)">William L. Dawson</a> (America's most powerful Black politician)<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and boxing champion <a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a>. America's most widely read Black newspaper,<sup id="cite_ref-manning_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manning-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Defender">Chicago Defender</a></i>, was published there and circulated in the South, helping to facilitate the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> of Southern Blacks to Chicago and other northern cities during the first half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a>, a Black woman journalist and civil rights activist, spearheaded a national anti-lynching movement, co-founded the National Association of Colored Women (1896), established the first Black kindergarten in Chicago (1897), and co-founded the NAACP (1909), among her many other achievements.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chicago also saw some of the first instances of Black labor organization in the country. In 1909, tired of poor working conditions, porters for the Pullman Train Company began their first attempts to unionize but encountered heavy opposition. Later, Black Pullman porters organized secretively to the Brotherhood of the Sleeping Car Porters in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Bronzeville Renaissance period, Chicago hosted many of the nation's leading Black artists, writers, and performers. </p><p>After long efforts, in the late 1930s, workers organized across racial lines to form the United Meatpacking Workers of America. By then, the majority of workers in Chicago's plants were Black, but they succeeded in creating an interracial organizing committee. It succeeded in organizing unions both in Chicago and <a href="/wiki/Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a>, Nebraska, the city with the second largest meatpacking industry. This union belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">Congress of Industrial Organizations</a> (CIO), which was more progressive than the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a>. They succeeded in lifting segregation of job positions. For a time, workers achieved living wages and other benefits, leading to blue collar middle-class life for decades. Some Blacks were also able to move up the ranks to supervisory and management positions. The CIO also succeeded in organizing Chicago's steel industry.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_decline">Recent decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Recent decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After peaking at 1.2 million residents in 1980, the Black population of Chicago has entered a steady decline.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decline has coincided with a growing Latino population which is increasingly pushing for greater political representation. The 2020 Census results showed that the Black population of Chicago had slipped to 788,000, while the Latino population had risen to 820,000, marking the first census in which Latino residents outnumbered Black residents in Chicago - with potentially major implications for Black political power in the city as formerly comfortably Black-majority wards are diversifying and consolidating.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2021 report from the Chicago Tribune stated that thousands of Black families have left Chicago in the past decade, lowering the Black population by about 10%.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Politico reported that Chicago's once wealthy Black community has dramatically declined with the shuttering of many Black-owned companies.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the 10 US cities with the largest Black populations in 2000, Chicago saw the second highest decline after Detroit, with a net departure of 261,763 Black residents from 2000-2020.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The magnitude of Black population outflows corresponds strongly with neighborhood homicide rates, with the Austin community area on the city's Far West Side experiencing the largest drop.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of the decline has also been attributed to the destruction of public housing at the turn of the century, with the Chicago Housing Authority and city government failing to provide sufficient affordable housing for the evicted residents, thus causing many public housing residents to be displaced to unfamiliar neighborhoods and destabilizing middle-class areas. Additionally, the widely-criticized closure of 50 CPS schools - primarily in Black neighborhoods - under the mayoral administration of Rahm Emanuel further exacerbated the population spiral. </p><p>Many Blacks leaving Chicago are now moving to outlying suburbs, primarily to the south and west of the city in Cook County, or to the east in Northwest Indiana. Indeed, while Chicago lost more than 260,000 Black residents from 2000-2020, the surrounding suburbs gained about 125,000.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Black Chicagoans are participating in a "Reverse Great Migration" in search of greater economic opportunities in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._South" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. South">U.S. South</a>, including cities such as <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charlotte,_North_Carolina" title="Charlotte, North Carolina">Charlotte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dallas" title="Dallas">Dallas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a>, and <a href="/wiki/San_Antonio" title="San Antonio">San Antonio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 2000-2017, the Chicago Federal Reserve found that the largest number of Black households exiting the city had incomes under $35,000, although those with middle incomes (defined as $35,000 - $75,000) constituted 40% of leavers. Black households making at least $100,000, meanwhile, increased modestly during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exodus has been particularly acute in majority-Black neighborhoods: only 35% of predominantly-Black, middle-income census tracts stayed that way in 2017, while 63% fell to low- or moderate-income.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent years, the City has adopted measures to try to curtail Black population loss. In 2019, for example, then-mayor Lori Lightfoot announced the Invest South/West initiative to bring $750 million into 10 underserved communities.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other redevelopment efforts have focused along the southern lakefront, with the <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_Presidential_Center" title="Barack Obama Presidential Center">Obama Presidential Center</a> construction bringing jobs - but also potentially gentrification - to the Woodlawn neighborhood. And, bucking the trend of Black population declines, communities along the southern lakefront including <a href="/wiki/Douglas,_Chicago" title="Douglas, Chicago">Bronzeville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyde_Park,_Chicago" title="Hyde Park, Chicago">Hyde Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woodlawn,_Chicago" title="Woodlawn, Chicago">Woodlawn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Shore,_Chicago" title="South Shore, Chicago">South Shore</a> all recorded population gains between 2010 and 2020, with a significant portion of the influx driven by college-educated Black residents.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably in Bronzeville, demographers found two of just 193 census tracts nationally that achieved a significant decrease in poverty with minimal displacement of existing populations between 2010 and 2015 - attributed in large part to the abundance of vacant lots which have created opportunities for new construction.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This area holds potential for continued future growth even as the Black population of the city as a whole continues to decline. </p><p>The influx of Black families in the Chicago suburbs has largely mirrored their spatial distribution in the city, with the majority of predominantly-Black suburbs located to the south and west of Chicago.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While a smaller share of the Black population than communities in Atlanta or Washington, there is a noticeable Black middle class presence in the south suburbs of Cook County. A report from the National Association of Real Estate Brokers (NAREB) indicated that between 2012-2016, 5 of the top 10 municipalities nationwide (with at least 500 Black households) registering the highest Black homeownership rates were Chicago suburbs - including <a href="/wiki/Olympia_Fields,_Illinois" title="Olympia Fields, Illinois">Olympia Fields</a> (98%), <a href="/wiki/South_Holland,_Illinois" title="South Holland, Illinois">South Holland</a> (85%), <a href="/wiki/Flossmoor,_Illinois" title="Flossmoor, Illinois">Flossmoor</a> (83%), <a href="/wiki/Matteson,_Illinois" title="Matteson, Illinois">Matteson</a> (80%), and <a href="/wiki/Lynwood,_Illinois" title="Lynwood, Illinois">Lynwood</a> (80%).<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The report notes that the majority of these suburbs were majority-White as recently as 1990. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crime">Crime</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Crime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Chicago" title="Crime in Chicago">Crime in Chicago</a></div> <p>Black people in Chicago are more likely to be victims of homicide.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign-born_Blacks">Foreign-born Blacks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Foreign-born Blacks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Foreign born Blacks makeup 4% of Chicago's Black population.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s East Africans from Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia formed a small enclave in the <a href="/wiki/Edgewater,_Chicago" title="Edgewater, Chicago">Edgewater</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uptown,_Chicago" title="Uptown, Chicago">Uptown</a> neighborhoods on Chicago's North Side, which has since been enriched by new arrivals from West Africa, including Nigerians and Ghanaians.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethiopians">Ethiopians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ethiopians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around 4,500 Ethiopians lived in Chicago in 2000, with the population declining modestly to 3,875 in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ghanaians">Ghanaians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ghanaians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2020, there were 2,977 Chicagoans with at least partial Ghanaian ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nigerians">Nigerians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nigerians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nigerian people constitute the city's largest African community, with 12,601 Nigerians in the city as of the 2020 census and an estimated number in excess of 30,000 living in the broader metropolitan region.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_people">Notable people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notable people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Keef_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Chief_Keef_2019.jpg/220px-Chief_Keef_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Chief_Keef_2019.jpg/330px-Chief_Keef_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Chief_Keef_2019.jpg/440px-Chief_Keef_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="803" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chief_Keef" title="Chief Keef">Chief Keef</a> was born in Chicago. He achieved fame in 2012 when he released his single “<a href="/wiki/Love_Sosa" title="Love Sosa">Love Sosa</a>”.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kanye_West_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Kanye_West_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Kanye_West_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Kanye_West_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Kanye_West_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Kanye_West_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Kanye_West_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="2006" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kanye_West" title="Kanye West">Kanye West</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Barack_Obama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/President_Barack_Obama.jpg/220px-President_Barack_Obama.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/President_Barack_Obama.jpg/330px-President_Barack_Obama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/President_Barack_Obama.jpg/440px-President_Barack_Obama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2687" data-file-height="3356" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="Special:EditPage/History of African Americans in Chicago">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Mac" title="Bernie Mac">Bernie Mac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jordan" title="Michael Jordan">Michael Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwyane_Wade" title="Dwyane Wade">Dwyane Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derrick_Rose" title="Derrick Rose">Derrick Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanye_West" title="Kanye West">Kanye West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Hardaway" title="Tim Hardaway">Tim Hardaway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Davis" title="Anthony Davis">Anthony Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper" title="Chance the Rapper">Chance the Rapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhymefest" title="Rhymefest">Rhymefest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Keef" title="Chief Keef">Chief Keef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redd_Foxx" title="Redd Foxx">Redd Foxx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Cooke" title="Sam Cooke">Sam Cooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth,_Wind,_and_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth, Wind, and Fire">Earth, Wind, and Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._Kelly" title="R. Kelly">R. Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Hudson" title="Jennifer Hudson">Jennifer Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shonda_Rhimes" title="Shonda Rhimes">Shonda Rhimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Mayfield" title="Curtis Mayfield">Curtis Mayfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnie_Riperton" title="Minnie Riperton">Minnie Riperton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muddy_Waters" title="Muddy Waters">Muddy Waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B_Wells" class="mw-redirect" title="Ida B Wells">Ida B Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lil_Durk" title="Lil Durk">Lil Durk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Von" title="King Von">King Von</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G_Herbo" title="G Herbo">G Herbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lil_Bibby" title="Lil Bibby">Lil Bibby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juice_WRLD" class="mw-redirect" title="Juice WRLD">Juice WRLD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polo_G" title="Polo G">Polo G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreezy" title="Dreezy">Dreezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupcakke" title="Cupcakke">Cupcakke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_Guy" title="Buddy Guy">Buddy Guy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_King_Cole" title="Nat King Cole">Nat King Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Washington" title="Harold Washington">Harold Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupe_Fiasco" title="Lupe Fiasco">Lupe Fiasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twista" title="Twista">Twista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_(rapper)" title="Common (rapper)">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaka_Khan" title="Chaka Khan">Chaka Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keke_Palmer" title="Keke Palmer">Keke Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noname_(rapper)" title="Noname (rapper)">Noname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dantrell_Davis" title="Dantrell Davis">Dantrell Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donell_Jones" title="Donell Jones">Donell Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Thomas_(singer)" title="Carl Thomas (singer)">Carl Thomas</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germans_in_Chicago" title="Germans in Chicago">Germans in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechs_in_Chicago" title="Czechs in Chicago">Czechs in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnians_in_Chicago" title="Bosnians in Chicago">Bosnians in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedes_in_Chicago" title="Swedes in Chicago">Swedes in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_Chicago" title="Japanese in Chicago">Japanese in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indians_in_Chicago" title="Indians in Chicago">Indians in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chicago" title="History of the Jews in Chicago">History of the Jews in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgers_in_Chicago" title="Luxembourgers in Chicago">Luxembourgers in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Chicago" title="Poles in Chicago">Poles in Chicago</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output 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Spear, <i>Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto (1890–1920)</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.frommers.com/destinations/print-narrative.cfm?destID=6&catID=0006020044">"Frommer's"</a>. <i>Frommers.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1970).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CTEB-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CTEB_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/editorials/ct-editorial-race-riots-chicago-1919-20190719-mchp4rs7dvbilaf6m27i2kuzxy-story.html">"Editorial: Chicago's race riots of 1919 and the epilogue that resonates today"</a>. <i>Chicago Tribune</i>. The Editorial Board. June 19, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org&rft.atitle=Nigerians&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org%2Fpages%2F891.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anderson, Alan B., and George W. Pickering. <i>Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of Civil Rights Movements in Chicago</i> (U of Georgia Press, 1986).</li> <li>Balto, Simon. <i>Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power</i> (UNC Press Books, 2019).</li> <li>Best, Wallace. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/140.html">"Black Belt,"</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Chicago" title="Encyclopedia of Chicago">Encyclopedia of Chicago</a></i>, 2007; p. 140.</li> <li>Best, Wallace D. <i><a href="/wiki/Passionately_Human,_No_Less_Divine:_Religion_and_Culture_in_Black_Chicago,_1915-1952" class="mw-redirect" title="Passionately Human, No Less Divine: Religion and Culture in Black Chicago, 1915-1952">Passionately Human, No Less Divine: Religion and Culture in Black Chicago, 1915-1952</a></i>. (Princeton University Press, 2007: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-3375-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-3375-1">978-0-6911-3375-1</a>, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/7979.html">Info page</a>.</li> <li>Blair, Cynthia M. <i>I've got to make my livin': Black women's sex work in turn-of-the-century Chicago</i> (U of Chicago Press, 2018); early 1900s</li> <li>Bowly, Devereaux, Jr. <i>The Poorhouse: Subsidized Housing in Chicago, 1895–1976</i> (Southern Illinois UP, 1978).</li> <li>Branch, Taylor. <i>Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1964–1965</i> (1998). includes Martin Luther King'r ole in Chicago</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Cohen_(journalist)" title="Adam Cohen (journalist)">Cohen, Adam</a>, and Elizabeth Taylor. <i>American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley-his battle for Chicago and the nation</i> (2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7595-2427-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7595-2427-9">978-0-7595-2427-9</a>)</li> <li>Coit, Jonathan S., "'Our Changed Attitude': Armed Defense and the New Negro in the 1919 Chicago Race Riot", <i>Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</i> 11 (April 2012), 225–56.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanns" class="citation journal cs1">Danns, Dionne. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.swarthmore.edu/sites/default/files/assets/documents/black-studies-program/Dionne_Danns-Chicago_High_School.pdf">"Chicago High School Students' Movement For Quality Public Education, 1966-1971"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_African_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of African American History">Journal of African American History</a></i>: 138–150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+American+History&rft.atitle=Chicago+High+School+Students%27+Movement+For+Quality+Public+Education%2C+1966-1971&rft.pages=138-150&rft.aulast=Danns&rft.aufirst=Dionne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.swarthmore.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fassets%2Fdocuments%2Fblack-studies-program%2FDionne_Danns-Chicago_High_School.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Danns, Dionne. "Policy implications for school desegregation and school choice in Chicago." <i> Urban Review</i> 50 (2018): 584-603.</li> <li>Dolinar, Brian (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/48dsx5yf9780252037696.html"><i>The Negro in Illinois. The WPA Papers</i></a>, University of Chicago Press, cloth: 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03769-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03769-6">978-0-252-03769-6</a>; paper, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-08093-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-08093-7">978-0-252-08093-7</a>: 2015. Produced by a special division of the Illinois Writers' Project, part of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Writers%27_Project" title="Federal Writers' Project">Federal Writers' Project</a>, one of President Roosevelt's <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> programs of the 1930s, with Black writers living in Chicago during the 1930s, including <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)" title="Richard Wright (author)">Richard Wright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Walker" title="Margaret Walker">Margaret Walker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Dunham" title="Katherine Dunham">Katherine Dunham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fenton_Johnson" title="Fenton Johnson">Fenton Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Yerby" title="Frank Yerby">Frank Yerby</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Durham" title="Richard Durham">Richard Durham</a>.</li> <li>Drake, St. Clair, and Horace Cayton. <i>Black Metropolis: A Study in Negro Life in a Northern City</i> (1945) a famous scholarly study. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.7040">online</a></li> <li>Frady, Marshall. <i>Jesse: The Life and Pilgrimage of Jesse Jackson</i> (1996)</li> <li>Fremon, David. <i>Chicago Politics Ward by Ward</i> (Indiana University Press, 1988).</li> <li>Garrow, David J. ed. <i>Chicago 1966: Open Housing Marches, Summit Negotiations, and Operation Breadbasket</i> (1989).</li> <li>Garb, Margaret. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/F/bo18008817.html"><i>Freedom's Ballot: African American Political Struggles in Chicago from Abolition to the Great Migration.</i></a> (University of Chicago Press, 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2261-3590-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2261-3590-8">978-0-2261-3590-8</a>)</li> <li>Gordon, Rita Werner. "The change in the political alignment of Chicago's Negroes during the New Deal." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a></i> 56.3 (1969): 584-603.</li> <li>Gosnell, Harold F. "The Chicago 'Black belt' as a political battleground." <i>American Journal of Sociology</i> 39.3 (1933): 329-341.</li> <li>Gosnell, Harold F. <i>Negro Politicians; The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago</i> (University of Chicago Press. 1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/negropoliticians0000gosn">online</a>; also see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30010730">online review</a></li> <li>Green, Adam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo4138562.html"><i>Selling the Race: Culture, Community, and Black Chicago, 1940-1955</i></a>. (University of Chicago Press, 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2263-0640-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2263-0640-7">978-0-2263-0640-7</a>)</li> <li>Grimshaw, William J. <i>Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991</i> (University of Chicago Press, 1992).</li> <li>Grossman, James R. <i><a href="/wiki/Land_of_hope:_Chicago,_black_southerners,_and_the_great_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Land of hope: Chicago, black southerners, and the great migration">Land of hope: Chicago, Black southerners, and the great migration</a></i> (University of Chicago Press, 1991)</li> <li>Halpern, Rick. <i>Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-54</i> (University of Illinois Press, 1997).</li> <li>Helgeson, Jeffrey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo17888735.html"><i>Crucibles of Black Empowerment: Chicago's Neighborhood Politics from the New Deal to Harold Washington.</i></a> Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2261-3069-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2261-3069-9">978-0-2261-3069-9</a>.</li> <li>Hirsch, Arnold Richard. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/M/bo3627598.html">Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940-1960</a></i>. (U of Chicago Press, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2263-4244-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2263-4244-3">978-0-2263-4244-3</a>)</li> <li>Hutchison, Ray. "Where is the Chicago Ghetto?." in <i>The Ghetto</i> (Routledge, 2018) pp. 293–326.</li> <li>Kenney, William Howland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/chicago-jazz-9780195092608?cc=au&lang=en&"><i>Chicago jazz: A cultural history, 1904-1930</i></a> (Oxford University Press, 1993)</li> <li>Kimble Jr., Lionel. <i>A New Deal for Bronzeville: Housing, Employment, and Civil Rights in Black Chicago, 1935–1955</i> (Southern Illinois University Press, 2015, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-3426-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-3426-1">978-0-8093-3426-1</a>). xiv, 200 pp.</li> <li>Kleppner, Paul. <i>Chicago Divided: The Making of a Black Mayor</i> (Northern Illinois University Press, 1985); 1983 election of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Washington" title="Harold Washington">Harold Washington</a></li> <li>Knupfer, Anne Meis. "'Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood': African-American Women's Clubs in Chicago, 1890 to 1920." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Women%27s_History" title="Journal of Women's History">Journal of Women's History</a></i> 7#3 (1995): 58–76.</li> <li>Knupfer, Anne Meis. <i>The Chicago Black Renaissance and women's activism</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2023.</li> <li>Lemann, Nicholas. <i>The Promised Land: The Great Migration and How It Changed America</i> (1991).</li> <li>Logan, John R., Weiwei Zhang, and Miao David Chunyu. "Emergent ghettos: Black neighborhoods in New York and Chicago, 1880–1940." <i>American Journal of Sociology</i> 120.4 (2015): 1055-1094. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4597788/">online</a></li> <li>McClelland, Ted. <i>Young Mr. Obama: Chicago and the making of a Black president</i> (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/youngmrobamachic0000mccl">online</a></li> <li>McGreevy, John T. <i>Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the TwentiethCentury Urban North</i> (University of Chicago Press, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Parish-Boundaries-Twentieth-Century-Historical-1996-05-15/dp/B01JXP6LTQ/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Manning, Christopher. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/27.html">"African Americans,"</a> in <i>Encyclopedia of Chicago.</i> (2007); p. 27+.</li> <li>Naqvi, S. Kaazim. <i>Chicago Muslims and the Transformation of American Islam: Immigrants, African Americans, and the Building of the American Ummah</i> (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019).</li> <li>Philpott, Thomas Lee. <i>The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle Class Reform, Chicago, 1880–1930</i> (Oxford UP, 1978).</li> <li>Pickering, George W. <i>Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in Chicago</i> (U of Georgia Press, 1986).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinderhughes,_Dianne_Marie" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinderhughes, Dianne Marie">Pinderhughes, Dianne Marie</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceethnicityinc00pind">Race and ethnicity in Chicago politics: A reexamination of pluralist theory</a></i> (U of Illinois Press, 1987)</li> <li>Reed, Christopher. <i>The Chicago NAACP and the Rise of the Black Professional Leadership, 1910–1966</i> (Indiana University Press, 1997).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivlin,_Gary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rivlin, Gary">Rivlin, Gary</a>. <i>Fire on the prairie: Chicago's Harold Washington and the politics of race</i> (Holt, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-2698-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-2698-3">0-8050-2698-3</a>)</li> <li>Rocksborough-Smith, Ian. <i>Black public history in Chicago: Civil rights activism from World War II into the Cold War</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2018).</li> <li>Rocksborough-Smith, Ian. "Margaret T.G. Burroughs and Black Public History in Cold War Chicago". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Scholar" title="The Black Scholar">The Black Scholar</a></i>, (2011), Vol. 41(3), pp. 26–42.</li> <li>Schlabach, Elizabeth Schroeder. <i>Dream Books and Gamblers: Black Women's Work in Chicago's Policy Game</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2022).</li> <li>Smith, Preston H. <i>Racial democracy and the Black metropolis: Housing policy in postwar Chicago</i> (U of Minnesota Press, 2012).</li> <li>Smith, Preston H. "The Chicago School of Human Ecology and the Ideology of Black Civic Elites." in <i>Renewing Black Intellectual History</i> (Routledge, 2015) pp. 126–157.</li> <li>Spaulding, Norman W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GkHvAAAAMAAJ"><i>History of Black oriented radio in Chicago, 1929-1963</i></a> (PhD disst. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1981.</li> <li>Spear, Allan H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/B/bo3634456.html"><i>Black Chicago: The making of a Negro ghetto, 1890–1920</i></a> (University of Chicago Press, 1967, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2267-6857-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2267-6857-1">978-0-2267-6857-1</a>). widely cited scholqrship</li> <li>Spinney, Robert G. <i>City of big shoulders: A history of Chicago</i> (Cornell University Press, 2020), broad scholarly survey</li> <li>Street, Paul. "The 'Best Union Members': Class, Race, Culture, and Black Worker Militancy in Chicago's Stockyards during the 1930s." <i>Journal of American Ethnic History</i> (2000): 18-49. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27502643">online</a></li> <li>Street, Paul. "The logic and limits of 'plant loyalty': Black workers, White labor, and corporate racial paternalism in Chicago's stockyards, 1916-1940." <i>Journal of social history</i> (1996): 659-681.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3788950">online</a></li> <li>Todd-Breland, Elizabeth. <i>A political education: Black politics and education reform in Chicago since the 1960s</i> (UNC Press Books, 2018).</li></ul> <ul><li>Tuttle Jr, William M. "Labor conflict and racial violence: The Black worker in Chicago, 1894–1919." <i>Labor History</i> 10.3 (1969): 408–432.</li> <li>Tuttle, William M. <i>Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919</i> (1970).</li> <li>Weems Jr, Robert E. <i>The Merchant Prince of Black Chicago: Anthony Overton and the Building of a Financial Empire</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2020).</li> <li>West, E. James. <i>A House for the Struggle: The Black Press and the Built Environment in Chicago</i> ( U of Illinois Press, 2022).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The Chicago Commission on Race Relations. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/negroinchicagost00chic#page/n23/mode/2up">The Negro in Chicago</a></i>. (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1922).</li> <li>Johnson, John H. <i>Succeeding Against the Odds: The Autobiography of a Great American Businessman</i> (1989) about <a href="/wiki/John_H._Johnson" title="John H. Johnson">John H. Johnson</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:African_Americans_in_Chicago" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:African Americans in Chicago">African Americans in Chicago</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511233708/http://www.cityofchicago.org/Landmarks/Tours/AfricanAmerican.html">African-American History Tour for the City of Chicago</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/53black/53black.htm"><i>Chicago's Black Metropolis: Understanding History Through a Historic Place</i></a>, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kP5JdsrqwZEC&q=african+americans+in+chicago">African Americans in Chicago</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosmanHeisler2020" class="citation web cs1">Bosman, Julie; Heisler, Todd (16 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/16/us/black-families-leaving-chicago.html">"Black Families Came to Chicago by the Thousands. Why Are They Leaving?"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Black+Families+Came+to+Chicago+by+the+Thousands.+Why+Are+They+Leaving%3F&rft.date=2020-02-16&rft.aulast=Bosman&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft.au=Heisler%2C+Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2020%2F02%2F16%2Fus%2Fblack-families-leaving-chicago.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://greatcities.uic.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Black-Population-Loss-in-Chicago.pdf">Black population loss in Chicago</a> greatcities.uic.edu</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed2022" class="citation web cs1">Reed, Christopher (21 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780190280024/obo-9780190280024-0103.xml">"African Americans in Chicago"</a>. <i>oxfordbibliographies.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oxfordbibliographies.com&rft.atitle=African+Americans+in+Chicago&rft.date=2022-02-21&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fdisplay%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780190280024%2Fobo-9780190280024-0103.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+African+Americans+in+Chicago" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethnic_groups_in_Chicago,_Illinois" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnicity_in_Chicago" title="Template:Ethnicity in Chicago"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnicity_in_Chicago" title="Template talk:Ethnicity in Chicago"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnicity_in_Chicago" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnicity in Chicago"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethnic_groups_in_Chicago,_Illinois" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chicago" title="Ethnic groups in Chicago">Ethnic groups in Chicago, Illinois</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanians_in_Chicago" title="Albanians in Chicago">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Appalachian_people_in_Chicago" title="History of the Appalachian people in Chicago">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnians_in_Chicago" title="Bosnians in Chicago">Bosnians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_Americans_in_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Chinese Americans in Chicago">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechs_in_Chicago" title="Czechs in Chicago">Czechs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germans_in_Chicago" title="Germans in Chicago">Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Chicago" title="Greeks in Chicago">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Side_Irish" title="South Side Irish">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians_in_Chicago" title="Italians in Chicago">Italians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_Chicago" title="Japanese in Chicago">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chicago" title="History of the Jews in Chicago">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_Chicago" title="Koreans in Chicago">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanians_in_the_Chicago_area" title="Lithuanians in the Chicago area">Lithuanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexicans_in_Chicago" title="Mexicans in Chicago">Mexicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Chicago" title="Poles in Chicago">Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_Chicago" title="Puerto Ricans in Chicago">Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Chicago" title="Romani people in Chicago">Romani (Gypsy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedes_in_Chicago" title="Swedes in Chicago">Swedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Village,_Chicago" title="Ukrainian Village, Chicago">Ukrainians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_history_in_Chicago" title="Welsh history in Chicago">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_enclave" title="Ethnic enclave">Ethnic enclaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andersonville,_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="Andersonville, Chicago">Andersonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridgeport,_Chicago" title="Bridgeport, Chicago">Bridgeport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinatown,_Chicago" title="Chinatown, Chicago">Chinatown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greektown,_Chicago" title="Greektown, Chicago">Greektown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Park,_Chicago" title="Albany Park, Chicago">Koreatown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Square,_Chicago" title="Lincoln Square, Chicago">Lincoln Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Italy,_Chicago" title="Little Italy, Chicago">Little Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Lawndale,_Chicago" title="South Lawndale, Chicago">Little Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paseo_Boricua" title="Paseo Boricua">Paseo Boricua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilsen_Historic_District" title="Pilsen Historic District">Pilsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Downtown_(Chicago)" title="Polish Downtown (Chicago)">Polish Downtown</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polonia_Triangle" title="Polonia Triangle">Polonia Triangle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Village" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Village">Polish Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Village,_Chicago" title="Ukrainian Village, Chicago">Ukrainian Village</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Center" title="American Indian Center">American Indian Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balzekas_Museum_of_Lithuanian_Culture" title="Balzekas Museum of Lithuanian Culture">Balzekas Museum of Lithuanian Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_National_Cemetery_(Chicago,_Illinois)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemian National Cemetery (Chicago, Illinois)">Bohemian National Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_American_Museum_of_Chicago" title="Chinese American Museum of Chicago">Chinese American Museum of Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DANK_Haus_German_American_Cultural_Center" title="DANK Haus German American Cultural Center">DANK Haus German American Cultural Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DuSable_Museum_of_African_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="DuSable Museum of African American History">DuSable Museum of African American History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Waldheim_Cemetery" class="mw-redirect" title="German Waldheim Cemetery">German Waldheim Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_House" title="Hull House">Hull House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Holocaust_Museum_and_Education_Center" title="Illinois Holocaust Museum and Education Center">Illinois Holocaust Museum and Education Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Polka_Association" title="International Polka Association">International Polka Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_American_Heritage_Center" title="Irish American Heritage Center">Irish American Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Opera_Company_of_Chicago" title="Lithuanian Opera Company of Chicago">Lithuanian Opera Company of Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Italian_American_Sports_Hall_of_Fame" title="National Italian American Sports Hall of Fame">National Italian American Sports Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Mexican_Art" title="National Museum of Mexican Art">National Museum of Mexican Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Puerto_Rican_Arts_and_Culture" title="National Museum of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture">National Museum of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_American_Association" title="Polish American Association">Polish American Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Museum_of_America" title="Polish Museum of America">Polish Museum of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._John_of_Rila_Church_in_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="St. John of Rila Church in Chicago">St. John of Rila Church in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spertus_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Spertus Institute">Spertus Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_American_Museum" title="Swedish American Museum">Swedish American Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Club_of_Chicago" title="Swedish Club of Chicago">Swedish Club of Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Institute_of_Modern_Art" title="Ukrainian Institute of Modern Art">Ukrainian Institute of Modern Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Museum" title="Ukrainian National Museum">Ukrainian National Museum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airport_Homes_race_riots" title="Airport Homes race riots">Airport Homes race riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Englewood_race_riot" title="Englewood race riot">Englewood race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernwood_Park_race_riot" title="Fernwood Park race riot">Fernwood Park race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_Street_riots" title="Division Street riots">Division Street riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Chicago_riots" title="1968 Chicago riots">1968 Chicago riots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall_Monument_(Chicago)" title="Berlin Wall Monument (Chicago)"> Berlin Wall Monument</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Club_(Chicago)" title="Bohemian Club (Chicago)">Bohemian Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_National_Alliance" title="Bohemian National Alliance">Bohemian National Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Fest_Chicago" title="Celtic Fest Chicago">Celtic Fest Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Black_Renaissance" title="Chicago Black Renaissance">Chicago Black Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Outfit" title="Chicago Outfit">Chicago Outfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Shimpo" title="Chicago Shimpo">Chicago Shimpo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman_(politics)" title="Chinaman (politics)">Chinaman (politics)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C4%8Cikagos_Aidas" title="Čikagos Aidas">Čikagos Aidas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Draugas" title="Draugas">Draugas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dziennik_Zwi%C4%85zkowy_(Polish_Daily_News)" title="Dziennik Związkowy (Polish Daily News)">Dziennik Związkowy (Polish Daily News)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanusila" title="Kwanusila">Kwanusila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_and_trade_organizations_in_Chicago" title="List of diplomatic missions and trade organizations in Chicago">List of diplomatic missions and trade organizations in Chicago</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suznanie" title="Suznanie">Suznanie</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/To_Chicago_and_Back" title="To Chicago and Back">To Chicago and Back</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vakarai" title="Vakarai">Vakarai</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Chicago" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li 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