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class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Isobaric counterdiffusion (ICD)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isobaric_counterdiffusion_(ICD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causative_role_of_oxygen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causative_role_of_oxygen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Causative role of oxygen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causative_role_of_oxygen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decompression_sickness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decompression_sickness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Decompression sickness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decompression_sickness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decompression_model_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a 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href="#Tissue_compartments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Tissue compartments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tissue_compartments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ingassing_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ingassing_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ingassing model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ingassing_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outgassing_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outgassing_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Outgassing models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outgassing_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_critical_supersaturation_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_critical_supersaturation_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>The critical supersaturation approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_critical_supersaturation_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_no-supersaturation_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_no-supersaturation_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>The no-supersaturation approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_no-supersaturation_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_critical_volume_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_critical_volume_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>The critical volume approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_critical_volume_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bounce_dives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bounce_dives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Bounce dives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bounce_dives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saturation_dives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saturation_dives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Saturation dives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saturation_dives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-No-stop_limits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#No-stop_limits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>No-stop limits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-No-stop_limits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decompression_ceiling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decompression_ceiling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Decompression ceiling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decompression_ceiling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decompression_obligation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decompression_obligation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Decompression obligation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decompression_obligation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time_to_surface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_to_surface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Time to surface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_to_surface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Staged_decompression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Staged_decompression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Staged decompression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Staged_decompression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Residual_inert_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Residual_inert_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Residual inert gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Residual_inert_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decompression_models_in_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decompression_models_in_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Decompression models in practice</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decompression_models_in_practice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Decompression models in practice subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Decompression_models_in_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deterministic_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deterministic_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Deterministic models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deterministic_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perfusion_limited_tissues_and_parallel_tissue_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perfusion_limited_tissues_and_parallel_tissue_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Perfusion limited tissues and parallel tissue models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perfusion_limited_tissues_and_parallel_tissue_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diffusion_limited_tissues_and_the_"Tissue_slab",_and_series_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diffusion_limited_tissues_and_the_"Tissue_slab",_and_series_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Diffusion limited tissues and the "Tissue slab", and series models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diffusion_limited_tissues_and_the_"Tissue_slab",_and_series_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bubble_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bubble_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Bubble models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bubble_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Goldman_Interconnected_Compartment_Model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goldman_Interconnected_Compartment_Model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Goldman Interconnected Compartment Model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goldman_Interconnected_Compartment_Model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Probabilistic_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Probabilistic_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Probabilistic models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Probabilistic_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saturation_decompression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saturation_decompression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Saturation decompression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saturation_decompression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Validation_of_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Validation_of_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Validation of models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Validation_of_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Efficiency_of_stop_depth_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency_of_stop_depth_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Efficiency of stop depth distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency_of_stop_depth_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_inert_gas_component_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_inert_gas_component_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Effects of inert gas component changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_inert_gas_component_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altitude_exposure,_altitude_diving_and_flying_after_diving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altitude_exposure,_altitude_diving_and_flying_after_diving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.3</span> <span>Altitude exposure, altitude diving and flying after diving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altitude_exposure,_altitude_diving_and_flying_after_diving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Current research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Current_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Current research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Current_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Practical_effectiveness_of_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_effectiveness_of_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Practical effectiveness of models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practical_effectiveness_of_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teaching_of_decompression_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teaching_of_decompression_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Teaching of decompression theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teaching_of_decompression_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Theoretical modelling of decompression physiology </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice" title="Decompression practice">Decompression practice</a> or <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leszek_Czarnecki_wyprawa_na_Atol_Bikini_2006.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Leszek_Czarnecki_wyprawa_na_Atol_Bikini_2006.JPG/220px-Leszek_Czarnecki_wyprawa_na_Atol_Bikini_2006.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Leszek_Czarnecki_wyprawa_na_Atol_Bikini_2006.JPG/330px-Leszek_Czarnecki_wyprawa_na_Atol_Bikini_2006.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Leszek_Czarnecki_wyprawa_na_Atol_Bikini_2006.JPG/440px-Leszek_Czarnecki_wyprawa_na_Atol_Bikini_2006.JPG 2x" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="653" /></a><figcaption>Scuba diver decompressing at a planned stop during ascent from a dive</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Decompression theory</b> is the study and modelling of the transfer of the <a href="/wiki/Inert_gas" title="Inert gas">inert gas</a> component of <a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">breathing gases</a> from the gas in the lungs to the tissues and back during exposure to variations in ambient pressure. In the case of underwater diving and compressed air work, this mostly involves ambient pressures greater than the local surface pressure,<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6_3-9.3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but astronauts, high altitude mountaineers, and travellers in aircraft which are not pressurised to sea level pressure,<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Liew_and_Conkin_2007_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Liew_and_Conkin_2007-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FAA_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are generally exposed to ambient pressures less than standard sea level atmospheric pressure. In all cases, the <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">symptoms caused by decompression</a> occur during or within a relatively short period of hours, or occasionally days, after a significant pressure reduction.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_20-3.1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6_20-3.1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "decompression" derives from the reduction in <a href="/wiki/Ambient_pressure" title="Ambient pressure">ambient pressure</a> experienced by the organism and refers to both the reduction in <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> during and after this reduction in pressure. The uptake of gas by the tissues is in the dissolved state, and elimination also requires the gas to be dissolved, however a sufficient reduction in ambient pressure may cause bubble formation in the tissues, which can lead to tissue damage and the symptoms known as decompression sickness, and also delays the elimination of the gas.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6_3-9.3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decompression modeling attempts to explain and predict the mechanism of gas elimination and bubble formation within the organism during and after changes in ambient pressure,<sup id="cite_ref-Gorman_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and provides mathematical models which attempt to predict acceptably low risk and reasonably practicable procedures for decompression in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both deterministic and probabilistic models have been used, and are still in use. </p><p>Efficient decompression requires the diver to ascend fast enough to establish as high a decompression gradient, in as many tissues, as safely possible, without provoking the development of symptomatic bubbles. This is facilitated by the highest acceptably safe oxygen partial pressure in the breathing gas, and avoiding gas changes that could cause counterdiffusion bubble formation or growth. The development of schedules that are both safe and efficient has been complicated by the large number of variables and uncertainties, including personal variation in response under varying environmental conditions and workload. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology_of_decompression">Physiology of decompression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physiology of decompression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_decompression" title="Physiology of decompression">Physiology of decompression</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tissue_half_times_(1).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph showing dissolved gas concentration change over time for a step pressure increment in an initially saturated solvent" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tissue_half_times_%281%29.svg/330px-Tissue_half_times_%281%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tissue_half_times_%281%29.svg/495px-Tissue_half_times_%281%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tissue_half_times_%281%29.svg/660px-Tissue_half_times_%281%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="814" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">Gas</a> is breathed at ambient pressure, and some of this gas dissolves into the blood and other fluids. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the tissues is in a state of equilibrium with the gas in the <a href="/wiki/Lungs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lungs">lungs</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">saturation diving</a>), or the ambient pressure is reduced until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6_3-9.3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The absorption of gases in liquids depends on the <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubility</a> of the specific gas in the specific liquid, the concentration of gas, customarily measured by <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a>, and temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6_3-9.3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the study of decompression theory the behaviour of gases dissolved in the tissues is investigated and modeled for variations of pressure over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once dissolved, distribution of the dissolved gas may be by <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>, where there is no bulk flow of the <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Perfusion" title="Perfusion">perfusion</a> where the solvent (blood) is circulated around the diver's body, where gas can diffuse to local regions of lower <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a>. Given sufficient time at a specific partial pressure in the breathing gas, the concentration in the tissues will stabilise, or saturate, at a rate depending on the solubility, diffusion rate and perfusion.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6_3-9.3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the concentration of the inert gas in the breathing gas is reduced below that of any of the tissues, there will be a tendency for gas to return from the tissues to the breathing gas. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">outgassing</a>, and occurs during decompression, when the reduction in ambient pressure or a change of breathing gas reduces the partial pressure of the inert gas in the lungs.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6_3-9.3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The combined concentrations of gases in any given tissue will depend on the history of pressure and gas composition. Under equilibrium conditions, the total concentration of dissolved gases will be less than the ambient pressure, as oxygen is metabolised in the tissues, and the carbon dioxide produced is much more soluble. However, during a reduction in ambient pressure, the rate of pressure reduction may exceed the rate at which gas can be eliminated by diffusion and perfusion, and if the concentration gets too high, it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues. When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceeds the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension from the bubble - liquid interface, the bubble will grow, and this growth can cause damage to tissues. Symptoms caused by this damage are known as <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6_3-9.3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actual rates of diffusion and perfusion and the solubility of gases in specific tissues are not generally known, and they vary considerably. However, mathematical models have been proposed which approximate the real situation to a greater or lesser extent, and these models are used to predict whether symptomatic bubble formation is likely to occur for a given pressure exposure profile.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decompression involves a complex interaction of gas solubility, partial pressures and concentration gradients, diffusion, bulk transport and bubble mechanics in living tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissolved_phase_gas_dynamics">Dissolved phase gas dynamics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dissolved phase gas dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">Solubility</a> of gases in liquids is influenced by the nature of the solvent liquid and the solute,<sup id="cite_ref-Young_1982_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young_1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Solubility#Factors_affecting_solubility" title="Solubility">temperature</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-JW_Hill_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JW_Hill-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Henry1803_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henry1803-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ASME_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASME-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the presence of other solutes in the solvent.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasture_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasture-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">Diffusion</a> is faster in smaller, lighter molecules of which helium is the extreme example. Diffusivity of helium is 2.65 times faster than nitrogen.<sup id="cite_ref-burton2004_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-burton2004-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Concentration_gradient" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration gradient">concentration gradient</a>, can be used as a model for the driving mechanism of diffusion.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_9-6_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_9-6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this context, inert gas refers to a gas which is not <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolically active</a>. Atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> (N<sub>2</sub>) is the most common example, and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> (He) is the other inert gas commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas#Common_diving_breathing_gases" title="Breathing gas">breathing mixtures for divers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atmospheric nitrogen has a partial pressure of approximately 0.78 bar at sea level. Air in the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveoli</a> of the lungs is diluted by saturated <a href="/wiki/Water_vapour" class="mw-redirect" title="Water vapour">water vapour</a> (H<sub>2</sub>O) and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>), a <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic product">metabolic product</a> given off by the blood, and contains less <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (O<sub>2</sub>) than atmospheric air as some of it is taken up by the blood for metabolic use. The resulting partial pressure of nitrogen is about 0,758 bar.<sup id="cite_ref-Hills1978_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hills1978-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At atmospheric pressure the body <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> are therefore normally saturated with nitrogen at 0.758 bar (569 mmHg). At increased ambient <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic pressure">pressures due to depth</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diving_chamber" title="Diving chamber">habitat pressurisation</a>, a diver's lungs are filled with breathing gas at the increased pressure, and the partial pressures of the constituent gases will be increased proportionately.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inert gases from the breathing gas in the lungs diffuse into blood in the <a href="/wiki/Blood-air_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood-air barrier">alveolar capillaries</a> and are distributed around the body by the <a href="/wiki/Systemic_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic circulation">systemic circulation</a> in the process known as <a href="/wiki/Perfusion" title="Perfusion">perfusion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dissolved materials are transported in the blood much faster than they would be distributed by diffusion alone.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittman_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittman-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the systemic capillaries the dissolved gases diffuse through the cell membranes and into the tissues, where it may eventually reach equilibrium. The greater the blood supply to a tissue, the faster it will reach equilibrium with gas at the new partial pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pittman_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittman-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This equilibrium is called <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">saturation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ingassing appears to follow a simple inverse exponential equation. The time it takes for a tissue to take up or release 50% of the difference in dissolved gas capacity at a changed partial pressure is called the half-time for that tissue and gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bookspan_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bookspan-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gas remains dissolved in the tissues until the partial pressure of that gas in the lungs is reduced sufficiently to cause a concentration gradient with the blood at a lower concentration than the relevant tissues. As the concentration in the blood drops below the concentration in the adjacent tissue, the gas will diffuse out of the tissue into the blood, and will then be transported back to the lungs where it will diffuse into the lung gas and then be eliminated by exhalation. If the ambient pressure reduction is limited, this desaturation will take place in the dissolved phase, but if the ambient pressure is lowered sufficiently, bubbles may form and grow, both in blood and other supersaturated tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the partial pressure of all gas dissolved in a tissue exceeds the total ambient pressure on the tissue it is supersaturated,<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_1-7_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_1-7-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there is a possibility of bubble formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sum of partial pressures of the gas that the diver breathes must necessarily balance with the sum of partial pressures in the lung gas. In the alveoli the gas has been humidified and has gained carbon dioxide from the venous blood. Oxygen has also diffused into the arterial blood, reducing the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli. As the total pressure in the alveoli must balance with the ambient pressure, this dilution results in an effective partial pressure of nitrogen of about 758 mb (569 mmHg) in air at normal atmospheric pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Hills_1978b_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hills_1978b-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a steady state, when the tissues have been saturated by the inert gases of the breathing mixture, metabolic processes reduce the partial pressure of the less soluble oxygen and replace it with carbon dioxide, which is considerably more soluble in water. In the cells of a typical tissue, the partial pressure of oxygen will drop, while the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will rise. The sum of these partial pressures (water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen) is less than the total pressure of the respiratory gas. This is a significant saturation deficit, and it provides a buffer against supersaturation and a driving force for dissolving bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-Hills_1978b_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hills_1978b-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experiments suggest that the degree of unsaturation increases linearly with pressure for a breathing mixture of fixed composition, and decreases linearly with fraction of inert gas in the breathing mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_2002_10_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_2002_10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a consequence, the conditions for maximising the degree of unsaturation are a breathing gas with the lowest possible fraction of inert gas – i.e. pure oxygen, at the maximum permissible partial pressure. This saturation deficit is also referred to as inherent unsaturation, the "<a href="/wiki/Oxygen_window_in_technical_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen window in technical diving">Oxygen window</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Behnke_1967_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Behnke_1967-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or partial pressure vacancy.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Liew_1993_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Liew_1993-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The location of micronuclei or where bubbles initially form is not known.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulou_2013_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulou_2013-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The incorporation of bubble formation and growth mechanisms in decompression models may make the models more biophysical and allow better extrapolation.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulou_2013_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulou_2013-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flow conditions and perfusion rates are dominant parameters in competition between tissue and circulation bubbles, and between multiple bubbles, for dissolved gas for bubble growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulou_2013_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulou_2013-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bubble_mechanics">Bubble mechanics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bubble mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Equilibrium of forces on the surface is required for a bubble to exist. The sum of the <a href="/wiki/Ambient_pressure" title="Ambient pressure">Ambient pressure</a> and pressure due to tissue distortion, exerted on the outside of the surface, with <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> of the liquid at the interface between the bubble and the surroundings must be balanced by the pressure on the inside of the bubble. This is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases inside due to the net diffusion of gas to and from the bubble. The force balance on the bubble may be modified by a layer of <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surface active</a> molecules which can stabilise a microbubble at a size where surface tension on a clean bubble would cause it to collapse rapidly, and this surface layer may vary in <a href="/wiki/Permeation" title="Permeation">permeability</a>, so that if the bubble is sufficiently compressed it may become impermeable to diffusion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991131_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991131-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the solvent outside the bubble is saturated or unsaturated, the partial pressure will be less than in the bubble, and the surface tension will be increasing the internal pressure in direct proportion to surface curvature, providing a pressure gradient to increase diffusion out of the bubble, effectively "squeezing the gas out of the bubble", and the smaller the bubble the faster it will get squeezed out. A gas bubble can only grow at constant pressure if the surrounding solvent is sufficiently supersaturated to overcome the surface tension or if the surface layer provides sufficient reaction to overcome surface tension.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991131_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991131-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clean bubbles that are sufficiently small will collapse due to surface tension if the supersaturation is low. Bubbles with semipermeable surfaces will either stabilise at a specific radius depending on the pressure, the composition of the surface layer, and the supersaturation, or continue to grow indefinitely, if larger than the critical radius.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991132_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991132-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bubble formation can occur in the blood or other tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid1561717_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1561717-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A solvent can carry a supersaturated load of gas in solution. Whether it will come out of solution in the bulk of the solvent to form bubbles will depend on a number of factors. Something which reduces surface tension, or adsorbs gas molecules, or locally reduces solubility of the gas, or causes a local reduction in static pressure in a fluid may result in a bubble nucleation or growth. This may include velocity changes and turbulence in fluids and local tensile loads in solids and semi-solids. Lipids and other <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a> surfaces may reduce surface tension (blood vessel walls may have this effect). Dehydration may reduce gas solubility in a tissue due to higher concentration of other solutes, and less solvent to hold the gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Tikuisis_1993_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tikuisis_1993-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another theory presumes that microscopic bubble nuclei always exist in aqueous media, including living tissues. These bubble nuclei are spherical gas phases that are small enough to remain in suspension yet strong enough to resist collapse, their stability being provided by an elastic surface layer consisting of surface-active molecules which resists the effect of surface tension.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once a micro-bubble forms it may continue to grow if the tissues are sufficiently supersaturated. As the bubble grows it may distort the surrounding tissue and cause damage to cells and pressure on nerves resulting in pain, or may block a blood vessel, cutting off blood flow and causing hypoxia in the tissues normally perfused by the vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1997_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell_1997-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a bubble or an object exists which collects gas molecules this collection of gas molecules may reach a size where the internal pressure exceeds the combined surface tension and external pressure and the bubble will grow.<sup id="cite_ref-Yount_VPM_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yount_VPM-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the solvent is sufficiently supersaturated, the diffusion of gas into the bubble will exceed the rate at which it diffuses back into solution, and if this excess pressure is greater than the pressure due to surface tension the bubble will continue to grow. When a bubble grows, the surface tension decreases, and the interior pressure drops, allowing gas to diffuse in faster, and diffuse out slower, so the bubble grows or shrinks in a positive feedback situation. The growth rate is reduced as the bubble grows because the surface area increases as the square of the radius, while the volume increases as the cube of the radius. If the external pressure is reduced due to reduced hydrostatic pressure during ascent, the bubble will also grow, and conversely, an increased external pressure will cause the bubble to shrink, but may not cause it to be eliminated entirely if a compression-resistant surface layer exists.<sup id="cite_ref-Yount_VPM_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yount_VPM-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decompression bubbles appear to form mostly in the systemic capillaries where the gas concentration is highest, often those feeding the veins draining the active limbs. They do not generally form in the arteries provided that ambient pressure reduction is not too rapid, as arterial blood has recently had the opportunity to release excess gas into the lungs. The bubbles carried back to the heart in the veins may be transferred to the systemic circulation via a <a href="/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a> in divers with this septal defect, after which there is a risk of occlusion of capillaries in whichever part of the body they end up in.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bubbles which are carried back to the heart in the veins will pass into the right side of the heart, and from there they will normally enter the pulmonary circulation and pass through or be trapped in the capillaries of the lungs, which are around the alveoli and very near to the respiratory gas, where the gas will diffuse from the bubbles though the capillary and alveolar walls into the gas in the lung. If the number of lung capillaries blocked by these bubbles is relatively small, the diver will not display symptoms, and no tissue will be damaged (lung tissues are adequately oxygenated by diffusion).<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bubbles which are small enough to pass through the lung capillaries may be small enough to be dissolved due to a combination of surface tension and diffusion to a lowered concentration in the surrounding blood, though the Varying Permeability Model nucleation theory implies that most bubbles passing through the pulmonary circulation will lose enough gas to pass through the capillaries and return to the systemic circulation as recycled but stable nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991131,_136_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991131,_136-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bubbles which form within the tissues must be eliminated in situ by diffusion, which implies a suitable concentration gradient.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isobaric_counterdiffusion_(ICD)"><span id="Isobaric_counterdiffusion_.28ICD.29"></span>Isobaric counterdiffusion (ICD)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Isobaric counterdiffusion (ICD)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">Isobaric counterdiffusion</a></div> <p>Isobaric counterdiffusion is the diffusion of gases in opposite directions caused by a change in the composition of the external ambient gas or breathing gas without change in the ambient pressure. During decompression after a dive this can occur when a change is made to the breathing gas, or when the diver moves into a gas filled environment which differs from the breathing gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Lambertson_1989_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambertson_1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While not strictly speaking a phenomenon of decompression, it is a complication that can occur during decompression, and that can result in the formation or growth of bubbles without changes in the environmental pressure. Two forms of this phenomenon have been described by Lambertsen:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamiltonThalmann2003477–478_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamiltonThalmann2003477–478-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lambertson_1989_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambertson_1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Superficial ICD (also known as Steady State Isobaric Counterdiffusion)<sup id="cite_ref-D'Aoust_1982_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D'Aoust_1982-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> occurs when the inert gas breathed by the diver diffuses more slowly into the body than the inert gas surrounding the body.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamiltonThalmann2003477–478_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamiltonThalmann2003477–478-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lambertson_1989_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambertson_1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-D'Aoust_1982_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D'Aoust_1982-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this would be breathing air in an heliox environment. The helium in the heliox diffuses into the skin quickly, while the nitrogen diffuses more slowly from the capillaries to the skin and out of the body. The resulting effect generates supersaturation in certain sites of the superficial tissues and the formation of inert gas bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-Lambertson_1989_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambertson_1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deep Tissue ICD (also known as Transient Isobaric Counterdiffusion)<sup id="cite_ref-D'Aoust_1982_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D'Aoust_1982-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> occurs when different inert gases are breathed by the diver in sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamiltonThalmann2003477–478_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamiltonThalmann2003477–478-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rapidly diffusing gas is transported into the tissue faster than the slower diffusing gas is transported out of the tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-Lambertson_1989_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambertson_1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can occur as divers switch from a nitrogen mixture to a helium mixture or when saturation divers breathing hydreliox switch to a heliox mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-Lambertson_1989_36-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambertson_1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Masurel_et_al_1987_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masurel_et_al_1987-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Doolette and Mitchell's study of Inner Ear Decompression Sickness (IEDCS) shows that the inner ear may not be well-modelled by common (e.g. Bühlmann) algorithms. Doolette and Mitchell propose that a switch from a helium-rich mix to a nitrogen-rich mix, as is common in technical diving when switching from trimix to nitrox on ascent, may cause a transient supersaturation of inert gas within the inner ear and result in IEDCS.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_&_Mitchell_2003_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_&_Mitchell_2003-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They suggest that breathing-gas switches from helium-rich to nitrogen-rich mixtures should be carefully scheduled either deep (with due consideration to nitrogen narcosis) or shallow to avoid the period of maximum supersaturation resulting from the decompression. Switches should also be made during breathing of the largest inspired oxygen partial pressure that can be safely tolerated with due consideration to oxygen toxicity.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_&_Mitchell_2003_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_&_Mitchell_2003-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causative_role_of_oxygen">Causative role of oxygen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Causative role of oxygen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Although it is commonly held that DCS is caused by inert gas supersaturation, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Valence_Hempleman" title="Henry Valence Hempleman">Hempleman</a> has stated: </p><blockquote><p>...This did not lead to a sufficient cut-back in the permitted decompression ratio and an allowance in the calculations is now made for high oxygen partial pressures. Whenever the partial pressure of oxygen in air (or mixture) exceeds 0.6 bar then it is considered that significant amounts of dissolved oxygen are present in the tissues and that there is an increased decompression risk. This is estimated by adding 25% to the dive depth, and proceeding with the calculations as just outlined using assumption (1). An oxygen first stop depth is thus obtained, and 5 min is spent at this depth to allow for metabolic use of the excess dissolved oxygen gas. Following this 'oxygen stop' the calculations proceed as outlined above.<sup id="cite_ref-Hempleman-1975_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hempleman-1975-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decompression_sickness">Decompression sickness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Decompression sickness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a></div> <p>Vascular bubbles formed in the systemic capillaries may be trapped in the lung capillaries, temporarily blocking them. If this is severe, the symptom called "chokes" may occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the diver has a <a href="/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a> (or a <a href="/wiki/Shunt_(medical)" title="Shunt (medical)">shunt</a> in the pulmonary circulation), bubbles may pass through it and bypass the pulmonary circulation to enter the arterial blood. If these bubbles are not absorbed in the arterial plasma and lodge in systemic capillaries they will block the flow of oxygenated blood to the tissues supplied by those capillaries, and those tissues will be starved of oxygen. Moon and Kisslo (1988) concluded that "the evidence suggests that the risk of serious neurological DCI or early onset DCI is increased in divers with a resting right-to-left shunt through a PFO. There is, at present, no evidence that PFO is related to mild or late onset bends."<sup id="cite_ref-Moon1998_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moon1998-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bubbles form within other tissues as well as the blood vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inert gas can diffuse into bubble nuclei between tissues. In this case, the bubbles can distort and permanently damage the tissue. As they grow, the bubbles may also compress nerves as they grow causing pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Medscape_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medscape-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Extravascular" class="mw-redirect" title="Extravascular">Extravascular</a> or autochthonous<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><sup class="citation nobold" id="ref_a"><a href="#endnote_a">[a]</a></sup> bubbles usually form in slow tissues such as joints, tendons and muscle sheaths. Direct expansion causes tissue damage, with the release of <a href="/wiki/Histamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Histamines">histamines</a> and their associated affects. Biochemical damage may be as important as, or more important than mechanical effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kitano_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitano-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The exchange of dissolved gases between the blood and tissues is controlled by perfusion and to a lesser extent by diffusion, particularly in heterogeneous tissues. The distribution of blood flow to the tissues is variable and subject to a variety of influences. When the flow is locally high, that area is dominated by perfusion, and by diffusion when the flow is low. The distribution of flow is controlled by the mean arterial pressure and the local vascular resistance, and the arterial pressure depends on cardiac output and the total vascular resistance. Basic vascular resistance is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, and metabolites, temperature, and local and systemic hormones have secondary and often localised effects, which can vary considerably with circumstances. Peripheral vasoconstriction in cold water decreases overall heat loss without increasing oxygen consumption until shivering begins, at which point oxygen consumption will rise, though the vasoconstriction can persist.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The composition of the breathing gas during pressure exposure and decompression is significant in inert gas uptake and elimination for a given pressure exposure profile. Breathing gas mixtures for diving will typically have a different gas fraction of nitrogen to that of air. The partial pressure of each component gas will differ from that of nitrogen in air at any given depth, and uptake and elimination of each inert gas component is proportional to the actual partial pressure over time. The two foremost reasons for use of mixed breathing gases are the reduction of nitrogen partial pressure by dilution with oxygen, to make <a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">Nitrox</a> mixtures, primarily to reduce the rate of nitrogen uptake during pressure exposure, and the substitution of helium (and occasionally other gases) for the nitrogen to reduce the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">narcotic effects</a> under high partial pressure exposure. Depending on the proportions of helium and nitrogen, these gases are called <a href="/wiki/Heliox" title="Heliox">Heliox</a>, if there is no nitrogen, or <a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">Trimix</a>, if there is nitrogen and helium along with the essential oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-Brubakk_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brubakk-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gernhardt_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gernhardt-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inert gases used as substitutes for nitrogen have different solubility and diffusion characteristics in living tissues to the nitrogen they replace. For example, the most common inert gas diluent substitute for nitrogen is helium, which is significantly less soluble in living tissue,<sup id="cite_ref-Scharlin_et_al_1998_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scharlin_et_al_1998-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also diffuses faster due to the relatively small size and mass of the <a href="/wiki/Helium#Gas_and_plasma_phases" title="Helium">He</a> atom in comparison with the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N<sub>2</sub></a> molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-Hampel_1968_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hampel_1968-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Blood flow to skin and fat are affected by skin and core temperature, and resting muscle perfusion is controlled by the temperature of the muscle itself. During exercise increased flow to the working muscles is often balanced by reduced flow to other tissues, such as kidneys spleen and liver.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blood flow to the muscles is also lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange. Exercise during decompression can reduce decompression time and risk, providing bubbles are not present, but can increase risk if bubbles are present.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inert gas exchange is least favourable for the diver who is warm and exercises at depth during the ingassing phase, and rests and is cold during decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other factors which can affect decompression risk include oxygen concentration, carbon dioxide levels, body position, vasodilators and constrictors, positive or negative pressure breathing.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and dehydration (blood volume).<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_et_al_2005_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_et_al_2005-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual susceptibility to decompression sickness has components which can be attributed to a specific cause, and components which appear to be random. The random component makes successive decompressions a poor test of susceptibility.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_33-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Obesity and high serum lipid levels have been implicated by some studies as risk factors, and risk seems to increase with age.<sup id="cite_ref-Mouret_2006_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mouret_2006-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study has also shown that older subjects tended to bubble more than younger subjects for reasons not yet known, but no trends between weight, body fat, or gender and bubbles were identified, and the question of why some people are more likely to form bubbles than others remains unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-Bookspan_2003_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bookspan_2003-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decompression_model_concepts">Decompression model concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Decompression model concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Serial,_parallel_and_interconnected_compartments.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram comparing serial (interconnected), parallel (independent), parallel (interconnected) and combined series-parallel tissue compartment models" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Serial%2C_parallel_and_interconnected_compartments.svg/330px-Serial%2C_parallel_and_interconnected_compartments.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="484" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Serial%2C_parallel_and_interconnected_compartments.svg/495px-Serial%2C_parallel_and_interconnected_compartments.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Serial%2C_parallel_and_interconnected_compartments.svg/660px-Serial%2C_parallel_and_interconnected_compartments.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="1090" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buhlmann_ZH16a_half_times_and_saturation_times.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Table of theoretical tissues with their half times and saturation times used in the Buhlmann ZH16 decompression model" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Buhlmann_ZH16a_half_times_and_saturation_times.svg/220px-Buhlmann_ZH16a_half_times_and_saturation_times.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Buhlmann_ZH16a_half_times_and_saturation_times.svg/330px-Buhlmann_ZH16a_half_times_and_saturation_times.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Buhlmann_ZH16a_half_times_and_saturation_times.svg/440px-Buhlmann_ZH16a_half_times_and_saturation_times.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>Two rather different concepts have been used for decompression modelling. The first assumes that dissolved gas is eliminated while in the dissolved phase, and that bubbles are not formed during asymptomatic decompression. The second, which is supported by experimental observation, assumes that bubbles are formed during most asymptomatic decompressions, and that gas elimination must consider both dissolved and bubble phases.<sup id="cite_ref-Yount_VPM_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yount_VPM-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early decompression models tended to use the dissolved phase models, and adjusted them by more or less arbitrary factors to reduce the risk of symptomatic bubble formation. Dissolved phase models are of two main groups. Parallel compartment models, where several compartments with varying rates of gas absorption (half time), are considered to exist independently of each other, and the limiting condition is controlled by the compartment which shows the worst case for a specific exposure profile. These compartments represent conceptual tissues and are not intended to represent specific organic tissues, merely to represent the range of possibilities for the organic tissues. The second group uses serial compartments, where gas is assumed to diffuse through one compartment before it reaches the next.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent variation on the serial compartment model is the Goldman interconnected compartment model (ICM).<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2007_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recent models attempt to model bubble dynamics, also by simplified models, to facilitate the computation of tables, and later to allow real time predictions during a dive. The models used to approximate bubble dynamics are varied, and range from those which are not much more complex that the dissolved phase models, to those which require considerably greater computational power.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuch_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuch-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>None of the decompression models can be shown to be an accurate representation of the physiological processes, although interpretations of the mathematical models have been proposed which correspond with various hypotheses. They are all approximations which predict reality to a greater or lesser extent, and are acceptably reliable only within the bounds of calibration against collected experimental data.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Intro-2_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Intro-2-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Range_of_application">Range of application</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Range of application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ideal decompression profile creates the greatest possible gradient for inert gas elimination from a tissue without causing bubbles to form,<sup id="cite_ref-Gorman1988_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorman1988-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the dissolved phase decompression models are based on the assumption that bubble formation can be avoided. However, it is not certain whether this is practically possible: some of the decompression models assume that stable bubble micronuclei always exist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bubble models make the assumption that there will be bubbles, but there is a tolerable total gas phase volume<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a tolerable gas bubble size,<sup id="cite_ref-Imbert_2004_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imbert_2004-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and limit the maximum gradient to take these tolerances into account.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Imbert_2004_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imbert_2004-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decompression models should ideally accurately predict risk over the full range of exposure from short dives within the no-stop limits, decompression bounce dives over the full range of practical applicability, including extreme exposure dives and repetitive dives, alternative breathing gases, including gas switches and constant PO<sub>2</sub>, variations in dive profile, and saturation dives. This is not generally the case, and most models are limited to a part of the possible range of depths and times. They are also limited to a specified range of breathing gases, and sometimes restricted to air.<sup id="cite_ref-Gorman2011_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorman2011-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A fundamental problem in the design of decompression tables is that the simplified rules that govern a single dive and ascent do not apply when some tissue bubbles already exist, as these will delay inert gas elimination and equivalent decompression may result in decompression sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-Gorman2011_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorman2011-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Repetitive diving, multiple ascents within a single dive, and surface decompression procedures are significant risk factors for DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-Gorman1988_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorman1988-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These have been attributed to the development of a relatively high gas phase volume which may be partly carried over to subsequent dives or the final ascent of a sawtooth profile.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The function of decompression models has changed with the availability of Doppler ultrasonic bubble detectors, and is no longer merely to limit symptomatic occurrence of decompression sickness, but also to limit asymptomatic post-dive venous gas bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulou_2013_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulou_2013-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of empirical modifications to dissolved phase models have been made since the identification of venous bubbles by Doppler measurement in asymptomatic divers soon after surfacing.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1981_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1981-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tissue_compartments">Tissue compartments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tissue compartments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One attempt at a solution was the development of multi-tissue models, which assumed that different parts of the body absorbed and eliminated gas at different rates. These are hypothetical tissues which are designated as fast and slow to describe the rate of saturation. Each tissue, or compartment, has a different half-life. Real tissues will also take more or less time to saturate, but the models do not need to use actual tissue values to produce a useful result. Models with from one to 16 tissue compartments<sup id="cite_ref-Buhlmann_1984_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buhlmann_1984-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been used to generate decompression tables, and <a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">dive computers</a> have used up to 20 compartments.<sup id="cite_ref-Validation_workshop_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Validation_workshop-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example: Tissues with a high <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a> content can take up a larger amount of nitrogen, but often have a poor blood supply. These will take longer to reach equilibrium, and are described as slow, compared to tissues with a good blood supply and less capacity for dissolved gas, which are described as fast. </p><p>Fast tissues absorb gas relatively quickly, but will generally release it quickly during ascent. A fast tissue may become saturated in the course of a normal recreational dive, while a slow tissue may have absorbed only a small part of its potential gas capacity. By calculating the levels in each compartment separately, researchers are able to construct more effective algorithms. In addition, each compartment may be able to tolerate more or less supersaturation than others. The final form is a complicated model, but one that allows for the construction of algorithms and tables suited to a wide variety of diving. A typical dive computer has an 8–12 tissue model, with half times varying from 5 minutes to 400 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-Validation_workshop_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Validation_workshop-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChlmann_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Bühlmann tables">Bühlmann tables</a> use an algorithm with 16 tissues, with half times varying from 4 minutes to 640 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-Buhlmann_1984_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buhlmann_1984-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tissues may be assumed to be in series, where dissolved gas must diffuse through one tissue to reach the next, which has different solubility properties, in parallel, where diffusion into and out of each tissue is considered to be independent of the others, and as combinations of series and parallel tissues, which becomes computationally complex.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2007_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ingassing_model">Ingassing model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ingassing model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The half time of a tissue is the time it takes for the tissue to take up or release 50% of the difference in dissolved gas capacity at a changed partial pressure. For each consecutive half time the tissue will take up or release half again of the cumulative difference in the sequence ½, ¾, 7/8, 15/16, 31/32, 63/64 etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Bookspan_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bookspan-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tissue compartment half times range from 1 minute to at least 720 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991137_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991137-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A specific tissue compartment will have different half times for gases with different solubilities and diffusion rates. Ingassing is generally modeled as following a simple inverse exponential equation where saturation is assumed after approximately four (93.75%) to six (98.44%) half-times depending on the decompression model.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_2_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-logodiving_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-logodiving-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maiken_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maiken-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This model may not adequately describe the dynamics of outgassing if gas phase bubbles are present.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_1990_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_1990-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yount_1990_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yount_1990-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outgassing_models">Outgassing models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Outgassing models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For optimised decompression the driving force for tissue desaturation should be kept at a maximum, provided that this does not cause symptomatic tissue injury due to bubble formation and growth (symptomatic decompression sickness), or produce a condition where diffusion is retarded for any reason.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_1989_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_1989-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two fundamentally different ways this has been approached. The first is based on an assumption that there is a level of supersaturation which does not produce symptomatic bubble formation and is based on empirical observations of the maximum decompression rate which does not result in an unacceptable rate of symptoms. This approach seeks to maximise the concentration gradient providing there are no symptoms, and commonly uses a slightly modified exponential half-time model. The second assumes that bubbles will form at any level of supersaturation where the total gas tension in the tissue is greater than the ambient pressure and that gas in bubbles is eliminated more slowly than dissolved gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Maiken_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maiken-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These philosophies result in differing characteristics of the decompression profiles derived for the two models: The critical supersaturation approach gives relatively rapid initial ascents, which maximize the concentration gradient, and long shallow stops, while the bubble models require slower ascents, with deeper first stops, but may have shorter shallow stops. This approach uses a variety of models.<sup id="cite_ref-Maiken_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maiken-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baker1998_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker1998-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anttila_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anttila-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_1989_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_1989-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LeMessurier_and_Hills_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMessurier_and_Hills-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_critical_supersaturation_approach">The critical supersaturation approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The critical supersaturation approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">J.S. Haldane</a> originally used a <i>critical pressure ratio</i> of 2 to 1 for decompression on the principle that the saturation of the body should at no time be allowed to exceed about double the air pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Haldane1908_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haldane1908-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This principle was applied as a pressure ratio of total ambient pressure and did not take into account the partial pressures of the component gases of the breathing air. His experimental work on goats and observations of human divers appeared to support this assumption. However, in time, this was found to be inconsistent with incidence of decompression sickness and changes were made to the initial assumptions. This was later changed to a 1.58:1 ratio of nitrogen partial pressures.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_3-2_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_3-2-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further research by people such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Workman_(decompression_modeler)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Workman (decompression modeler) (page does not exist)">Robert Workman</a> suggested that the criterion was not the ratio of pressures, but the actual pressure differentials. Applied to Haldane's work, this would suggest that the limit is not determined by the 1.58:1 ratio but rather by the <i>critical pressure difference</i> of 0.58 atmospheres between tissue pressure and ambient pressure. Most Haldanean tables since the mid 20th century, including the Bühlmann tables, are based on the critical difference assumption .<sup id="cite_ref-CMAS-ISA_Tx_Manual_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CMAS-ISA_Tx_Manual-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="M-value"></span><span class="vanchor-text">M-value</span></span></b> is the maximum value of absolute inert gas pressure that a tissue compartment can take at a given ambient pressure without presenting symptoms of decompression sickness. M-values are limits for the tolerated gradient between inert gas pressure and ambient pressure in each compartment. Alternative terminology for M-values include "supersaturation limits", "limits for tolerated overpressure", and "critical tensions".<sup id="cite_ref-Baker1998_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker1998-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Workman_1957_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Workman_1957-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Gradient_factors"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Gradient factors</span></span></b> are a way of modifying the M-value to a more <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatism (diving)">conservative</a> value for use in a decompression algorithm. The gradient factor is a percentage of the M-value chosen by the algorithm designer, and varies linearly between the maximum depth of the specific dive and the surface. They are expressed as a two number designation, where the first number is the percentage of the deep M-value, and the second is a percentage of the shallow M-value.<sup id="cite_ref-Anttila_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anttila-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gradient factors are applied to all tissue compartments equally and produce an M-value which is linearly variable in proportion to ambient pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Anttila_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anttila-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>For example: A 30/85 gradient factor would limit the allowed supersaturation at depth to 30% of the designer's maximum, and to 85% at the surface.</dd></dl> <p>In effect the user is selecting a lower maximum supersaturation than the designer considered appropriate. Use of gradient factors will increase decompression time, particularly in the depth zone where the M-value is reduced the most. Gradient factors may be used to force deeper stops in a model which would otherwise tend to produce relatively shallow stops, by using a gradient factor with a small first number.<sup id="cite_ref-Anttila_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anttila-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several models of dive computer allow user input of gradient factors as a way of inducing a more conservative, and therefore presumed lower risk, decompression profile.<sup id="cite_ref-Perdix_manual_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perdix_manual-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forcing a low gradient factor at the deep M-value can have the effect of increasing ingassing during the ascent, generally of the slower tissues, which must then release a larger gas load at shallower depths. This has been shown to be an inefficient decompression strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2020_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2020-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2021-3_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2021-3-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Variable Gradient Model adjusts the gradient factors to fit the depth profile on the assumption that a straight line adjustment using the same factor on the deep M-value regardless of the actual depth is less appropriate than using an M-value linked to the actual depth. (the shallow M-value is linked to actual depth of zero in both cases) <sup id="cite_ref-Gurr_2019_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gurr_2019-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: More specific details on Variable gradient model. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_no-supersaturation_approach">The no-supersaturation approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The no-supersaturation approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression" title="Thermodynamic model of decompression">thermodynamic model</a> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_LeMessurier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh LeMessurier (page does not exist)">Hugh LeMessurier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brian_Andrew_Hills" title="Brian Andrew Hills">Brian Andrew Hills</a>, this condition of optimum driving force for outgassing is satisfied when the ambient pressure is just sufficient to prevent phase separation (bubble formation).<sup id="cite_ref-LeMessurier_and_Hills_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMessurier_and_Hills-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fundamental difference of this approach is equating absolute ambient pressure with the total of the partial gas tensions in the tissue for each gas after decompression as the limiting point beyond which bubble formation is expected.<sup id="cite_ref-LeMessurier_and_Hills_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMessurier_and_Hills-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The model assumes that the natural unsaturation in the tissues due to metabolic reduction in oxygen partial pressure provides the buffer against bubble formation, and that the tissue may be safely decompressed provided that the reduction in ambient pressure does not exceed this unsaturation value. Clearly any method which increases the unsaturation would allow faster decompression, as the concentration gradient would be greater without risk of bubble formation.<sup id="cite_ref-LeMessurier_and_Hills_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMessurier_and_Hills-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The natural unsaturation increases with depth, so a larger ambient pressure differential is possible at greater depth, and reduces as the diver surfaces. This model leads to slower ascent rates and deeper first stops, but shorter shallow stops, as there is less bubble phase gas to be eliminated.<sup id="cite_ref-LeMessurier_and_Hills_70-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMessurier_and_Hills-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_critical_volume_approach">The critical volume approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The critical volume approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The critical-volume criterion assumes that whenever the total volume of gas phase accumulated in the tissues exceeds a critical value, signs or symptoms of DCS will appear. This assumption is supported by doppler bubble detection surveys. The consequences of this approach depend strongly on the bubble formation and growth model used, primarily whether bubble formation is practicably avoidable during decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-Yount_VPM_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yount_VPM-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This approach is used in decompression models which assume that during practical decompression profiles, there will be growth of stable microscopic bubble nuclei which always exist in aqueous media, including living tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_1989_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_1989-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Efficient decompression will minimize the total ascent time while limiting the total accumulation of bubbles to an acceptable non-symptomatic critical value. The physics and physiology of bubble growth and elimination indicate that it is more efficient to eliminate bubbles while they are very small. Models which include bubble phase have produced decompression profiles with slower ascents and deeper initial decompression stops as a way of curtailing bubble growth and facilitating early elimination, in comparison with the models which consider only dissolved phase gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Yount_and_Hoffman_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yount_and_Hoffman-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bounce_dives">Bounce dives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bounce dives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A bounce dive is any dive where the exposure to pressure is not long enough for all the tissues to reach equilibrium with the inert gases in the breathing gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_et_al_2015_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_et_al_2015-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saturation_dives">Saturation dives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Saturation dives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">Saturation diving</a></div> <p>A saturation exposure is where the time exposed to pressure is sufficient for all tissues to reach equilibrium with the inert gases in the breathing mixture. For practical purposes this is usually taken as 6 times the half time of the slowest tissue in the model.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_et_al_2015_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_et_al_2015-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="No-stop_limits">No-stop limits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: No-stop limits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A no-stop limit, also called no decompression limit (NDL) is the theoretical maximum dissolved gas content of each tissue compartment of the whole body, which can be decompressed directly to surface pressure at the chosen ascent rate used by the model, without a need to stop to outgas at any depth, which has an acceptable risk of developing symptomatic decompression sickness. No decompression limit is a misnomer as the ascent at the specified ascent rate is decompression, but the term has historical inertia and continues to be used.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_Chapter_3-9_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_Chapter_3-9-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decompression_ceiling">Decompression ceiling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Decompression ceiling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once the gas loading of one or more tissue compartments exceeds the maximum level accepted for the no-stop limit, there is a minimum depth to which the diver can ascend at the appropriate ascent rate, at an acceptable risk for decompression sickness. This depth is known as the decompression ceiling. It may be considered a soft overhead, in that it is physically trivial to ascend above it, but that increases the risk of developing symptomatic decompression sickness according to the decompression model. The tissue that reaches its decompression ceiling first is called the limiting tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-Angelini_et_al_2022_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Angelini_et_al_2022-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decompression_obligation">Decompression obligation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Decompression obligation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A decompression obligation is the presence in the tissues of sufficient dissolved gas that the risk of symptomatic decompression sickness is unacceptable if a direct ascent to surface pressure is made at the prescribed ascent rate for the decompression model in use. A diver with a decompression ceiling can be said to have a decompression obligation, meaning that time must be spent outgassing during the ascent additional to the time spent ascending at the appropriate ascent rate. This time is nominally and most efficiently spent at decompression stops, though outgassing will occur at any depth where the arterial blood and lung gas have a lower partial pressure of the inert gas than the limiting tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_et_al_2015_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_et_al_2015-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_to_surface">Time to surface</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Time to surface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Time to surface (TTS) is the estimated total time required for a diver to surface from a given point on a dive profile, using a given set of decompression gases, ascending at the nominal ascent rate, and doing all the stops at the specifies depths. This value may be an estimate calculated from a dive plan, and followed by the diver as the ascent schedule, or shown on the screen of a dive computer as updated in real time. It may be based on the current gas selected, or the optimum gas selection from all gases set as active gases on the computer.<sup id="cite_ref-Shearwater_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shearwater-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Staged_decompression">Staged decompression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Staged decompression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Staged decompression is done with stops as specified depths based on an easily followed series. For most tables this has historically been a convenient 3 metres (10 ft) interval, but any arbitrary spacing may be used provided the computation of decompression stops uses it. The diver must stay at the prescribed stop depth until the ceiling decreases to the next shallower stop depth, at which point the diver ascends to that depth for the next stop.<sup id="cite_ref-Angelini_et_al_2022_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Angelini_et_al_2022-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The calculation of stop time can also be done to follow the decompression ceiling, which will give a maximised pressure gradient for inert gas washout, and reduces the overall decompression duration by about 4 to 12% This strategy can be approximately followed when using a dive computer with the option enabled. The effect on decompression risk with this strategy is unknown, as no testing has been done as of 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-Angelini_et_al_2022_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Angelini_et_al_2022-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Residual_inert_gas">Residual inert gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Residual inert gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gas bubble formation has been experimentally shown to significantly inhibit inert gas elimination.<sup id="cite_ref-Hills1978_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hills1978-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid1226586_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1226586-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A considerable amount of inert gas will remain in the tissues after a diver has surfaced, even if no symptoms of decompression sickness occur. This residual gas may be dissolved or in sub-clinical bubble form, and will continue to outgas while the diver remains at the surface. If a repetitive dive is made, the tissues are preloaded with this residual gas which will make them saturate faster.<sup id="cite_ref-Berghage_1978_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berghage_1978-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In repetitive diving, the slower tissues can accumulate gas day after day, if there is insufficient time for the gas to be eliminated between dives. This can be a problem for multi-day multi-dive situations. Multiple decompressions per day over multiple days can increase the risk of decompression sickness because of the build up of asymptomatic bubbles, which reduce the rate of off-gassing and are not accounted for in most decompression algorithms.<sup id="cite_ref-AAUS1991_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAUS1991-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, some diver training organisations make extra recommendations such as taking "the seventh day off".<sup id="cite_ref-saadeepstop_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saadeepstop-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decompression_models_in_practice">Decompression models in practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Decompression models in practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="width:60%;max-width:608px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inert_gas_tensions_in_the_tissue_compartments_during_a_decompression_dive.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Inert gas tension in the tissue compartments during a decompression dive with gas switching to accelerate decompression, as predicted by a decompression algorithm"><img alt="Graph of inert gas tension in 16 theoretical tissue compartments during and shortly after a square profile decompression dive using a trimix bottom gas and two decompression gases, namely Nitrox 50 and 100% oxygen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Inert_gas_tensions_in_the_tissue_compartments_during_a_decompression_dive.png/600px-Inert_gas_tensions_in_the_tissue_compartments_during_a_decompression_dive.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="451" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Inert_gas_tensions_in_the_tissue_compartments_during_a_decompression_dive.png/900px-Inert_gas_tensions_in_the_tissue_compartments_during_a_decompression_dive.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Inert_gas_tensions_in_the_tissue_compartments_during_a_decompression_dive.png/1200px-Inert_gas_tensions_in_the_tissue_compartments_during_a_decompression_dive.png 2x" data-file-width="1714" data-file-height="1288" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Inert_gas_tensions_in_the_tissue_compartments_during_a_decompression_dive.png" title="File:Inert gas tensions in the tissue compartments during a decompression dive.png"> </a></div>Inert gas tension in the tissue compartments during a decompression dive with gas switching to accelerate decompression, as predicted by a decompression algorithm</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deterministic_models">Deterministic models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Deterministic models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Deterministic_system" title="Deterministic system">Deterministic</a> decompression models are a rule based approach to calculating decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-RRR9570_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RRR9570-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These models work from the idea that "excessive" <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturation</a> in various <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> is "unsafe" (resulting in <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a>). The models usually contain multiple depth and tissue dependent rules based on mathematical models of idealised tissue compartments. There is no <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objective</a> mathematical way of evaluating the rules or overall <a href="/wiki/Risk" title="Risk">risk</a> other than comparison with empirical test results. The models are compared with experimental results and reports from the field, and rules are revised by <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Qualitative data">qualitative</a> <a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">judgment</a> and curve fitting so that the revised model more closely predicts observed reality, and then further observations are made to assess the reliability of the model in extrapolations into previously untested ranges. The usefulness of the model is judged on its accuracy and reliability in predicting the onset of symptomatic decompression sickness and asymptomatic venous bubbles during ascent.<sup id="cite_ref-RRR9570_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RRR9570-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It may be reasonably assumed that in reality, both perfusion transport by blood circulation, and diffusion transport in tissues where there is little or no blood flow occur. The problem with attempts to simultaneously model perfusion and diffusion is that there are large numbers of variables due to interactions between all of the tissue compartments and the problem becomes intractable. A way of simplifying the modelling of gas transfer into and out of tissues is to make assumptions about the limiting mechanism of dissolved gas transport to the tissues which control decompression. Assuming that either perfusion or diffusion has a dominant influence, and the other can be disregarded, can greatly reduce the number of variables.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_1989_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_1989-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perfusion_limited_tissues_and_parallel_tissue_models">Perfusion limited tissues and parallel tissue models</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Perfusion limited tissues and parallel tissue models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The assumption that perfusion is the limiting mechanism leads to a model comprising a group of tissues with varied rates of perfusion, but supplied by blood of approximately equivalent gas concentration. It is also assumed that there is no gas transfer between tissue compartments by diffusion. This results in a parallel set of independent tissues, each with its own rate of ingassing and outgassing dependent on the rate of blood flowing through the tissue. Gas uptake for each tissue is generally modelled as an exponential function, with a fixed compartment half-time, and gas elimination may also be modelled by an exponential function, with the same or a longer half time, or as a more complex function, as in the exponential-linear elimination model.<sup id="cite_ref-Berghage_1978_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berghage_1978-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The critical ratio hypothesis predicts that the development of bubbles will occur in a tissue when the ratio of dissolved gas partial pressure to ambient pressure exceeds a particular ratio for a given tissue. The ratio may be the same for all tissue compartments or it may vary, and each compartment is allocated a specific critical supersaturation ratio, based on experimental observations.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_2_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a> introduced the concept of <a href="#Tissue_half_times">half times</a> to model the uptake and release of nitrogen into the blood. He suggested 5 tissue compartments with half times of 5, 10, 20, 40 and 75 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_2_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this early hypothesis it was predicted that if the ascent rate does not allow the inert gas partial pressure in each of the hypothetical tissues to exceed the environmental pressure by more than 2:1 bubbles will not form.<sup id="cite_ref-Haldane1908_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haldane1908-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basically this meant that one could ascend from 30 m (4 bar) to 10 m (2 bar), or from 10 m (2 bar) to the surface (1 bar) when saturated, without a decompression problem. To ensure this a number of decompression stops were incorporated into the ascent schedules. The ascent rate and the fastest tissue in the model determine the time and depth of the first stop. Thereafter the slower tissues determine when it is safe to ascend further.<sup id="cite_ref-Haldane1908_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haldane1908-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This 2:1 ratio was found to be too conservative for fast tissues (short dives) and not conservative enough for slow tissues (long dives). The ratio also seemed to vary with depth.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_Chapter_3-2_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_Chapter_3-2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haldane's approach to decompression modeling was used from 1908 to the 1960s with minor modifications, primarily changes to the number of compartments and half times used. The 1937 US Navy tables were based on research by <a href="/w/index.php?title=O._D._Yarbrough&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="O. D. Yarbrough (page does not exist)">O. D. Yarbrough</a> and used 3 compartments: the 5- and 10-minute compartments were dropped. In the 1950s the tables were revised and the 5- and 10-minute compartments restored, and a 120-minute compartment added.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_Chapter_3_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_Chapter_3-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1960s <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_D._Workman_(physiologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert D. Workman (physiologist) (page does not exist)">Robert D. Workman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy_Experimental_Diving_Unit" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit">U.S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit</a> (NEDU) reviewed the basis of the model and subsequent research performed by the US Navy. Tables based on Haldane's work and subsequent refinements were still found to be inadequate for longer and deeper dives. Workman proposed that the tolerable change in pressure was better described as a critical pressure difference, and revised Haldane's model to allow each tissue compartment to tolerate a different amount of supersaturation which varies with depth. He introduced the term "M-value" to indicate the maximum amount of supersaturation each compartment could tolerate at a given depth and added three additional compartments with 160, 200 and 240-minute half times. Workman presented his findings as an equation which could be used to calculate the results for any depth and stated that a linear projection of M-values would be useful for computer programming.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_Chapter_3_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_Chapter_3-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large part of <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._B%C3%BChlmann" title="Albert A. Bühlmann">Albert A. Bühlmann</a>'s research was to determine the longest half time compartments for Nitrogen and Helium, and he increased the number of compartments to 16. He investigated the implications of decompression after diving at altitude and published decompression tables that could be used at a range of altitudes. Bühlmann used a method for decompression calculation similar to that proposed by Workman, which included M-values expressing a linear relationship between maximum inert gas pressure in the tissue compartments and ambient pressure, but based on absolute pressure, which made them more easily adapted for altitude diving.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bühlmann's algorithm was used to generate the standard decompression tables for a number of sports diving associations, and is used in several personal decompression computers, sometimes in a modified form.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Brian_Andrew_Hills" title="Brian Andrew Hills">B.A. Hills</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Hugh_LeMessurier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Hugh LeMessurier (page does not exist)">D.H. LeMessurier</a> studied the empirical decompression practices of <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Prefecture" title="Okinawa Prefecture">Okinawan</a> <a href="/wiki/Pearl_divers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl divers">pearl divers</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait" title="Torres Strait">Torres Strait</a> and observed that they made deeper stops but reduced the total decompression time compared with the generally used tables of the time. Their analysis strongly suggested that bubble presence limits gas elimination rates, and emphasized the importance of inherent unsaturation of tissues due to metabolic processing of oxygen. This became known as the thermodynamic model.<sup id="cite_ref-LeMessurier_and_Hills_70-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMessurier_and_Hills-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, recreational technical divers developed decompression procedures using deeper stops than required by the decompression tables in use. These led to the RGBM and VPM bubble models.<sup id="cite_ref-BMC2004_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMC2004-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A deep stop was originally an extra stop introduced by divers during ascent, at a greater depth than the deepest stop required by their computer algorithm. There are also computer algorithms that are claimed to use deep stops, but these algorithms and the practice of deep stops have not been adequately validated.<sup id="cite_ref-Denoble_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denoble-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A "<a href="/wiki/Pyle_stop_(Decompression)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyle stop (Decompression)">Pyle stop</a>" is a deep stop named after <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pyle" title="Richard Pyle">Richard Pyle</a>, an early advocate of deep stops,<sup id="cite_ref-DecoWeenie_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DecoWeenie-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the depths halfway between the bottom and the first conventional decompression stop, and halfway between the previous Pyle stop and the deepest conventional stop, provided the conventional stop is more than 9 m shallower. A Pyle stop is about 2 minutes long. The additional ascent time required for Pyle stops is included in the dive profile before finalising the decompression schedule.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle1997_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle1997-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pyle found that on dives where he stopped periodically to vent the <a href="/wiki/Swim-bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Swim-bladder">swim-bladders</a> of his fish specimens, he felt better after the dive, and based the deep stop procedure on the depths and duration of these pauses.<sup id="cite_ref-Denoble_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denoble-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypothesis is that these stops provide an opportunity to eliminate gas while still dissolved, or at least while the bubbles are still small enough to be easily eliminated, and the result is that there will be considerably fewer or smaller venous bubbles to eliminate at the shallower stops as predicted by the thermodynamic model of Hills.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_2002_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_2002-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>For example, a diver ascends from a maximum depth of 60 metres (200 ft), where the ambient pressure is 7 bars (100 psi), to a decompression stop at 20 metres (66 ft), where the pressure is 3 bars (40 psi). The first Pyle stop would take place at the halfway pressure, which is 5 bars (70 psi) corresponding to a depth of 40 metres (130 ft). The second Pyle stop would be at 30 metres (98 ft). A third would be at 25 metres (82 ft) which is less than 9 metres (30 ft) below the first required stop, and therefore is omitted.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyle1997_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle1997-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PyleBM_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PyleBM-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The value and safety of deep stops additional to the decompression schedule derived from a decompression algorithm is unclear. Decompression experts have pointed out that deep stops are likely to be made at depths where ingassing continues for some slow tissues, and that the addition of deep stops of any kind should be included in the hyperbaric exposure for which the decompression schedule is computed, and not added afterwards, so that such ingassing of slower tissues can be taken into account.<sup id="cite_ref-Denoble_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denoble-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deep stops performed during a dive where the decompression is calculated in real-time are simply part of a multi-level dive to the computer, and add no risk beyond that which is inherent in the algorithm. </p><p>There is a limit to how deep a "deep stop" can be. Some off-gassing must take place, and continued on-gassing should be minimised for acceptably effective decompression. The "deepest possible decompression stop" for a given profile can be defined as the depth where the gas loading for the leading compartment crosses the ambient pressure line. This is not a useful stop depth - some excess in tissue gas concentration is necessary to drive the outgassing diffusion, however this depth is a useful indicator of the beginning of the decompression zone, in which ascent rate is part of the planned decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-Deep_stops_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deep_stops-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study by <a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">DAN</a> in 2004 found that the incidence of high-grade bubbles could be reduced to zero providing the nitrogen concentration of the most saturated tissue was kept below 80 percent of the allowed M value and that an added deep stop was a simple and practical way of doing this, while retaining the original ascent rate.<sup id="cite_ref-BMC2004_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMC2004-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diffusion_limited_tissues_and_the_"Tissue_slab",_and_series_models"><span id="Diffusion_limited_tissues_and_the_.22Tissue_slab.22.2C_and_series_models"></span>Diffusion limited tissues and the "Tissue slab", and series models</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Diffusion limited tissues and the "Tissue slab", and series models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ttissue_slab_model_development.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ttissue_slab_model_development.svg/310px-Ttissue_slab_model_development.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ttissue_slab_model_development.svg/465px-Ttissue_slab_model_development.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ttissue_slab_model_development.svg/620px-Ttissue_slab_model_development.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>Derivation of the one-dimensional <i>tissue slab</i> model from a uniform tissue perfused by parallel capillaries</figcaption></figure> <p>The assumption that diffusion is the limiting mechanism of dissolved gas transport in the tissues results in a rather different tissue compartment model. In this case a series of compartments has been postulated, with perfusion transport into one compartment, and diffusion between the compartments, which for simplicity are arranged in series, so that for the generalised compartment, diffusion is to and from only the two adjacent compartments on opposite sides, and the limit cases are the first compartment where the gas is supplied and removed via perfusion, and the end of the line, where there is only one neighbouring compartment.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The simplest series model is a single compartment, and this can be further reduced to a one-dimensional "tissue slab" model.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bubble_models">Bubble models</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bubble models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bubble_(physics)" title="Bubble (physics)">Bubble</a> decompression models are a rule based approach to calculating decompression based on the idea that microscopic bubble nuclei always exist in water and tissues that contain water and that by predicting and controlling the bubble growth, one can avoid decompression sickness. Most of the bubble models assume that bubbles will form during decompression, and that mixed phase gas elimination occurs, which is slower than dissolved phase elimination. Bubble models tend to have deeper first stops to get rid of more dissolved gas at a lower supersaturation to reduce the total bubble phase volume, and potentially reduce the time required at shallower depths to eliminate bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Imbert_2004_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imbert_2004-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_2002_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_2002-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decompression models that assume mixed phase gas elimination include: </p> <ul><li>The arterial bubble decompression model of the French <i>Tables du Ministère du Travail</i> 1992<sup id="cite_ref-Imbert_2004_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imbert_2004-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The U.S. Navy Exponential-Linear (Thalmann) algorithm used for the 2008 US Navy air decompression tables (among others)<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4_52-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hennessy's combined perfusion/diffusion model of the BSAC'88 tables</li> <li>The Varying Permeability Model (VPM) developed by D.E. Yount and others at the University of Hawaii<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYount1991_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYount1991-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Reduced Gradient Bubble Model (RGBM) developed by Bruce Wienke at Los Alamos National Laboratory<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke_2002_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke_2002-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Goldman_Interconnected_Compartment_Model">Goldman Interconnected Compartment Model</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Goldman Interconnected Compartment Model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interconnected_3_compartment_models.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Interconnected_3_compartment_models.svg/310px-Interconnected_3_compartment_models.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Interconnected_3_compartment_models.svg/465px-Interconnected_3_compartment_models.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Interconnected_3_compartment_models.svg/620px-Interconnected_3_compartment_models.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>Interconnected 3 compartment models, as used in the Goldman models</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to the independent parallel compartments of the Haldanean models, in which all compartments are considered risk bearing, the Goldman model posits a relatively well perfused "active" or "risk-bearing" compartment in series with adjacent relatively poorly perfused "reservoir" or "buffer" compartments, which are not considered potential sites for bubble formation, but affect the probability of bubble formation in the active compartment by diffusive inert gas exchange with the active compartment.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2007_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2010_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2010-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During compression, gas diffuses into the active compartment and through it into the buffer compartments, increasing the total amount of dissolved gas passing through the active compartment. During decompression, this buffered gas must pass through the active compartment again before it can be eliminated. If the gas loading of the buffer compartments is small, the added gas diffusion through the active compartment is slow.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2010_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2010-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interconnected models predict a reduction in gas washout rate with time during decompression compared with the rate predicted for the independent parallel compartment model used for comparison.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2007_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Goldman model differs from the Kidd-Stubbs series decompression model in that the Goldman model assumes linear kinetics, where the K-S model includes a quadratic component, and the Goldman model considers only the central well-perfused compartment to contribute explicitly to risk, while the K-S model assumes all compartments to carry potential risk. The DCIEM 1983 model associates risk with the two outermost compartments of a four compartment series.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2007_53-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mathematical model based on this concept is claimed by Goldman to fit not only the Navy square profile data used for calibration, but also predicts risk relatively accurately for saturation profiles. A bubble version of the ICM model was not significantly different in predictions, and was discarded as more complex with no significant advantages. The ICM also predicted decompression sickness incidence more accurately at the low-risk recreational diving exposures recorded in DAN's Project Dive Exploration data set. The alternative models used in this study were the LE1 (Linear-Exponential) and straight Haldanean models.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2010_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2010-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Goldman model predicts a significant risk reduction following a safety stop on a low-risk dive<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and significant risk reduction by using nitrox (more so than the PADI tables suggest).<sup id="cite_ref-Goldman_2013_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldman_2013-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Probabilistic_models">Probabilistic models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Probabilistic models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">Probabilistic</a> decompression models are designed to calculate the <a href="/wiki/Risk" title="Risk">risk</a> (or probability) of <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a> (DCS) occurring on a given decompression profile.<sup id="cite_ref-Howle_et_al_2017_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howle_et_al_2017-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RRR9570_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RRR9570-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Statistical analysis is well suited to compressed air work in tunneling operations due to the large number of subjects undergoing similar exposures at the same ambient pressure and temperature, with similar workloads and exposure times, with the same decompression schedule.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_and_Dunford_2013_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_and_Dunford_2013-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large numbers of decompressions under similar circumstances have shown that it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate all risk of DCS, so it is necessary to set an acceptable risk, based on the other factors relevant to the application. For example, easy access to effective treatment in the form of hyperbaric oxygen treatment on site, or greater advantage to getting the diver out of the water sooner, may make a higher incidence acceptable, while interfering with work schedule, adverse effects on worker morale or a high expectation of litigation would shift acceptable incidence rate downward. Efficiency is also a factor, as decompression of employees occurs during working hours.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_and_Dunford_2013_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_and_Dunford_2013-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These methods can vary the <a href="/wiki/Decompression_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression stop">decompression stop</a> depths and times to arrive at a decompression schedule that assumes a specified probability of DCS occurring, while minimizing the total decompression time. This process can also work in reverse allowing one to calculate the probability of DCS for any decompression schedule, given sufficient reliable data.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_and_Dunford_2013_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_and_Dunford_2013-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1936 an incidence rate of 2% was considered acceptable for compressed air workers in the UK. The US Navy in 2000 accepted a 2% incidence of mild symptoms, but only 0.1% serious symptoms. Commercial diving in the North Sea in the 1990s accepted 0.5% mild symptoms, but almost no serious symptoms, and commercial diving in the Gulf of Mexico also during the 1990s, accepted 0.1% mild cases and 0.025% serious cases. Health and Safety authorities tend to specify the acceptable risk as <i>as low as reasonably practicable</i> taking into account all relevant factors, including economic factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_and_Dunford_2013_104-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_and_Dunford_2013-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Howle_et_al_2017_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howle_et_al_2017-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To analyse probability of mild and severe symptoms it is first necessary to define these classes of manifestation, as applicable to the analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_et_al_2009_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_et_al_2009-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The necessary tools for probability estimation for decompression sickness are a biophysical model which describes the inert gas exchange and bubble formation during decompression, exposure data in the form of pressure/time profiles for the breathing gas mixtures, and the DCS outcomes for these exposures, statistical methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">survival analysis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayesian analysis">Bayesian analysis</a> to find a best fit between model and experimental data, after which the models can be quantitatively compared and the best fitting model used to predict DCS probability for the model. This process is complicated by the influence of environmental conditions on DCS probability. Factors that affect perfusion of the tissues during ingassing and outgassing, which affect rates of inert gas uptake and elimination respectively, include immersion, temperature and exercise. Exercise is also known to promote bubble formation during decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_and_Dunford_2013_104-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_and_Dunford_2013-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The distribution of decompression stops is also known to affect DCS risk. A USN experiment using symptomatic decompression sickness as the endpoint, compared two models for dive working exposures on air using the same bottom time, water temperature and workload, with the same total decompression time, for two different depth distributions of decompression stops, also on air, and found the shallower stops to carry a statistically very significantly lower risk. The model did not attempt to optimise depth distribution of decompression time, or the use of gas switching, it just compared the effectiveness of two specific models, but for those models the results were convincing.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_and_Dunford_2013_104-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_and_Dunford_2013-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another set of experiments was conducted for a series of increasing bottom time exposures at a constant depth, with varying ambient temperature. Four temperature conditions were compared: warm during the bottom sector and decompression, cold during bottom sector and decompression, warm at the bottom and cold during decompression, and cold at the bottom and warm during decompression. The effects were very clear that DCS incidence was much lower for divers that were colder during the ingassing phase and warmer during decompression than the reverse, which has been interpreted as indicating the effects of temperature on perfusion on gas uptake and elimination.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_and_Dunford_2013_104-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_and_Dunford_2013-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A retrospective statistical analysis of a large data set of case reports of air and nitrox dives published in 2017 indicated that for an acceptable risk of 2% for mild symptoms, and 0.1% for severe symptoms, using a linear-exponential degassing model, the severe symptom risk was the limiting factor. One of the factors complicating this analysis was the variability in methods for distinguishing between mild and severe cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Howle_et_al_2017_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howle_et_al_2017-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saturation_decompression">Saturation decompression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Saturation decompression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice#Saturation_decompression" title="Decompression practice">Decompression practice § Saturation decompression</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="width:50%;max-width:2008px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NORSOK_saturation_decompression.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Graphic representation of the NORSOK U-100 (2009) saturation decompression schedule from 180 msw, starting at 06h00 and taking 7 days, 15 hours with Oxygen partial pressure maintained between 0.4 and 0.5 bar"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/NORSOK_saturation_decompression.svg/2000px-NORSOK_saturation_decompression.svg.png" decoding="async" width="2000" height="405" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/NORSOK_saturation_decompression.svg/3000px-NORSOK_saturation_decompression.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/NORSOK_saturation_decompression.svg/4000px-NORSOK_saturation_decompression.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="11454" data-file-height="2317" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:NORSOK_saturation_decompression.svg" title="File:NORSOK saturation decompression.svg"> </a></div>Graphic representation of the NORSOK U-100 (2009) saturation decompression schedule from 180 msw, starting at 06h00 and taking 7 days, 15 hours with Oxygen partial pressure maintained between 0.4 and 0.5 bar</div></div></div> <p>Saturation decompression is a physiological process of transition from a steady state of full saturation with inert gas at raised pressure to standard conditions at normal surface atmospheric pressure. It is a long process during which inert gases are eliminated at a very low rate limited by the slowest affected tissues, and a deviation can cause the formation of gas bubbles which can produce decompression sickness. Most operational procedures rely on experimentally derived parameters describing a continuous slow decompression rate, which may depend on depth and gas mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-EOW_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EOW-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In saturation diving all tissues are considered saturated and decompression which is safe for the slowest tissues will theoretically be safe for all faster tissues in a parallel model. Direct ascent from air saturation at approximately 7 msw produces venous gas bubbles but not symptomatic DCS. Deeper saturation exposures require decompression to saturation schedules.<sup id="cite_ref-Eckenhoff_1986_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eckenhoff_1986-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The safe rate of decompression from a saturation dive is controlled by the partial pressure of oxygen in the inspired breathing gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1984_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1984-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inherent unsaturation due to the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_window" title="Oxygen window">oxygen window</a> allows a relatively fast initial phase of saturation decompression in proportion to the oxygen partial pressure and then controls the rate of further decompression limited by the half-time of inert gas elimination from the slowest compartment.<sup id="cite_ref-Doboszynski_2012_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doboszynski_2012-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some saturation decompression schedules specifically do not allow an decompression to start with an upward excursion.<sup id="cite_ref-NORSOK_U100_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NORSOK_U100-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neither the excursions nor the decompression procedures currently in use (2016) have been found to cause decompression problems in isolation, but there appears to be significantly higher risk when excursions are followed by decompression before non-symptomatic bubbles resulting from excursions have totally resolved. Starting decompression while bubbles are present appears to be the significant factor in many cases of otherwise unexpected decompression sickness during routine saturation decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-Flook_2004_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flook_2004-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Application of a bubble model in 1985 allowed successful modelling of conventional decompressions, altitude decompression, no-stop thresholds, and saturation dives using one setting of four global nucleation parameters.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoffman_and_Yount_1985_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffman_and_Yount_1985-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research continues on saturation decompression modelling and schedule testing. In 2015 a concept named Extended Oxygen Window was used in preliminary tests for a modified saturation decompression model. This model allows a faster rate of decompression at the start of the ascent to utilise the inherent unsaturation due to metabolic use of oxygen, followed by a constant rate limited by oxygen partial pressure of the breathing gas. The period of constant decompression rate is also limited by the allowable maximum oxygen fraction, and when this limit is reached, decompression rate slows down again as the partial pressure of oxygen is reduced. The procedure remains experimental as of May 2016. The goal is an acceptably safe reduction of overall decompression time for a given saturation depth and gas mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-EOW_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EOW-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Validation_of_models">Validation of models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Validation of models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is important that any theory be validated by carefully controlled testing procedures. As testing procedures and equipment become more sophisticated, researchers learn more about the effects of decompression on the body. Initial research focused on producing dives that were free of recognizable symptoms of decompression sickness (DCS). With the later use of Doppler ultrasound testing, it was realized that bubbles were forming within the body even on dives where no DCI signs or symptoms were encountered. This phenomenon has become known as "silent bubbles". The presence of venous gas emboli is considered a low specificity predictor of decompression sickness, but their absence is recognised to be a sensitive indicator of low risk decompression, therefore the quantitative detection of VGE is thought to be useful as an indicator of decompression stress when comparing decompression strategies, or assessing the efficiency of procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-Hugon_et_al_2018_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hugon_et_al_2018-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The US Navy 1956 tables were based on limits determined by external DCS signs and symptoms. Later researchers were able to improve on this work by adjusting the limitations based on Doppler testing. However the US Navy CCR tables based on the Thalmann algorithm also used only recognisable DCS symptoms as the test criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Thalmann_1984-24_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thalmann_1984-24-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thalmann_1985-5_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thalmann_1985-5-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the testing procedures are lengthy and costly, and there are ethical limitations on experimental work on human subjects with injury as an endpoint, it is common practice for researchers to make initial validations of new models based on experimental results from earlier trials. This has some implications when comparing models.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_10_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_10-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: NEDU comparison of deep stop/bubble model vs. shallow stop/dissolved state model and reception. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Efficiency_of_stop_depth_distribution">Efficiency of stop depth distribution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Efficiency of stop depth distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deep, short duration dives require a long decompression in comparison to the time at depth, which is inherently inefficient in comparison with saturation diving. Various modifications to decompression algorithms with reasonably validated performance in shallower diving have been used in the effort to develop shorter or safer decompression, but these are generally not supported by controlled experiment and to some extent rely on anecdotal evidence. A widespread belief developed that algorithms based on bubble models and which distribute decompression stops over a greater range of depths are more efficient than the traditional dissolved gas content models by minimising early bubble formation, based on theoretical considerations, largely in the absence of evidence of effectiveness, though there were low incidences of symptomatic decompression sickness. Some evidence relevant to some of these modifications exists and has been analysed, and generally supports the opposite view, that deep stops may lead to greater rates of bubble formation and growth compared to the established systems using shallower stops distributed over the same total decompression time for a given deep profile.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2013_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2013-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2020_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2020-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The integral of supersaturation over time may be an indicator of decompression stress, either for a given tissue group or for all the tissue groups. Comparison of this indicator calculated for the combined Bühlmann tissue groups for a range of equal duration decompression schedules for the same depth, bottom time, and gas mixtures, has suggested greater overall decompression stress for dives using deep stops, at least partly due to continued ingassing of slower tissues during the deep stops.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2020_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2020-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effects_of_inert_gas_component_changes">Effects of inert gas component changes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Effects of inert gas component changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gas switching during decompression on open circuit is done primarily to increase the partial pressure of oxygen to increase the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_window" title="Oxygen window">oxygen window</a> effect, while keeping below <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">acute toxicity</a> levels. It is well established both in theory and practice, that a higher oxygen partial pressure facilitates a more rapid and effective elimination of inert gas, both in the dissolved state and as bubbles. In closed circuit rebreather diving the oxygen partial pressure throughout the dive is maintained at a relatively high but tolerable level to reduce the ongassing as well as to accelerate offgassing of the diluent gas. Changes from helium-based diluents to nitrogen during ascent are desirable for reducing the use of expensive helium, but have other implications. It is unlikely that changes to nitrogen based decompression gas will accelerate decompression in typical technical bounce dive profiles, but there is some evidence that decompressing on helium-oxygen mixtures is more likely to result in neurological DCS, while nitrogen based decompression is more likely to produce other symptom if DCS occurs. However, switching from helium rich to nitrogen rich decompression gas is implicated in inner ear DCS, connected with counter-diffusion effects. This risk can be reduced by sufficient initial decompression, using high oxygen partial pressure and making the helium to nitrogen switch relatively shallow.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2013_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2013-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Altitude_exposure,_altitude_diving_and_flying_after_diving"><span id="Altitude_exposure.2C_altitude_diving_and_flying_after_diving"></span>Altitude exposure, altitude diving and flying after diving</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Altitude exposure, altitude diving and flying after diving"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Flying_after_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Flying after diving">Flying after diving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></div> <p>The USAF conducted experiments on human subjects in 1982 to validate schedules for air diving no-decompression limits before immediate excursions to altitude and for altitude diving allowing immediate flying after the dive to an altitude of 8,500 feet (2,600 m).<sup id="cite_ref-Bassett_1982_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bassett_1982-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another test series in 2004 was made to validate predictions of a bubble-model for altitude decompression using previously untested exposure profiles. Parameters included exertion, altitudes from 18,000 to 35,000 feet (5,500 to 10,700 m), prebreathe time and exposure time, but these exposures did not include recent dives.<sup id="cite_ref-Pilmanis_2004_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pilmanis_2004-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experiments with an endpoint of DCS symptoms using profiles near the no-decompression exposure limits for recreational diving were carried out to determine how DCS occurrence during or after flight relates to the length of pre-flight surface interval (PFSI). The dives and PFSI were followed by a four-hour exposure at 75 kPa, equivalent to the maximum permitted commercial aircraft cabin altitude of 8,000 feet (2,400 m). DCS incidence decreased as surface interval increased, with no incidence for a 17 hour surface interval. Repetitive dives profiles usually needed longer surface intervals than single dives to minimise incidence. These tests have helped inform recommendations on time to fly.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_et_al_2004_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_et_al_2004-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In-flight transthoracic echocardiography has shown that there is a low but non-zero probability of decompression sickness in commercial pressurised aircraft after a 24 hour pre-flight surface interval following a week of multiple repetitive recreational dives, indicated by detection of venous gas bubbles in a significant number of the divers tested.<sup id="cite_ref-Cialoni_et_al_2015_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cialoni_et_al_2015-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_research">Current research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Current research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research on decompression continues. Data is not generally available on the specifics, however <a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a> (DAN) has an ongoing <a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen science</a> based programme run by DAN (Europe) which gathers data from volunteer <a href="/wiki/Recreational_diving" title="Recreational diving">recreational divers</a> for analysis by DAN research staff and other researchers. This research is funded by subscription fees of DAN Europe members.<sup id="cite_ref-About_DAN_research_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-About_DAN_research-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Diving Safety Laboratory is a database to which members can upload dive profiles from a wide range of dive computers converted to a standard format and other data about the dive.<sup id="cite_ref-DAN_data_uploads_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DAN_data_uploads-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data on hundreds of thousands of real dives is analysed to investigate aspects of diving safety.<sup id="cite_ref-DAN_research_diver_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DAN_research_diver-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large amounts of data gathered is used for probabilistic analysis of decompression risk. The data donors can get immediate feedback in the form of a simple risk analysis of their dive profiles rated as one of three nominal levels of risk (high, medium and low) based on comparison with Bühlmann ZH16c M-values computed for the same profile. </p><p>Listed projects (not all directly related to decompression) include:<sup id="cite_ref-DAN_projects_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DAN_projects-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Gathering data on vascular gas bubbles and analysis of the data</li> <li>Identification of optimised ascent profile</li> <li>Investigating the causes of unexplained diving incidents</li> <li>Stress in recreational diving</li> <li>Correlation between <a href="/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a> (PFO) and risk of decompression illness</li> <li>Diving with <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a> and managing the associated risk</li> <li>Physiology and pathophysiology of breath-hold</li> <li>Hypothermia and diving</li> <li>Headache and diving</li> <li>Blood changes associated with diving</li> <li>Decompression risk of air travel after diving</li> <li>Physiological effects of rebreather diving</li> <li>Effects of decompression stress on endothelial stem cells and blood cells</li> <li>Early decompression stress biomarkers</li> <li>The effects of normobaric oxygen on blood and in DCI first aid</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical_effectiveness_of_models">Practical effectiveness of models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Practical effectiveness of models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bubble models for decompression were popular among technical divers in the early 2000s, although there was little data to support the effectiveness of the models in practice. Since then, several comparative studies have indicated relatively larger numbers of venous gas emboli after decompression based on bubble models, and one study reported a higher rate of decompression sickness. The deeper decompression stops earlier in the ascent appear to be less effective at controlling bubble formation than the hypotheses suggested. This failure may be due to continued ingassing of slower tissues during the extended time at greater depth, resulting in these tissues being more supersaturated at shallower depths. The optimal decompression strategy for deep bounce dives remains unknown (2016).<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2016_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2016-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The practical efficacy of gas switches from helium-based diluent to nitrox for accelerating decompression has not been demonstrated convincingly. These switches increase risk of inner ear decompression sickness due to counterdiffusion effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2016_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2016-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: from<sup id="cite_ref-Blömeke_2024_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blömeke_2024-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Teaching_of_decompression_theory">Teaching of decompression theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Teaching of decompression theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <blockquote> <p>Decompression is an area where you discover that, <i>the more you learn, the more you know that you really don't know what is going on.</i> For behind the "black-and-white" exactness of table entries, the second-by-second countdowns of dive computers, and beneath the mathematical purity of decompression models, lurks a dark and mysterious physiological jungle that has barely been explored. </p><p>— Karl E. Huggins, 1992<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Intro-3_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Intro-3-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>Exposure to the various theories, models, tables and algorithms is needed to allow the diver to make educated and knowledgeable decisions regarding their personal decompression needs.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Intro-2_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1992_Intro-2-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basic decompression theory and use of decompression tables is part of the theory component of training for commercial divers,<sup id="cite_ref-IDSA_2009_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IDSA_2009-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and dive planning based on decompression tables, and the practice and field management of decompression is a significant part of the work of the diving supervisor.<sup id="cite_ref-IMCAD022_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IMCAD022-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_R6_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_R6-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recreational divers are trained in the theory and practice of decompression to the extent that the certifying agency specifies in the training standard for each certification. This may vary from a rudimentary overview sufficient to allow the diver to avoid decompression obligation for entry level divers, to competence in the use of several decompression algorithms by way of personal dive computers, decompression software, and tables for advanced technical divers.<sup id="cite_ref-CMAS-ISA_Tx_Manual_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CMAS-ISA_Tx_Manual-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The detailed understanding of decompression theory is not generally required of either commercial or recreational divers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression (diving)</a> – Pressure reduction and its effects during ascent from depth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice" title="Decompression practice">Decompression practice</a> – Techniques and procedures for safe decompression of divers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a> – Disorder caused by dissolved gases forming bubbles in tissues</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a> – Instrument to calculate decompression status in real time</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_air_depth" title="Equivalent air depth">Equivalent air depth</a> – Method of comparing decompression requirements for air and a given nitrox mix</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_narcotic_depth" title="Equivalent narcotic depth">Equivalent narcotic depth</a> – Method for comparing the narcotic effects of a mixed diving gas with air</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_decompression_research_and_development" title="History of decompression research and development">History of decompression research and development</a> – Chronological list of notable events in the history of diving decompression.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_treatment_schedules" title="Hyperbaric treatment schedules">Hyperbaric treatment schedules</a> – Planned hyperbaric exposure using a specified breathing gas as medical treatment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_window" title="Oxygen window">Oxygen window</a> – Physiological effect of oxygen metabolism on the total dissolved gas concentration in venous blood</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_decompression" title="Physiology of decompression">Physiology of decompression</a> – The physiological basis for decompression theory and practice</li> <li>Decompression models: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChlmann_decompression_algorithm" title="Bühlmann decompression algorithm">Bühlmann decompression algorithm</a> – Mathematical model of tissue inert gas uptake and release with pressure change</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane%27s_decompression_model" title="Haldane's decompression model">Haldane's decompression model</a> – Decompression model developed by John Scott Haldane</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_gradient_bubble_model" title="Reduced gradient bubble model">Reduced gradient bubble model</a> – Decompression algorithm</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalmann_algorithm" title="Thalmann algorithm">Thalmann algorithm</a> – Mathematical model for diver decompression</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression" title="Thermodynamic model of decompression">Thermodynamic model of decompression</a> – Early model in which decompression is controlled by volume of gas bubbles forming in tissues</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varying_Permeability_Model" title="Varying Permeability Model">Varying Permeability Model</a> – Decompression model and algorithm based on bubble physics</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>1. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_a"><b><a href="#ref_a">^a</a></b></span> autochthonous: formed or originating in the place where found</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-USNDM_R6_3-9.3-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USNDM_R6_3-9.3_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUS_Navy2008">US Navy 2008</a>, Vol 1 Chpt. 3 Sec. 9.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Van_Liew_and_Conkin_2007-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Van_Liew_and_Conkin_2007_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVan_LiewConkin2007" class="citation conference cs1">Van Liew, H.D.; Conkin, J. (2007). <i>A start toward micronucleus-based decompression models: Altitude decompression</i>. <i>Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society, Inc. Annual Scientific Meeting, 14–16 June 2007. Ritz-Carlton Kapalua Maui, Hawaii (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.uhms.org">http://www.uhms.org</a>)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=conference&rft.jtitle=Undersea+and+Hyperbaric+Medical+Society%2C+Inc.+Annual+Scientific+Meeting%2C+14%E2%80%9316+June+2007.+Ritz-Carlton+Kapalua+Maui%2C+Hawaii+%28http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uhms.org%29&rft.atitle=A+start+toward+micronucleus-based+decompression+models%3A+Altitude+decompression&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Van+Liew&rft.aufirst=H.D.&rft.au=Conkin%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FAA-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FAA_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/dcs.pdf">"Altitude-induced Decompression Sickness"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Altitude-induced+Decompression+Sickness&rft.pub=Federal+Aviation+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Fpilots%2Fsafety%2Fpilotsafetybrochures%2Fmedia%2Fdcs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USNDM_R6_20-3.1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USNDM_R6_20-3.1_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUS_Navy2008">US Navy 2008</a>, Vol. 5 Chpt. 20 Sect. 3.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gorman-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gorman_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorman" class="citation web cs1">Gorman, Des. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/DECOMPRESSION_THEORY.pdf">"Decompression theory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Royal Australian Navy<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Decompression+theory&rft.pub=Royal+Australian+Navy&rft.aulast=Gorman&rft.aufirst=Des&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.navy.gov.au%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2FDECOMPRESSION_THEORY.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wienke-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wienke_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wienke_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wienke_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWienke" class="citation web cs1">Wienke, B.R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tecvault.t101.ro/DecompressionTheory.pdf">"Decompression theory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Decompression+theory&rft.aulast=Wienke&rft.aufirst=B.R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftecvault.t101.ro%2FDecompressionTheory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huggins_1992_Chapter_1_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuggins1992">Huggins 1992</a>, Chpt. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Young_1982-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Young_1982_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungBattinoClever1982" class="citation web cs1">Young, C.L.; Battino, R.; Clever, H.L. 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London: International Marine Contractors' Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903513-00-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903513-00-2"><bdi>978-1-903513-00-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diving+Supervisor%27s+Manual&rft.place=London&rft.edition=IMCA+D+022+May+2000%2C+incorporating+the+May+2002+erratum&rft.pub=International+Marine+Contractors%27+Association&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-903513-00-2&rft.au=Staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imca-int.com%2Fdiving&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamiltonThalmann2003" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Robert W.; <a href="/wiki/Edward_D._Thalmann" title="Edward D. Thalmann">Thalmann, Edward D.</a> (2003). "10.2: Decompression Practice". In Brubakk, Alf O.; Neuman, Tom S. (eds.). <i>Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving</i> (5th Revised ed.). United States: Saunders. pp. 455–500. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-2571-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-2571-6"><bdi>978-0-7020-2571-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51607923">51607923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.2%3A+Decompression+Practice&rft.btitle=Bennett+and+Elliott%27s+physiology+and+medicine+of+diving&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=455-500&rft.edition=5th+Revised&rft.pub=Saunders&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51607923&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-2571-6&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rft.au=Thalmann%2C+Edward+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuggins1992" class="citation report cs1">Huggins, Karl E. (1992). Dynamics of decompression workshop. <i>Course Taught at the University of Michigan</i> (Report).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Dynamics+of+decompression+workshop&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Huggins&rft.aufirst=Karl+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThalmann1984" class="citation report cs1">Thalmann, E.D. (1984). Phase II testing of decompression algorithms for use in the U.S. Navy underwater decompression computer. <i>Navy Exp. Diving Unit Res. Report</i> (Report). Vol. 1–84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Phase+II+testing+of+decompression+algorithms+for+use+in+the+U.S.+Navy+underwater+decompression+computer&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Thalmann&rft.aufirst=E.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThalmann1985" class="citation report cs1">Thalmann, E.D. (1985). Development of a Decompression Algorithm for Constant Oxygen Partial Pressure in Helium Diving. <i>Navy Experimental Diving Unit Research Report</i> (Report). Vol. 1–85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Development+of+a+Decompression+Algorithm+for+Constant+Oxygen+Partial+Pressure+in+Helium+Diving&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Thalmann&rft.aufirst=E.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Navy2008" class="citation book cs1">US Navy (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supsalv.org/00c3_publications.asp?destPage=00c3&pageID=3.9"><i>US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision</i></a>. United States: US Naval Sea Systems Command<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=US+Navy+Diving+Manual%2C+6th+revision&rft.place=United+States&rft.pub=US+Naval+Sea+Systems+Command&rft.date=2008&rft.au=US+Navy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.supsalv.org%2F00c3_publications.asp%3FdestPage%3D00c3%26pageID%3D3.9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWienke2002" class="citation web cs1">Wienke, Bruce R.; O'Leary, Timothy R. (13 February 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scuba-doc.com/rgbmim.pdf">"Reduced gradient bubble model: Diving algorithm, basis and comparisons"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Tampa, Florida: NAUI Technical Diving Operations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reduced+gradient+bubble+model%3A+Diving+algorithm%2C+basis+and+comparisons&rft.place=Tampa%2C+Florida&rft.pub=NAUI+Technical+Diving+Operations&rft.date=2002-02-13&rft.aulast=Wienke&rft.aufirst=Bruce+R.&rft.au=O%27Leary%2C+Timothy+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scuba-doc.com%2Frgbmim.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYount1991" class="citation journal cs1">Yount, D.E. (1991). Hans-Jurgen, K.; Harper Jr, D.E. (eds.). "Gelatin, bubbles, and the bends". <i>International Pacifica Scientific Diving..., (Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences Eleventh Annual Scientific Diving Symposium Held 25–30 September 1991. University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Pacifica+Scientific+Diving...%2C+%28Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Underwater+Sciences+Eleventh+Annual+Scientific+Diving+Symposium+Held+25%E2%80%9330+September+1991.+University+of+Hawaii%2C+Honolulu%2C+Hawaii%29&rft.atitle=Gelatin%2C+bubbles%2C+and+the+bends&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Yount&rft.aufirst=D.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_theory&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall1995" class="citation journal cs1">Ball, R; Himm, J; Homer, LD; Thalmann, ED (1995). "Does the time course of bubble evolution explain decompression sickness risk?". <i>Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine</i>. <b>22</b> (3): 263–280. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1066-2936">1066-2936</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7580767">7580767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Undersea+and+Hyperbaric+Medicine&rft.atitle=Does+the+time+course+of+bubble+evolution+explain+decompression+sickness+risk%3F&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=263-280&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7580767&rft.issn=1066-2936&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Himm%2C+J&rft.au=Homer%2C+LD&rft.au=Thalmann%2C+ED&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerthDoolette2007" class="citation journal cs1">Gerth, Wayne A; Doolette, David J. (2007). "VVal-18 and VVal-18M Thalmann Algorithm – Air Decompression Tables and Procedures". <i>Navy Experimental Diving Unit, TA 01-07, NEDU TR 07-09</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Navy+Experimental+Diving+Unit%2C+TA+01-07%2C+NEDU+TR+07-09&rft.atitle=VVal-18+and+VVal-18M+Thalmann+Algorithm+%E2%80%93+Air+Decompression+Tables+and+Procedures&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Gerth&rft.aufirst=Wayne+A&rft.au=Doolette%2C+David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gribble, M. de G. (1960); <i>A comparison of the High-Altitude and High-Pressure syndromes of decompression sickness</i>, Br. J. Ind. Med., 1960, 17, 181.</li> <li>Hills. B. (1966); A thermodynamic and kinetic approach to decompression sickness. Thesis</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLippmannMitchell2005" class="citation book cs1">Lippmann, John; <a href="/wiki/Simon_Mitchell" title="Simon Mitchell">Mitchell, Simon</a> (2005). <i>Deeper into Diving</i> (2nd ed.). Melbourne, Australia: J L Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9752290-1-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-9752290-1-X"><bdi>0-9752290-1-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deeper+into+Diving&rft.place=Melbourne%2C+Australia&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=J+L+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-9752290-1-X&rft.aulast=Lippmann&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkerS.S._SurvanshiP.K._WeathersbyE.D._Thalmann1992" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Parker, E. C.; S.S. Survanshi; P.K. Weathersby & E.D. Thalmann (1992). "Statistically Based Decompression Tables VIII: Linear Exponential Kinetics". <i>Naval Medical Research Institute Report</i>. 92–73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naval+Medical+Research+Institute+Report&rft.atitle=Statistically+Based+Decompression+Tables+VIII%3A+Linear+Exponential+Kinetics&rft.volume=92-73&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=E.+C.&rft.au=S.S.+Survanshi&rft.au=P.K.+Weathersby&rft.au=E.D.+Thalmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalama2018" class="citation book cs1">Salama, Asser (2018). <i>Deep into Deco</i>. Florida: Best Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-947239-09-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-947239-09-8"><bdi>978-1-947239-09-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deep+into+Deco&rft.place=Florida&rft.pub=Best+Pub&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-947239-09-8&rft.aulast=Salama&rft.aufirst=Asser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2008" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Mark (2008). <i>Deco for Divers</i>. Southend-on-Sea: Aquapress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905492-07-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-905492-07-7"><bdi>978-1-905492-07-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deco+for+Divers&rft.place=Southend-on-Sea&rft.pub=Aquapress&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-905492-07-7&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Underwater_diving" title="Template:Underwater diving"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Underwater_diving" title="Template talk:Underwater diving"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Underwater_diving" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Underwater diving"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving" title="Underwater diving">Underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_activities" title="Diving activities">Diving activities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving mode">Diving modes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric pressure diving">Atmospheric pressure diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">Saturation diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">Scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">Snorkeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_oriented_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface oriented diving">Surface oriented diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving" title="Surface-supplied diving">Surface-supplied diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned diving">Unmanned diving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_equipment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_equipment" title="Diving equipment">Diving equipment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_and_disinfection_of_personal_diving_equipment" title="Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment">Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_equipment_manufacturers" title="List of diving equipment manufacturers">List of diving equipment manufacturers</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">Breathing gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout gas">Bailout gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom gas">Bottom gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_air" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing air">Breathing air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression gas">Decompression gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliox" title="Heliox">Heliox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydreliox" title="Hydreliox">Hydreliox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrox_(breathing_gas)" title="Hydrox (breathing gas)">Hydrox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">Nitrox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Travel gas">Travel gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">Trimix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buoyancy and<br />trim equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avelo_diving_system" title="Avelo diving system">Avelo diving system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoyancy_compensator_(diving)" title="Buoyancy compensator (diving)">Buoyancy compensator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_inflator" class="mw-redirect" title="Power inflator">Power inflator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dump_valve_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dump valve (diving)">Dump valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_buoyancy_pressure_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable buoyancy pressure vessel">Variable buoyancy pressure vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_weighting_system" title="Diving weighting system">Diving weighting system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankle_weights_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ankle weights (diving)">Ankle weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_weights" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated weights">Integrated weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trim_weights_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trim weights (diving)">Trim weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Weight belt">Weight belt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_equipment" title="Decompression equipment">Decompression<br />equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_buoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression buoy">Decompression buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression chamber">Decompression chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression cylinder">Decompression cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_trapeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression trapeze">Decompression trapeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_shot" title="Diving shot">Diving shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_upline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey upline">Jersey upline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonline">Jonline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">Diving suit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JIM_suit" title="JIM suit">JIM suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtsuit" title="Newtsuit">Newtsuit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_suit" title="Dry suit">Dry suit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sladen_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sladen suit">Sladen suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard diving suit">Standard diving suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rash_vest" class="mw-redirect" title="Rash vest">Rash vest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetsuit" title="Wetsuit">Wetsuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_skins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive skins">Dive skins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-water_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-water suit">Hot-water suit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Helmets<br />and masks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fog" title="Anti-fog">Anti-fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free-flow_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-flow helmet">Free-flow helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightweight_demand_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightweight demand helmet">Lightweight demand helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orinasal_mask" title="Orinasal mask">Orinasal mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaim_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Reclaim helmet">Reclaim helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shallow water helmet">Shallow water helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard diving helmet">Standard diving helmet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Band_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Band mask">Band mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Full-face mask">Full-face mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Half mask">Half mask</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instrumentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_timer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom timer">Bottom timer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_gauge" title="Depth gauge">Depth gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_timer" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive timer">Dive timer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_watch" title="Diving watch">Diving watch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helium_release_valve" title="Helium release valve">Helium release valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumofathometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumofathometer">Pneumofathometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pressure_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Submersible pressure gauge">Submersible pressure gauge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mobility<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">Diver propulsion vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed bell">Closed bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bell">Wet bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monofin" title="Monofin">Monofin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PowerSwim" title="PowerSwim">PowerSwim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towboard" title="Towboard">Towboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_sub" title="Wet sub">Wet sub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_air_source" title="Alternative air source">Alternative air source</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopus regulator">Octopus regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_bottle" title="Pony bottle">Pony bottle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolt_snap" title="Bolt snap">Bolt snap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddy line">Buddy line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_light" title="Dive light">Dive light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_cutting_tool" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's cutting tool">Diver's cutting tool</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_knife" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's knife">Diver's knife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's telephone">Diver's telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Through-water_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Through-water communications">Through-water communications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_harness" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving safety harness">Diving safety harness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_block" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout block">Bailout block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">Bailout bottle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifeline_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifeline (diving)">Lifeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Screw_gate_carabiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw gate carabiner">Screw gate carabiner</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_locator_beacon" title="Emergency locator beacon">Emergency locator beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_tether" class="mw-redirect" title="Rescue tether">Rescue tether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety helmet">Safety helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark-proof_cage" class="mw-redirect" title="Shark-proof cage">Shark-proof cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoopy_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Snoopy loop">Snoopy loop</a></li> <li>Navigation equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distance_line" title="Distance line">Distance line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_compass" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving compass">Diving compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_reel" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive reel">Dive reel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_marker" title="Line marker">Line marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_marker_buoy" title="Surface marker buoy">Surface marker buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt_screw" class="mw-redirect" title="Silt screw">Silt screw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_breathing_apparatus" title="Underwater breathing apparatus">Underwater<br />breathing<br />apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_cylinder" title="Diving cylinder">Diving cylinder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burst_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Burst disc">Burst disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_cylinder_valve" title="Scuba cylinder valve">Scuba cylinder valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaim_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Reclaim helmet">Reclaim helmet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator" title="Diving regulator">Diving regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_diving_regulators" title="Mechanism of diving regulators">Mechanism of diving regulators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_malfunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulator malfunction">Regulator malfunction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_freeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulator freeze">Regulator freeze</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-hose_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-hose regulator">Single-hose regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-hose_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Twin-hose regulator">Twin-hose regulator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_diving_mask" title="Full-face diving mask">Full-face diving mask</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_scuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-circuit scuba">Open-circuit<br />scuba</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">Scuba set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">Bailout bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression cylinder">Decompression cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_doubles" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent doubles">Independent doubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifolded_twin_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Manifolded twin set">Manifolded twin set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_manifold" title="Scuba manifold">Scuba manifold</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_bottle" title="Pony bottle">Pony bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_configuration" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba configuration">Scuba configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidemount" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidemount">Sidemount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sling_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Sling cylinder">Sling cylinder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_rebreather" title="Diving rebreather">Diving rebreathers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_CDBA" class="mw-redirect" title="Carleton CDBA">Carleton CDBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_Divers_Life_Support_Equipment" title="Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment">Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_rebreather" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic rebreather">Cryogenic rebreather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CUMA" title="CUMA">CUMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSEA" class="mw-redirect" title="DSEA">DSEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Dolphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Dolphin">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_PVR-BASC" title="Halcyon PVR-BASC">Halcyon PVR-BASC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_RB80" title="Halcyon RB80">Halcyon RB80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDA71" title="IDA71">IDA71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspiro_DCSC" title="Interspiro DCSC">Interspiro DCSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-5" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-5">LAR-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-6" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-6">LAR-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-V" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-V">LAR-V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertsen_Amphibious_Respiratory_Unit" title="Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit">LARU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_IV_Amphibian" title="Mark IV Amphibian">Mark IV Amphibian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Ray">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_CDBA" title="Siebe Gorman CDBA">Siebe Gorman CDBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_Salvus" title="Siebe Gorman Salvus">Salvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siva_(rebreather)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siva (rebreather)">Siva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_equipment" title="Surface-supplied diving equipment">Surface-supplied<br />diving equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_line" title="Air line">Air line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_umbilical" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's umbilical">Diver's umbilical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor" title="Diving air compressor">Diving air compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas panel">Gas panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hookah_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hookah (diving)">Hookah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_replacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba replacement">Scuba replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snuba" title="Snuba">Snuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_equipment_manufacturers" title="List of diving equipment manufacturers"> Diving<br />equipment<br />manufacturers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP_Diving" title="AP Diving">AP Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apeks" title="Apeks">Apeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung_America" title="Aqua Lung America">Aqua Lung America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung/La_Spirotechnique" title="Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique">Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beuchat" title="Beuchat">Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cavalero" title="René Cavalero">René Cavalero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cis-Lunar" title="Cis-Lunar">Cis-Lunar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cressi-Sub" title="Cressi-Sub">Cressi-Sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacor_(scuba_diving)" title="Dacor (scuba diving)">Dacor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DESCO" title="DESCO">DESCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_Xtras" title="Dive Xtras">Dive Xtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divex" title="Divex">Divex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Unlimited_International" title="Diving Unlimited International">Diving Unlimited International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4gerwerk" class="mw-redirect" title="Drägerwerk">Drägerwerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faber_Industrie_S.p.A." title="Faber Industrie S.p.A.">Faber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenzy" title="Fenzy">Fenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fernez" title="Maurice Fernez">Maurice Fernez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Ferraro_(naval_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luigi Ferraro (naval officer)">Technisub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Gugen" title="Oscar Gugen">Oscar Gugen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinke_(diving_equipment_manufacturer)" title="Heinke (diving equipment manufacturer)">Heinke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HeinrichsWeikamp" title="HeinrichsWeikamp">HeinrichsWeikamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Outdoors" title="Johnson Outdoors">Johnson Outdoors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mares_(scuba_equipment)" title="Mares (scuba equipment)">Mares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_Diving" title="Morse Diving">Morse Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrod" title="Nemrod">Nemrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_Worldwide" title="Oceanic Worldwide">Oceanic Worldwide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shearwater_Research" title="Shearwater Research">Shearwater Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman" title="Siebe Gorman">Siebe Gorman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Products" title="Submarine Products">Submarine Products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suunto" title="Suunto">Suunto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_support_equipment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_equipment" title="Diving support equipment">Diving support equipment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Access equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_stirrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Boarding stirrup">Boarding stirrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_lift" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver lift">Diver lift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_ladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving ladder">Diving ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_platform_(scuba)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving platform (scuba)">Diving platform (scuba)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downline_(diving)" title="Downline (diving)">Downline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackstay" title="Jackstay">Jackstay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_and_recovery_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch and recovery system (diving)">Launch and recovery system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messenger_line" title="Messenger line">Messenger line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_pool" title="Moon pool">Moon pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathing gas<br />handling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor#Filtration" title="Diving air compressor">Air filtration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopcalite" title="Hopcalite">Hopcalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_sieve" title="Molecular sieve">Molecular sieve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silica_gel" title="Silica gel">Silica gel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_pump" title="Booster pump">Booster pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_filling_system" title="Cascade filling system">Cascade filling system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_pump" title="Diver's pump">Diver's pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor" title="Diving air compressor">Diving air compressor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving air filter">Diving air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_separator" class="mw-redirect" title="Water separator">Water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_pressure_breathing_air_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="High pressure breathing air compressor">High pressure breathing air compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_breathing_air_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure breathing air compressor">Low pressure breathing air compressor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending" title="Gas blending">Gas blending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending_for_scuba_diving" title="Gas blending for scuba diving">Gas blending for scuba diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas panel">Gas panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_reclaim_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas reclaim system">Gas reclaim system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage bank">Gas storage bank</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_quad" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage quad">Gas storage quad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage tube">Gas storage tube</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_analyzer" title="Helium analyzer">Helium analyzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrox_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrox production">Nitrox production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_gas_separation" title="Membrane gas separation">Membrane gas separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_swing_adsorption" title="Pressure swing adsorption">Pressure swing adsorption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_analyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen analyser">Oxygen analyser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_compatibility" title="Oxygen compatibility">Oxygen compatibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_equipment" title="Decompression equipment">Decompression<br />equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Air-lock">Air-lock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Built-in_breathing_system" title="Built-in breathing system">Built-in breathing system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression tables">Decompression tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_cursor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell cursor">Bell cursor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed bell">Closed bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clump_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Clump weight">Clump weight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_and_recovery_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch and recovery system (diving)">Launch and recovery system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bell">Wet bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_chamber" title="Diving chamber">Diving chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_Dive_Planner" title="Recreational Dive Planner">Recreational Dive Planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation system">Saturation system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Platforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_boat" title="Dive boat">Dive boat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_and_kayak_diving" title="Canoe and kayak diving">Canoe and kayak diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_rubber_raiding_craft" title="Combat rubber raiding craft">Combat rubber raiding craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liveaboard" title="Liveaboard">Liveaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subskimmer" title="Subskimmer">Subskimmer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_vessel" title="Diving support vessel">Diving support vessel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(K07)" title="HMS Challenger (K07)">HMS Challenger (K07)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Underwaterhabitat" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_habitat" title="Underwater habitat">Underwater<br />habitat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquarius_Reef_Base" title="Aquarius Reef Base">Aquarius Reef Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Station_Two" title="Continental Shelf Station Two">Continental Shelf Station Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helgoland_Habitat" title="Helgoland Habitat">Helgoland Habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Carpenter_Space_Analog_Station" title="Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station">Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEALAB" title="SEALAB">SEALAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tektite_habitat" title="Tektite habitat">Tektite habitat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely operated<br />underwater vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/8A4-class_ROUV" title="8A4-class ROUV">8A4-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABISMO" title="ABISMO">ABISMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_ROV_Team" title="Atlantis ROV Team">Atlantis ROV Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COTSBot" title="COTSBot">COTSBot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CURV" title="CURV">CURV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Drone" title="Deep Drone">Deep Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89paulard" title="Épaulard">Épaulard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Explorer_ROV" title="Global Explorer ROV">Global Explorer ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldfish-class_ROUV" title="Goldfish-class ROUV">Goldfish-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8D_ROV" title="Kaikō ROV">Kaikō ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%C5%9Fif_ROUV" title="Kaşif ROUV">Kaşif ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-Term_Mine_Reconnaissance_System" title="Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System">Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini_Rover_ROV" title="Mini Rover ROV">Mini Rover ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenROV" title="OpenROV">OpenROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROV_KIEL_6000" title="ROV KIEL 6000">ROV KIEL 6000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROV_PHOCA" title="ROV PHOCA">ROV PHOCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpio_ROV" title="Scorpio ROV">Scorpio ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Dragon-class_ROV" title="Sea Dragon-class ROV">Sea Dragon-class ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_tractor" title="Seabed tractor">Seabed tractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafox_drone" title="Seafox drone">Seafox drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaPerch" title="SeaPerch">SeaPerch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SJT-class_ROUV" title="SJT-class ROUV">SJT-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T1200_Trenching_Unit" title="T1200 Trenching Unit">T1200 Trenching Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VideoRay_UROVs" title="VideoRay UROVs">VideoRay UROVs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_down_flag" title="Diver down flag">Diver down flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_shot" title="Diving shot">Diving shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ENOS_Rescue-System" title="ENOS Rescue-System">ENOS Rescue-System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_lifeboat" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbaric lifeboat">Hyperbaric lifeboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_stretcher" title="Hyperbaric stretcher">Hyperbaric stretcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackstay_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jackstay (diving)">Jackstay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonline">Jonline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_gas_supply_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reserve gas supply (diving)">Reserve gas supply</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving spread">Diving spread</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Air spread">Air spread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation spread">Saturation spread</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_water_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot water system (diving)">Hot water system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_positioning_system" title="Underwater acoustic positioning system">Underwater acoustic positioning system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freediving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquathlon_(underwater_wrestling)" title="Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)">Aquathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apnoea_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea finswimming">Apnoea finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">Snorkeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_football" title="Underwater football">Underwater football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey" title="Underwater hockey">Underwater hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby" title="Underwater rugby">Underwater rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_target_shooting" title="Underwater target shooting">Underwater target shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Deep" title="Nordic Deep">Nordic Deep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_Blue" title="Vertical Blue">Vertical Blue</a></li> <li>Disciplines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant weight">Constant weight</a> (CWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight_bi-fins" title="Constant weight bi-fins">Constant weight bi-fins</a> (CWTB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight_without_fins" title="Constant weight without fins">Constant weight without fins</a> (CNF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_apnea" title="Dynamic apnea">Dynamic apnea</a> (DYN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_apnea_without_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic apnea without fins">Dynamic apnea without fins</a> (DNF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_immersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Free immersion">Free immersion</a> (FIM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-limits_apnea" title="No-limits apnea">No-limits apnea</a> (NLT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_apnea" title="Static apnea">Static apnea</a> (STA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandalopetra_diving" title="Skandalopetra diving">Skandalopetra diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_weight_apnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable weight apnea">Variable weight apnea</a> (VWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_weight_apnea_without_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable weight apnea without fins">Variable weight apnea without fins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">Diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sling" title="Hawaiian sling">Hawaiian sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polespear" title="Polespear">Polespear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel (swimming)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speargun" title="Speargun">Speargun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monofin" title="Monofin">Monofin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_polo_cap" title="Water polo cap">Water polo cap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freedivers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Andollo" title="Deborah Andollo">Deborah Andollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Arrigoni" title="Simone Arrigoni">Simone Arrigoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peppo_Biscarini" title="Peppo Biscarini">Peppo Biscarini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Board" title="Michael Board">Michael Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Campbell" title="Sara Campbell">Sara Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derya_Can_G%C3%B6%C3%A7en" class="mw-redirect" title="Derya Can Göçen">Derya Can Göçen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goran_%C4%8Colak" title="Goran Čolak">Goran Čolak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Coste" title="Carlos Coste">Carlos Coste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Croft_(diver)" title="Robert Croft (diver)">Robert Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandy-Rae_Cruickshank" title="Mandy-Rae Cruickshank">Mandy-Rae Cruickshank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasemin_Dalk%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7" title="Yasemin Dalkılıç">Yasemin Dalkılıç</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_D%27Imporzano" title="Leonardo D'Imporzano">Leonardo D'Imporzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Eberhard" title="Flavia Eberhard">Flavia Eberhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eahika_Erc%C3%BCmen" title="Şahika Ercümen">Şahika Ercümen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Farrell_(freediver)" title="Emma Farrell (freediver)">Emma Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ferreras" title="Francisco Ferreras">Francisco Ferreras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Frolla" title="Pierre Frolla">Pierre Frolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Eberhard" title="Flavia Eberhard">Flavia Eberhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehgan_Heaney-Grier" title="Mehgan Heaney-Grier">Mehgan Heaney-Grier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Kristoffersen" title="Elisabeth Kristoffersen">Elisabeth Kristoffersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Yevhenovych_Khvetkevych" class="mw-redirect" title="Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych">Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Leferme" title="Loïc Leferme">Loïc Leferme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzo_Maiorca" title="Enzo Maiorca">Enzo Maiorca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Mayol" title="Jacques Mayol">Jacques Mayol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Mestre" title="Audrey Mestre">Audrey Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Meyer" title="Karol Meyer">Karol Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Middleton_(free-diver)" title="Kate Middleton (free-diver)">Kate Middleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mifsud" title="Stéphane Mifsud">Stéphane Mifsud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Molchanov" title="Alexey Molchanov">Alexey Molchanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Molchanova" title="Natalia Molchanova">Natalia Molchanova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Mullins_(freediver)" title="Dave Mullins (freediver)">Dave Mullins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Musimu" title="Patrick Musimu">Patrick Musimu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_N%C3%A9ry" title="Guillaume Néry">Guillaume Néry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Nitsch" title="Herbert Nitsch">Herbert Nitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Pelizzari" title="Umberto Pelizzari">Umberto Pelizzari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liv_Philip" title="Liv Philip">Liv Philip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelie_Pompe" title="Annelie Pompe">Annelie Pompe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stig_Severinsen" title="Stig Severinsen">Stig Severinsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Sietas" title="Tom Sietas">Tom Sietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Solomons" title="Aharon Solomons">Aharon Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_%C5%A0t%C4%9Bp%C3%A1nek_(free-diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Štěpánek (free-diver)">Martin Štěpánek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Steyn" title="Walter Steyn">Walter Steyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanya_Streeter" title="Tanya Streeter">Tanya Streeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Trubridge" title="William Trubridge">William Trubridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devrim_Cenk_Ulusoy" title="Devrim Cenk Ulusoy">Devrim Cenk Ulusoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatma_Uruk" title="Fatma Uruk">Fatma Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danai_Varveri" title="Danai Varveri">Danai Varveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessia_Zecchini" title="Alessia Zecchini">Alessia Zecchini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nataliia_Zharkova" title="Nataliia Zharkova">Nataliia Zharkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hazards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout" title="Freediving blackout">Freediving blackout</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_blackout" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep-water blackout">Deep-water blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout#Terminology" title="Freediving blackout">Shallow-water blackout</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_wrestling" title="Octopus wrestling">Octopus wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_at_the_1900_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_underwater_swimming" title="Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming">Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Underwater_Federation" title="Australian Underwater Federation">Australian Underwater Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Freediving_Association" title="British Freediving Association">British Freediving Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_Freediving_International" title="Performance Freediving International">Performance Freediving International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Professional_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Professional_diving" title="Professional diving">Professional diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial diver">Commercial diver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_offshore_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial offshore diver">Commercial offshore diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazmat diver">Hazmat diver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divemaster" title="Divemaster">Divemaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_officer" title="Diving safety officer">Diving safety officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_superintendent" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving superintendent">Diving superintendent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Media diver">Media diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Police diver">Police diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Public safety diver">Public safety diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific diver">Scientific diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater archaeologist">Underwater archaeologist</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Militarydiving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Military<br />diving</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_engineer_diver" title="Army engineer diver">Army engineer diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces_Divers" title="Canadian Armed Forces Divers">Canadian Armed Forces Divers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_diver" title="Clearance diver">Clearance diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minentaucher" title="Minentaucher">Minentaucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_ships_diver" title="Royal Navy ships diver">Royal Navy ships diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_divers" title="United States military divers">United States military divers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navy_diver_(United_States_Navy)" title="Navy diver (United States Navy)">U.S. Navy diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_diver_(United_States_Navy)" title="Master diver (United States Navy)">U.S.Navy master diver</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Militarydivingunits" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_diving_units" title="List of military diving units">Military<br />diving<br />units</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_Diving_Branch_(RAN)" title="Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)">Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commando_Hubert" class="mw-redirect" title="Commando Hubert">Commando Hubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Special_Operations_Force" title="Lithuanian Special Operations Force">Combat Divers Service (Lithuania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comando_Raggruppamento_Subacquei_e_Incursori_Teseo_Tesei" title="Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei">Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decima_Flottiglia_MAS" title="Decima Flottiglia MAS">Decima Flottiglia MAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman_Corps_(Denmark)" title="Frogman Corps (Denmark)">Frogman Corps (Denmark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuerzas_Especiales" title="Fuerzas Especiales">Fuerzas Especiales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fukuryu" title="Fukuryu">Fukuryu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GRUMEC" title="GRUMEC">GRUMEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grup_Gerak_Khas" class="mw-redirect" title="Grup Gerak Khas">Grup Gerak Khas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdkommando" title="Jagdkommando">Jagdkommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_Formoza" class="mw-redirect" title="JW Formoza">JW Formoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_GROM" class="mw-redirect" title="JW GROM">JW GROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_Komandos%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="JW Komandosów">JW Komandosów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kommando_Spezialkr%C3%A4fte_Marine" title="Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine">Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KOPASKA" title="KOPASKA">KOPASKA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MARCOS" title="MARCOS">MARCOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Commandos" title="Marine Commandos">Marine Commandos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinejegerkommandoen" title="Marinejegerkommandoen">Marinejegerkommandoen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Raider_Regiment" title="Marine Raider Regiment">Marine Raider Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minedykkerkommandoen" title="Minedykkerkommandoen">Minedykkerkommandoen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Marine_Corps#Operational_Diving_Unit" title="Namibian Marine Corps">Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Diving_Unit_(Singapore)" title="Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)">Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Service_Diving_Section" title="Naval Service Diving Section">Naval Service Diving Section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Special_Operations_Command" title="Naval Special Operations Command">Naval Special Operations Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_Diving_Division_(SA_Navy)" title="Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)">Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Engineers" title="Royal Engineers">Royal Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_commando_frogmen" title="Russian commando frogmen">Russian commando frogmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappers_Divers_Group" title="Sappers Divers Group">Sappers Divers Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shayetet_13" title="Shayetet 13">Shayetet 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service" title="Special Air Service">Special Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service_Regiment" title="Special Air Service Regiment">Special Air Service Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Actions_Detachment" title="Special Actions Detachment">Special Actions Detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Service" title="Special Boat Service">Special Boat Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Squadron_(Sri_Lanka)" title="Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)">Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Forces_Command_(Turkey)" title="Special Forces Command (Turkey)">Special Forces Command (Turkey)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Forces_Group_(Belgium)" title="Special Forces Group (Belgium)">Special Forces Group (Belgium)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Battalion_(Croatia)" title="Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)">Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Service_Group_(Navy)" title="Special Service Group (Navy)">Special Service Group (Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Warfare_Diving_and_Salvage" title="Special Warfare Diving and Salvage">Special Warfare Diving and Salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_Divers_Group" title="Tactical Divers Group">Tactical Divers Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Force_Reconnaissance" title="United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance">US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reconnaissance_Battalions" title="United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions">US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_SEALs" title="United States Navy SEALs">US Navy SEALs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Construction_Teams" title="Underwater Construction Teams">Underwater Construction Teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Command" title="Underwater Demolition Command">Underwater Demolition Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Team" title="Underwater Demolition Team">Underwater Demolition Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Offence_(Turkish_Armed_Forces)" title="Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)">Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNGERIN" title="UNGERIN">UNGERIN</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_work" title="Underwater work">Underwater<br />work</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_offshore_diving" title="Commercial offshore diving">Commercial offshore diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_leader" title="Dive leader">Dive leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_training" title="Recreational diver training">Recreational diver training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_diving" title="Hazmat diving">Hazmat diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_welding" title="Hyperbaric welding">Hyperbaric welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_construction" title="Marine construction">Marine construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_construction" title="Underwater construction">Underwater construction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_diving" title="Media diving">Media diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_diving" title="Police diving">Police diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potable_water_diving" title="Potable water diving">Potable water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diving" title="Public safety diving">Public safety diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diving" title="Scientific diving">Scientific diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_husbandry" title="Ships husbandry">Ships husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_diving" title="Sponge diving">Sponge diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pipeline" title="Submarine pipeline">Submarine pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Archaeology of shipwrecks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_cutting_and_welding" title="Underwater cutting and welding">Underwater cutting and welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_demolition" title="Underwater demolition">Underwater demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_inspection" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater inspection">Underwater inspection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">Nondestructive testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_logging" title="Underwater logging">Underwater logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_search_and_recovery" title="Underwater search and recovery">Underwater search and recovery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_searches" title="Underwater searches">Underwater searches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_videography" title="Underwater videography">Underwater videography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_survey" title="Underwater survey">Underwater survey</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Salvage_diving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salvage_diving" title="Salvage diving">Salvage diving</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Egypt" title="SS Egypt">SS <i>Egypt</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronan_(ship)" title="Kronan (ship)"><i>Kronan</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Belle_(ship)" title="La Belle (ship)"><i>La Belle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Laurentic_(1908)" title="SS Laurentic (1908)">SS <i>Laurentic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania" title="RMS Lusitania">RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_warship_Mars" title="Swedish warship Mars"><i>Mars</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose"><i>Mary Rose</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Royal_George_(1756)" title="HMS Royal George (1756)">HMS <i>Royal George</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasa_(ship)" title="Vasa (ship)"><i>Vasa</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_contractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving contractor">Diving<br />contractors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_maritime_d%27expertises" title="Compagnie maritime d'expertises">COMEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helix_Energy_Solutions_Group" title="Helix Energy Solutions Group">Helix Energy Solutions Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools and<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasive_waterjet" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrasive waterjet">Abrasive waterjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift_(dredging_device)" title="Airlift (dredging device)">Airlift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baited_remote_underwater_video" title="Baited remote underwater video">Baited remote underwater video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-water_surface_cleaning" title="In-water surface cleaning">In-water surface cleaning</a> <ul><li>Brush cart</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavitation_cleaning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cavitation cleaning (page does not exist)">Cavitation cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_washing" title="Pressure washing">Pressure washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigging" title="Pigging">Pigging</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_stab" title="Hot stab">Hot stab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifting_bag" title="Lifting bag">Lifting bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely operated underwater vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_lance" title="Thermal lance">Thermal lance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremie" title="Tremie">Tremie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_jetting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water jetting (page does not exist)">Water jetting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limpet_mine" title="Limpet mine">Limpet mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speargun" title="Speargun">Speargun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sling" title="Hawaiian sling">Hawaiian sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polespear" title="Polespear">Polespear</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Underwaterfirearm" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_firearm" title="Underwater firearm">Underwater<br />firearm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyrojet" title="Gyrojet">Gyrojet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mk_1_Underwater_Defense_Gun" title="Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun">Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powerhead_(firearm)" title="Powerhead (firearm)">Powerhead</a></li> <li>Underwater pistols <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_P11" title="Heckler & Koch P11">Heckler & Koch P11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPP-1_underwater_pistol" title="SPP-1 underwater pistol">SPP-1 underwater pistol</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underwater revolvers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AAI_underwater_revolver" title="AAI underwater revolver">AAI underwater revolver</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underwater rifles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADS_amphibious_rifle" title="ADS amphibious rifle">ADS amphibious rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APS_underwater_rifle" title="APS underwater rifle">APS underwater rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASM-DT_amphibious_rifle" title="ASM-DT amphibious rifle">ASM-DT amphibious rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QBS-06" title="QBS-06">QBS-06</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Recreational_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diving" title="Recreational diving">Recreational diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_dive_sites" title="Recreational dive sites">Recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Index of recreational dive sites">Index of recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wreck_diving_sites" title="List of wreck diving sites">List of wreck diving sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Outline of recreational dive sites">Outline of recreational dive sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_diving" title="Deep diving">Deep diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_diving" title="Ice diving">Ice diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muck_diving" title="Muck diving">Muck diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-water_diving" title="Open-water diving">Open-water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidemount_diving" title="Sidemount diving">Sidemount diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diving" title="Solo diving">Solo diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_diving" title="Technical diving">Technical diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_diving" title="Wreck diving">Wreck diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_organisations" title="Diver organisations">Diver<br />organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Divers_Association_of_Australia" title="Cave Divers Association of Australia">Cave Divers Association of Australia</a> (CDAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Diving_Group" title="Cave Diving Group">Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a> (CFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a> (FEDAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a> (FFESSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Handicapped_Divers" title="International Association for Handicapped Divers">International Association for Handicapped Divers</a> (IAHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintana_Roo_Speleological_Survey" title="Quintana Roo Speleological Survey">Quintana Roo Speleological Survey</a> (QRSS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodville_Karst_Plain_Project" title="Woodville Karst Plain Project">Woodville Karst Plain Project</a> (WKPP)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving tourism<br />industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_center" title="Dive center">Dive center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_in_East_Timor" title="Diving in East Timor">Diving in East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_in_the_Maldives" title="Diving in the Maldives">Diving in the Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_tourism" title="Scuba diving tourism">Scuba diving tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands">Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_tourism" title="Shark tourism">Shark tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_ships_for_wreck_diving_sites" title="Sinking ships for wreck diving sites">Sinking ships for wreck diving sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_on_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater diving on Guam">Underwater diving on Guam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving events<br />and festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversnight" title="Diversnight">Diversnight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Bike_Race" title="Underwater Bike Race">Underwater Bike Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_safety" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety" title="Diving safety">Diving safety</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_safety" title="Human factors in diving safety">Human factors in diving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety-critical_system" title="Safety-critical system">Safety-critical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_fatalities" title="Scuba diving fatalities">Scuba diving fatalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_emergency" title="Underwater diving emergency">Underwater diving emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_safety" title="Water safety">Water safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_surface_searches" title="Water surface searches">Water surface searches</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_hazards" title="Diving hazards">Diving<br />hazards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">List of diving hazards and precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazards_of_the_diving_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazards of the diving environment">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta-P_(hazard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta-P (hazard)">Delta-P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement_(hazard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Entanglement (hazard)">Entanglement hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_diving" title="Penetration diving">Overhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt_out" title="Silt out">Silt out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave action">Wave action</a></li></ul></li> <li>Equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freeflow" title="Freeflow">Freeflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Use_of_breathing_equipment_in_an_underwater_environment" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Failure_of_diving_equipment_other_than_breathing_apparatus" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">Single point of failure</a></li></ul></li> <li>Physiological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_shock_response" title="Cold shock response">Cold shock response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">Nitrogen narcosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasickness">Seasickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontrolled_decompression" title="Uncontrolled decompression">Uncontrolled decompression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Diver_behaviour_and_competence" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Diver behaviour and competence</a> <ul><li>Lack of <a href="/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" title="Overconfidence effect">Overconfidence effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic" title="Panic">Panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_loading" title="Task loading">Task loading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety#Trait" title="Anxiety">Trait anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willful_violation" title="Willful violation">Willful violation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Consequences" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consequences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">Hyperthermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-freezing_cold_injury" title="Non-freezing cold injury">Non-freezing cold injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_procedures" title="Diving procedures">Diving<br />procedures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_and_descending_(diving)" title="Ascending and descending (diving)">Ascending and descending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_ascent" title="Emergency ascent">Emergency ascent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boat_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Boat diving">Boat diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_and_kayak_diving" title="Canoe and kayak diving">Canoe and kayak diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_diving" title="Buddy diving">Buddy diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_check" title="Buddy check">buddy check</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice" title="Decompression practice">Decompression practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyle_stop" title="Pyle stop">Pyle stop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_decompression" title="Ratio decompression">Ratio decompression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_briefing" title="Dive briefing">Dive briefing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_log" title="Dive log">Dive log</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_planning" title="Dive planning">Dive planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds_(diving)" title="Rule of thirds (diving)">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_gas_planning" title="Scuba gas planning">Scuba gas planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_communications" title="Diver communications">Diver communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_rescue" title="Diver rescue">Diver rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doing_It_Right_(scuba_diving)" title="Doing It Right (scuba diving)">Doing It Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drift_diving" title="Drift diving">Drift diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending_for_scuba_diving" title="Gas blending for scuba diving">Gas blending for scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_diving" title="Night diving">Night diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_gas_management" title="Scuba gas management">Scuba gas management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diving" title="Solo diving">Solo diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_diving" title="Wall diving">Wall diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk<br />management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checklist" title="Checklist">Checklist</a></li> <li>Hazard identification and risk assessment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_analysis" title="Hazard analysis">Hazard analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_safety_analysis" title="Job safety analysis">Job safety analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_evacuation_and_rescue" title="Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue">Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_control" title="Risk control">Risk control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">Hierarchy of hazard controls</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incident_pit" title="Incident pit">Incident pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockout%E2%80%93tagout" title="Lockout–tagout">Lockout–tagout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permit_To_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Permit To Work">Permit To Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">Redundancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_data_sheet" title="Safety data sheet">Safety data sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_awareness" title="Situation awareness">Situation awareness</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_team" title="Diving team">Diving team</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bellman_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellman (diving)">Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber operator">Chamber operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_medical_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver medical technician">Diver medical technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_attendant" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's attendant">Diver's attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_systems_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving systems technician">Diving systems technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas man">Gas man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_support_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support technician">Life support technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand-by_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Stand-by diver">Stand-by diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment<br />safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing gas quality">Breathing gas quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing_and_inspection_of_diving_cylinders" title="Testing and inspection of diving cylinders">Testing and inspection of diving cylinders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_test" title="Hydrostatic test">Hydrostatic test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustained_load_cracking" title="Sustained load cracking">Sustained load cracking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator" title="Diving regulator">Diving regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_performance_of_regulators" title="Breathing performance of regulators">Breathing performance of regulators</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational<br />safety and<br />health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Diving_Contractors_International" title="Association of Diving Contractors International">Association of Diving Contractors International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_practice" title="Code of practice">Code of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_plan" title="Contingency plan">Contingency plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_response_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency response plan">Emergency response plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_officer" title="Diving safety officer">Diving safety officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_superintendent" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving superintendent">Diving superintendent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_manual" title="Operations manual">Operations manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_operating_procedure" title="Standard operating procedure">Standard operating procedure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_disorders" title="Diving disorders">Diving<br />disorders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_signs_and_symptoms_of_diving_disorders" title="List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders">List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cramp" title="Cramp">Cramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">Motion sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear" title="Surfer's ear">Surfer's ear</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pressure<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternobaric_vertigo" title="Alternobaric vertigo">Alternobaric vertigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barostriction" class="mw-redirect" title="Barostriction">Barostriction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_embolism" title="Air embolism">Air embolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosinusitis" title="Aerosinusitis">Aerosinusitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barodontalgia" title="Barodontalgia">Barodontalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental barotrauma">Dental barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear_barotrauma" title="Middle ear barotrauma">Middle ear barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary barotrauma">Pulmonary barotrauma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_arthralgia" title="Compression arthralgia">Compression arthralgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">Decompression illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysbarism" title="Dysbarism">Dysbarism</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oxygen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout" title="Freediving blackout">Freediving blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperoxia" title="Hyperoxia">Hyperoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inert gases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avascular_necrosis" title="Avascular necrosis">Avascular necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysbaric_osteonecrosis" title="Dysbaric osteonecrosis">Dysbaric osteonecrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">Isobaric counterdiffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taravana" title="Taravana">Taravana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_nervous_syndrome" title="High-pressure nervous syndrome">High-pressure nervous syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_narcosis" title="Hydrogen narcosis">Hydrogen narcosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">Nitrogen narcosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Carbon dioxide</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocapnia" title="Hypocapnia">Hypocapnia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathing gas<br />contaminants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immersion<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">Asphyxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_diuresis" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion diuresis">Immersion diuresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instinctive_drowning_response" title="Instinctive drowning response">Instinctive drowning response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngospasm" title="Laryngospasm">Laryngospasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_water_aspiration_syndrome" title="Salt water aspiration syndrome">Salt water aspiration syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming-induced_pulmonary_edema" title="Swimming-induced pulmonary edema">Swimming-induced pulmonary edema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_valve_oxygen_therapy" title="Demand valve oxygen therapy">Demand valve oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_aid" title="First aid">First aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine" title="Hyperbaric medicine">Hyperbaric medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_treatment_schedules" title="Hyperbaric treatment schedules">Hyperbaric treatment schedules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-water_recompression" title="In-water recompression">In-water recompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_therapy" title="Oxygen therapy">Oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_recompression" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic recompression">Therapeutic recompression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Examiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Examiner">Diving Medical Examiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Practitioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Practitioner">Diving Medical Practitioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Technician">Diving Medical Technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_nursing" title="Hyperbaric nursing">Hyperbaric nursing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Screening</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect" title="Atrial septal defect">Atrial septal defect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_drugs_on_fitness_to_dive" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of drugs on fitness to dive">Effects of drugs on fitness to dive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_to_dive" title="Fitness to dive">Fitness to dive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_fitness_to_dive" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological fitness to dive">Psychological fitness to dive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_diving_physiology_and_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="List of researchers in diving physiology and medicine">Researchers in<br />diving physiology<br />and medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_J._Bachrach" title="Arthur J. Bachrach">Arthur J. Bachrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_R._Behnke" title="Albert R. Behnke">Albert R. Behnke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_B._Bennett" title="Peter B. Bennett">Peter B. Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bert" title="Paul Bert">Paul Bert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Bond" title="George F. Bond">George F. Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_O._Brubakk" title="Alf O. Brubakk">Alf O. Brubakk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._B%C3%BChlmann" title="Albert A. Bühlmann">Albert A. Bühlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(scientist)" title="John R. Clarke (scientist)">John R. Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guybon_Chesney_Castell_Damant" title="Guybon Chesney Castell Damant">Guybon Chesney Castell Damant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_William_Donald" title="Kenneth William Donald">Kenneth William Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paul_Fife" title="William Paul Fife">William Paul Fife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_William_Hamilton_Jr." title="Robert William Hamilton Jr.">Robert William Hamilton Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Valence_Hempleman" title="Henry Valence Hempleman">Henry Valence Hempleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Erskine_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Erskine Hill">Leonard Erskine Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Andrew_Hills" title="Brian Andrew Hills">Brian Andrew Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Hoppe-Seyler" title="Felix Hoppe-Seyler">Felix Hoppe-Seyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_J._Lambertsen" title="Christian J. Lambertsen">Christian J. Lambertsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Mitchell" title="Simon Mitchell">Simon Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Momsen" title="Charles Momsen">Charles Momsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_W._Pollock" title="Neal W. Pollock">Neal W. Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawlins_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Rawlins (Royal Navy officer)">John Rawlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wesley_Shilling" title="Charles Wesley Shilling">Charles Wesley Shilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_D._Thalmann" title="Edward D. Thalmann">Edward D. Thalmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Triger" title="Jacques Triger">Jacques Triger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving medical<br />research<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Medical_Association" title="Aerospace Medical Association">Aerospace Medical Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a> (DAN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Diseases_Research_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Diseases Research Centre">Diving Diseases Research Centre</a> (DDRC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Advisory_Council" title="Diving Medical Advisory Council">Diving Medical Advisory Council</a> (DMAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Diving_Technology_Committee" title="European Diving Technology Committee">European Diving Technology Committee</a> (EDTC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Underwater_and_Baromedical_Society" title="European Underwater and Baromedical Society">European Underwater and Baromedical Society</a> (EUBS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Board_of_Diving_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Technology" title="National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology">National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Submarine_Medical_Research_Laboratory" title="Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory">Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy_School_of_Underwater_Medicine" title="Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine">Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Underwater_Medicine_Society" title="South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society">South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society</a> (SPUMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Underwater_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Association" title="Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association">Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association</a> (SAUHMA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undersea_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Society" title="Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society">Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society</a> (UHMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Experimental_Diving_Unit" title="United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit">United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit</a> (NEDU)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liability_in_recreational_diving" title="Civil liability in recreational diving">Civil liability in recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_of_care" title="Duty of care">Duty of care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legislation_regulating_underwater_diving" title="List of legislation regulating underwater diving">List of legislation regulating underwater diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigation_of_diving_accidents" title="Investigation of diving accidents">Investigation of diving accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Protection_of_the_Underwater_Cultural_Heritage" title="Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage">Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History_of_underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_underwater_diving" title="History of underwater diving">History of underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_decompression_research_and_development" title="History of decompression research and development">History of decompression research and development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_dive_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="History of dive computers">History of dive computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Diving_Museum" title="History of Diving Museum">History of Diving Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_scuba_diving" title="History of scuba diving">History of scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_underwater_diving" title="List of researchers in underwater diving">List of researchers in underwater diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyons_Maritime_Museum" title="Lyons Maritime Museum">Lyons Maritime Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_in_the_Sea_Museum" title="Man in the Sea Museum">Man in the Sea Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atmospheric_diving_suits" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of atmospheric diving suits">Timeline of atmospheric diving suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_diving_technology" title="Timeline of diving technology">Timeline of diving technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearling_in_Western_Australia" title="Pearling in Western Australia">Pearling in Western Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_Navy_decompression_models_and_tables" title="US Navy decompression models and tables">US Navy decompression models and tables</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archeological<br />sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Commodore" title="SS Commodore">SS <i>Commodore</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whydah_Gally" title="Whydah Gally">Whydah Gally</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater art<br />and artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Diver" title="The Diver">The Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_deCaires_Taylor" title="Jason deCaires Taylor">Jason deCaires Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engineers<br />and inventors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_de_Ayanz_y_Beaumont" title="Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont">Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beebe" title="William Beebe">William Beebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Beuchat" title="Georges Beuchat">Georges Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli" title="Giovanni Alfonso Borelli">Giovanni Alfonso Borelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph-Martin_Cabirol" title="Joseph-Martin Cabirol">Joseph-Martin Cabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(scientist)" title="John R. Clarke (scientist)">John R. Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Anthony_Deane" title="Charles Anthony Deane">Charles Anthony Deane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Deane_(inventor)" title="John Deane (inventor)">John Deane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Corlieu" title="Louis de Corlieu">Louis de Corlieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Denayrouze" title="Auguste Denayrouze">Auguste Denayrouze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Eldred" title="Ted Eldred">Ted Eldred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fleuss" title="Henry Fleuss">Henry Fleuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gagnan" title="Émile Gagnan">Émile Gagnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Heinrich_Klingert" title="Karl Heinrich Klingert">Karl Heinrich Klingert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft_(diver)" title="Peter Kreeft (diver)">Peter Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_J._Lambertsen" title="Christian J. Lambertsen">Christian J. Lambertsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Le_Prieur" title="Yves Le Prieur">Yves Le Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lethbridge" title="John Lethbridge">John Lethbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_William_Moir" title="Ernest William Moir">Ernest William Moir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Salim_Peress" title="Joseph Salim Peress">Joseph Salim Peress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Piccard" title="Auguste Piccard">Auguste Piccard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Savoie" title="Joe Savoie">Joe Savoie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Franklyn_Searle" title="Willard Franklyn Searle">Willard Franklyn Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Smith_(inventor)" title="Gordon Smith (inventor)">Gordon Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Siebe" title="Augustus Siebe">Augustus Siebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Marie_Touboulic" title="Pierre-Marie Touboulic">Pierre-Marie Touboulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Triger" title="Jacques Triger">Jacques Triger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqua-Lung" title="Aqua-Lung">Aqua-Lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RV_Calypso" title="RV Calypso">RV <i>Calypso</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SP-350_Denise" title="SP-350 Denise">SP-350 <i>Denise</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_torch" title="Magnesium torch">Magnesium torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonos" title="Nikonos">Nikonos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub_Marine_Explorer" title="Sub Marine Explorer">Sub Marine Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vintage_scuba" title="Vintage scuba">Vintage scuba</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diverpropulsionvehicles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">Diver<br />propulsion<br />vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_SEAL_Delivery_System" title="Advanced SEAL Delivery System">Advanced SEAL Delivery System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_CE2F_series" title="Cosmos CE2F series">Cosmos CE2F series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_Combat_Submersible" title="Dry Combat Submersible">Dry Combat Submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_torpedo" title="Human torpedo">Human torpedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motorised_Submersible_Canoe" title="Motorised Submersible Canoe">Motorised Submersible Canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necker_Nymph" title="Necker Nymph">Necker Nymph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-2_Mala-class_swimmer_delivery_vehicle" title="R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle">R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEAL_Delivery_Vehicle" title="SEAL Delivery Vehicle">SEAL Delivery Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_Water_Combat_Submersible" title="Shallow Water Combat Submersible">Shallow Water Combat Submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siluro_San_Bartolomeo" title="Siluro San Bartolomeo">Siluro San Bartolomeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfreighter" title="Welfreighter">Welfreighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_Nellie" title="Wet Nellie">Wet Nellie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military and<br />covert operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Alexandria_(1941)" title="Raid on Alexandria (1941)">Raid on Alexandria (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_Rainbow_Warrior" title="Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior">Sinking of the <i>Rainbow Warrior</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_cageless_shark-diving_expedition" title="1992 cageless shark-diving expedition">1992 cageless shark-diving expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_31" title="Mission 31">Mission 31</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Awards and events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass_Award" title="Hans Hass Award">Hans Hass Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Scuba_Diving_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame">International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Diving_Chamber_Dive_Lectures" title="London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures">London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOGI_Awards" title="NOGI Awards">NOGI Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_Divers_Hall_of_Fame" title="Women Divers Hall of Fame">Women Divers Hall of Fame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dive_boat" title="Dive boat">Dive boat</a> incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_MV_Conception" title="Sinking of MV Conception">Sinking of MV <i>Conception</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diver rescues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpazat_cave_rescue" title="Alpazat cave rescue">Alpazat cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tham_Luang_cave_rescue" title="Tham Luang cave rescue">Tham Luang cave rescue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Day_(carpenter)" title="John Day (carpenter)">John Day (carpenter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Spalding" title="Charles Spalding">Charles Spalding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebenezer Watson">Ebenezer Watson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a> fatalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Keenan" title="Stephen Keenan">Stephen Keenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Leferme" title="Loïc Leferme">Loïc Leferme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Mestre" title="Audrey Mestre">Audrey Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mevoli" title="Nicholas Mevoli">Nicholas Mevoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Molchanova" title="Natalia Molchanova">Natalia Molchanova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Offshore_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore diving">Offshore<br />diving</a> incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byford_Dolphin#Diving_bell_accident" title="Byford Dolphin"><i>Byford Dolphin</i> diving bell accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drill_Master_diving_accident" title="Drill Master diving accident"><i>Drill Master</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Canopus_diving_accident" title="Star Canopus diving accident"><i>Star Canopus</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stena_Seaspread_diving_accident" title="Stena Seaspread diving accident"><i>Stena Seaspread</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_One_diving_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture One diving accident"><i>Venture One</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waage_Drill_II_diving_accident" title="Waage Drill II diving accident"><i>Waage Drill II</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildrake_diving_accident" title="Wildrake diving accident"><i>Wildrake</i> diving accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Professional_diving" title="Professional diving">Professional<br />diving</a> fatalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Baldwin_(diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Baldwin (diver)">Roger Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bennett_(diver)" title="John Bennett (diver)">John Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Guiel_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Guiel Jr.">Victor F. Guiel Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_P._Hammerberg" title="Francis P. Hammerberg">Francis P. Hammerberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_M._Hoffman" class="mw-redirect" title="Craig M. Hoffman">Craig M. Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Henry_Michael_Holmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Henry Michael Holmes">Peter Henry Michael Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Sea_Link_accident" title="Johnson Sea Link accident">Johnson Sea Link accident</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Clayton_Link" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Clayton Link">Edwin Clayton Link</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Anthony_Prangley" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerard Anthony Prangley">Gerard Anthony Prangley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_Skipnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Per Skipnes">Per Skipnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_John_Smyth" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert John Smyth">Robert John Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_D._Stover" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert D. Stover">Albert D. Stover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Walker">Richard A. Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothar_Michael_Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Lothar Michael Ward">Lothar Michael Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wendler" title="Joachim Wendler">Joachim Wendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Bradley_Westell" title="Death of Bradley Westell">Bradley Westell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_Zetterstr%C3%B6m" title="Arne Zetterström">Arne Zetterström</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_fatalities" title="Scuba diving fatalities">Scuba diving<br />fatalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973_Mount_Gambier_cave_diving_accident" title="1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident">1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Armbruster" title="Ricardo Armbruster">Ricardo Armbruster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bridge" title="Allan Bridge">Allan Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bright_(diver)" title="David Bright (diver)">David Bright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_L._Cannon" title="Berry L. Cannon">Berry L. Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Coulson" title="Cotton Coulson">Cotton Coulson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A1udio_Coutinho" title="Cláudio Coutinho">Cláudio Coutinho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Yale_Dawson" title="E. Yale Dawson">E. Yale Dawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deon_Dreyer" title="Deon Dreyer">Deon Dreyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Dufek" title="Milan Dufek">Milan Dufek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fargues" title="Maurice Fargues">Maurice Fargues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Garfella_Palmer" title="Fernando Garfella Palmer">Fernando Garfella Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Garman" title="Guy Garman">Guy Garman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Irwin" title="Steve Irwin">Steve Irwin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Steve_Irwin" title="Death of Steve Irwin">death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Jones_(American_football,_born_1935)" title="Jim Jones (American football, born 1935)">Jim Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artur_Koz%C5%82owski_(speleologist)" title="Artur Kozłowski (speleologist)">Artur Kozłowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Lipski" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuri Lipski">Yuri Lipski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirsty_MacColl" title="Kirsty MacColl">Kirsty MacColl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Linnea_Mills" title="Death of Linnea Mills">Linnea Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Milowka" title="Agnes Milowka">Agnes Milowka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Roubaix" title="François de Roubaix">François de Roubaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Dive" title="The Last Dive">Chris and Chrissy Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Shaw" title="Dave Shaw">Dave Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Skiles" title="Wesley C. Skiles">Wesley C. Skiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Smith" title="Dewey Smith">Dewey Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rob_Stewart_(filmmaker)" title="Rob Stewart (filmmaker)">Rob Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esbj%C3%B6rn_Svensson" title="Esbjörn Svensson">Esbjörn Svensson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Velek" title="Josef Velek">Josef Velek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Diving_Manual" title="NOAA Diving Manual">NOAA Diving Manual</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy_Diving_Manual" title="U.S. Navy Diving Manual">U.S. Navy Diving Manual</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basic_Cave_Diving:_A_Blueprint_for_Survival" title="Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival">Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underwater_Handbook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Underwater Handbook (page does not exist)">Underwater Handbook</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bennett_and_Elliott%27s_physiology_and_medicine_of_diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving (page does not exist)">Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia_of_Recreational_Diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving (page does not exist)">Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_new_science_of_skin_and_scuba_diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The new science of skin and scuba diving (page does not exist)">The new science of skin and scuba diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professional_Diver%27s_Handbook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Professional Diver's Handbook (page does not exist)">Professional Diver's Handbook</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Basic_Scuba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Basic Scuba (page does not exist)">Basic Scuba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards and<br />Codes of Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Practice_for_Scientific_Diving_(UNESCO)" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)">Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIN_7876" title="DIN 7876">DIN 7876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IMCA_Code_of_Practice_for_Offshore_Diving" class="mw-redirect" title="IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving">IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_24801_Recreational_diving_services_%E2%80%94_Requirements_for_the_training_of_recreational_scuba_divers" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers">ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Darkness_Beckons" title="The Darkness Beckons">The Darkness Beckons</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goldfinder" title="Goldfinder">Goldfinder</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Dive" title="The Last Dive">The Last Dive</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Divers" title="Shadow Divers">Shadow Divers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Silent_World:_A_Story_of_Undersea_Discovery_and_Adventure" title="The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure">The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Divers_Alert_Network_publications" title="List of Divers Alert Network publications">List of Divers Alert Network publications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dive_guide_(publication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive guide (publication)">Dive guides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Training_and_registration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Training and registration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver<br />training</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Competence and assessment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competency-based_learning" title="Competency-based learning">Competency-based learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refresher_training_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refresher training (diving)">Refresher training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill_assessment" title="Skill assessment">Skill assessment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training_standard" title="Diver training standard">Diver training standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving school">Diving school</a></li> <li>Occupational diver training <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial diver training">Commercial diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Military diver training">Military diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Public safety diver training">Public safety diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific diver training">Scientific diver training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_training" title="Recreational diver training">Recreational diver training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introductory_diving" title="Introductory diving">Introductory diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_recreational_diving_training_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO recreational diving training standards">ISO training standards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlearning" title="Overlearning">Overlearning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_exposure_training" title="Stress exposure training">Stress exposure training</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Skills" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combat_sidestroke" title="Combat sidestroke">Combat sidestroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_navigation" title="Diver navigation">Diver navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_trim" title="Diver trim">Diver trim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_clearing" title="Ear clearing">Ear clearing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frenzel_maneuver" title="Frenzel maneuver">Frenzel maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valsalva_maneuver" title="Valsalva maneuver">Valsalva maneuver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finning_techniques" title="Finning techniques">Finning techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_skills" title="Scuba skills">Scuba skills</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_breathing" title="Buddy breathing">Buddy breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Reef_System" title="Diamond Reef System">Diamond Reef System</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_skills" title="Surface-supplied diving skills">Surface-supplied diving skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_searches" title="Underwater searches">Underwater searches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_scuba_certification_levels" title="Recreational scuba certification levels">Recreational<br />scuba<br />certification<br />levels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core diving skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Open_Water_Diver" title="Advanced Open Water Diver">Advanced Open Water Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_diver" title="Autonomous diver">Autonomous diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS*_scuba_diver" title="CMAS* scuba diver">CMAS* scuba diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS**_scuba_diver" title="CMAS** scuba diver">CMAS** scuba diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introductory_diving" title="Introductory diving">Introductory diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Impact_Diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Impact Diver">Low Impact Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Scuba_Diver" title="Master Scuba Diver">Master Scuba Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Water_Diver" title="Open Water Diver">Open Water Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_diver" title="Supervised diver">Supervised diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leadership skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_leader" title="Dive leader">Dive leader</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divemaster" title="Divemaster">Divemaster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master_Instructor" class="mw-redirect" title="Master Instructor">Master Instructor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialist skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Diver" title="Rescue Diver">Rescue Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Solo diver">Solo diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_training_organization" title="Diver training organization">Diver training<br />certification<br />and registration<br />organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Underwater_Federation" title="European Underwater Federation">European Underwater Federation</a> (EUF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Diving_Regulators_and_Certifiers_Forum" title="International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum">International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum</a> (IDRCF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Diving_Schools_Association" title="International Diving Schools Association">International Diving Schools Association</a> (IDSA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a> (IMCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diver_certification_organizations" title="List of diver certification organizations">List of diver certification organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_course_referral" title="Recreational diver course referral">Recreational diver course referral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Recreational_Scuba_Training_Council" title="World Recreational Scuba Training Council">World Recreational Scuba Training Council</a> (WRSTC)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial diver<br />certification<br />authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Diver_Accreditation_Scheme" title="Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme">Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme</a> (ADAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver_registration_in_South_Africa" title="Commercial diver registration in South Africa">Commercial diver registration in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Institute_of_Technology" title="Divers Institute of Technology">Divers Institute of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive" title="Health and Safety Executive">Health and Safety Executive</a> (HSE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Employment_and_Labour" title="Department of Employment and Labour">Department of Employment and Labour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial diving<br />schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Academy_International" title="Divers Academy International">Divers Academy International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Norway_University_of_Applied_Sciences#Norwegian_diver_school" title="Western Norway University of Applied Sciences">Norwegian diver school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Free-diving<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a> (AIDA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_Freediving_International" title="Performance Freediving International">Performance Freediving International</a> (PI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a> (SSI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recreational<br />scuba<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Canadian_Underwater_Certifications" title="American Canadian Underwater Certifications">American Canadian Underwater Certifications</a> (ACUC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Nitrox_Divers_International" title="American Nitrox Divers International">American Nitrox Divers International</a> (ANDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_nationale_des_moniteurs_de_plong%C3%A9e" title="Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée">Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée</a> (ANMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a> (CFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a> (FEDAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a> (FFESSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_Attivit%C3%A0_Subacquee" title="Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee">Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee</a> (FIAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Underwater_Explorers" title="Global Underwater Explorers">Global Underwater Explorers</a> (GUE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Handicapped_Divers" title="International Association for Handicapped Divers">International Association for Handicapped Divers</a> (IAHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Nitrox_and_Technical_Divers" title="International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers">International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers</a> (IANTD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Life_Saving_Federation" title="International Life Saving Federation">International Life Saving Federation</a> (ILS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Diving_Federation" title="Israeli Diving Federation">Israeli Diving Federation</a> (TIDF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Scuba_Educators" title="National Academy of Scuba Educators">National Academy of Scuba Educators</a> (NASE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Underwater_Instructors" title="National Association of Underwater Instructors">National Association of Underwater Instructors</a> (NAUI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandse_Onderwatersport_Bond" title="Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond">Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond</a> (NOB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Association_of_Diving_Instructors" title="Professional Association of Diving Instructors">Professional Association of Diving Instructors</a> (PADI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Diving_Instructors_Corporation" title="Professional Diving Instructors Corporation">Professional Diving Instructors Corporation</a> (PDIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Technical_and_Recreational_Diving" title="Professional Technical and Recreational Diving">Professional Technical and Recreational Diving</a> (ProTec)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_Association_of_International_Divers" title="Rebreather Association of International Divers">Rebreather Association of International Divers</a> (RAID)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Aqua_Association" title="Sub-Aqua Association">Sub-Aqua Association</a> (SAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Diving_International" title="Scuba Diving International">Scuba Diving International</a> (SDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Educators_International" title="Scuba Educators International">Scuba Educators International</a> (SEI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Sub_Aqua_Club" title="Scottish Sub Aqua Club">Scottish Sub Aqua Club</a> (ScotSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a> (SSI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="Turkish Underwater Sports Federation">Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu</a> (TSSF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Diving_Instructors" title="United Diving Instructors">United Diving Instructors</a> (UDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/YMCA_SCUBA_Program" title="YMCA SCUBA Program">YMCA SCUBA Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific diver<br />certification<br />authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Underwater_Sciences" title="American Academy of Underwater Sciences">American Academy of Underwater Sciences</a> (AAUS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques#Scientific_committee" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">CMAS Scientific Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical diver<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Nitrox_Divers_International" title="American Nitrox Divers International">American Nitrox Divers International</a> (ANDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Science_and_Technology" title="Diving Science and Technology">Diving Science and Technology</a> (DSAT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_Attivit%C3%A0_Subacquee" title="Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee">Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee</a> (FIAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Nitrox_and_Technical_Divers" title="International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers">International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers</a> (IANTD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Association_of_Diving_Instructors" title="Professional Association of Diving Instructors">Professional Association of Diving Instructors</a> (PADI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Diving_Instructors_Corporation" title="Professional Diving Instructors Corporation">Professional Diving Instructors Corporation</a> (PDIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Technical_and_Recreational_Diving" title="Professional Technical and Recreational Diving">Professional Technical and Recreational Diving</a> (ProTec)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_Association_of_International_Divers" title="Rebreather Association of International Divers">Rebreather Association of International Divers</a> (RAID)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimix_Scuba_Association" title="Trimix Scuba Association">Trimix Scuba Association</a> (TSA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Technical Extended Range</a> (TXR)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cavediving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cave<br />diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Divers_Association_of_Australia" title="Cave Divers Association of Australia">Cave Divers Association of Australia</a> (CDAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Diving_Group" title="Cave Diving Group">Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Underwater_Explorers" title="Global Underwater Explorers">Global Underwater Explorers</a> (GUE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Speleological_Society#Cave_Diving_Group" title="National Speleological Society">National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Underwater_Instructors" title="National Association of Underwater Instructors">National Association of Underwater Instructors</a> (NAUI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_Diving_International" title="Technical Diving International">Technical Diving International</a> (TDI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military diver<br />training centres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Diving_School" title="Defence Diving School">Defence Diving School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Support_Activity_Panama_City#Tenant_commands" title="Naval Support Activity Panama City">Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Escape_Training_Unit" title="Underwater Escape Training Unit">Underwater Escape Training Unit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military diver<br />training courses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Combatant_Diver_Course" title="United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course">United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_sports" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_sports" title="Underwater sports">Underwater sports</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface snorkeling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finswimming" title="Finswimming">Finswimming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Snorkeling/breath-hold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_football" title="Underwater football">Underwater football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey" title="Underwater hockey">Underwater hockey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey_in_Australia" title="Underwater hockey in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey_in_Turkey" title="Underwater hockey in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby" title="Underwater rugby">Underwater rugby</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater rugby in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby_in_the_United_States" title="Underwater rugby in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_target_shooting" title="Underwater target shooting">Underwater target shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breath-hold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquathlon_(underwater_wrestling)" title="Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)">Aquathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apnoea_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea finswimming">Apnoea finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Open Circuit Scuba</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion finswimming">Immersion finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_diving_(sport)" title="Sport diving (sport)">Sport diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_cycling" title="Underwater cycling">Underwater cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_orienteering" title="Underwater orienteering">Underwater orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography_(sport)" title="Underwater photography (sport)">Underwater photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rebreather</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography_(sport)" title="Underwater photography (sport)">Underwater photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sports governing<br />organisations<br /> and federations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>International <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>National <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_Hellas" title="AIDA Hellas">AIDA Hellas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Underwater_Federation" title="Australian Underwater Federation">Australian Underwater Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Freediving_Association" title="British Freediving Association">British Freediving Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Octopush_Association" title="British Octopush Association">British Octopush Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Underwater_Sports_Association" title="British Underwater Sports Association">British Underwater Sports Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_federation_of_underwater_studies_and_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="French federation of underwater studies and sports">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="South African Underwater Sports Federation">South African Underwater Sports Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="Turkish Underwater Sports Federation">Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Society_of_America" title="Underwater Society of America">Underwater Society of America</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/14th_CMAS_Underwater_Photography_World_Championship" title="14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship">14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Hockey_World_Championships" title="Underwater Hockey World Championships">Underwater Hockey World Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Orienteering_World_Championships" title="Underwater Orienteering World Championships">Underwater Orienteering World Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Rugby_World_Championships" title="Underwater Rugby World Championships">Underwater Rugby World Championships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_divers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_underwater_divers" title="Outline of underwater divers">Underwater divers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers<br />of diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Admetlla_i_L%C3%A1zaro" title="Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro">Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquanaut" title="Aquanaut">Aquanaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Bonnin" title="Mary Bonnin">Mary Bonnin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Behrens-Furniss" title="Amelia Behrens-Furniss">Amelia Behrens-Furniss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Cahill" title="James F. Cahill">James F. Cahill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Deans_(diver)" title="Billy Deans (diver)">Billy Deans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dottie_Frazier" title="Dottie Frazier">Dottie Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Hampton" title="Trevor Hampton">Trevor Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass" title="Hans Hass">Hans Hass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutkowski" title="Dick Rutkowski">Dick Rutkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teseo_Tesei" title="Teseo Tesei">Teseo Tesei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_Zetterstr%C3%B6m" title="Arne Zetterström">Arne Zetterström</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />scientists<br />archaeologists and<br />environmentalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Arbuthnot" title="Michael Arbuthnot">Michael Arbuthnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ballard" title="Robert Ballard">Robert Ballard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mensun_Bound" title="Mensun Bound">Mensun Bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Boutan" title="Louis Boutan">Louis Boutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Bozanic" title="Jeffrey Bozanic">Jeffrey Bozanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Bradner" title="Hugh Bradner">Hugh Bradner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathy_Church" title="Cathy Church">Cathy Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Clark" title="Eugenie Clark">Eugenie Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Delgado" title="James P. Delgado">James P. Delgado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Earle" title="Sylvia Earle">Sylvia Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Christopher_Fine" title="John Christopher Fine">John Christopher Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_R._Fischer" title="George R. Fischer">George R. Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Franz%C3%A9n" title="Anders Franzén">Anders Franzén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_Frost" title="Honor Frost">Honor Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Garfella_Palmer" title="Fernando Garfella Palmer">Fernando Garfella Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gibbins" title="David Gibbins">David Gibbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Jessop" title="Graham Jessop">Graham Jessop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swietenia_Puspa_Lestari" title="Swietenia Puspa Lestari">Swietenia Puspa Lestari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilar_Luna" title="Pilar Luna">Pilar Luna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Marx" title="Robert F. Marx">Robert F. Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Marguerite_McCann" title="Anna Marguerite McCann">Anna Marguerite McCann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innes_McCartney" title="Innes McCartney">Innes McCartney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_T._Meide" title="Charles T. Meide">Charles T. Meide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_M._Newell" title="Mark M. Newell">Mark M. Newell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyuba_Ognenova-Marinova" title="Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova">Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">John Peter Oleson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendel_L._Peterson" title="Mendel L. Peterson">Mendel L. Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pyle" title="Richard Pyle">Richard Pyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Rechnitzer" title="Andreas Rechnitzer">Andreas Rechnitzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Royal" title="William R. Royal">William R. Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Rule" title="Margaret Rule">Margaret Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunter_Sch%C3%B6bel" title="Gunter Schöbel">Gunter Schöbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Schwabe" title="Stephanie Schwabe">Stephanie Schwabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriam_Seco" title="Myriam Seco">Myriam Seco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Lee_Spence" title="E. Lee Spence">E. Lee Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_St%C3%A9nuit" title="Robert Sténuit">Robert Sténuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristina_Zenato" title="Cristina Zenato">Cristina Zenato</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scuba record<br />holders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_Bernab%C3%A9" title="Pascal Bernabé">Pascal Bernabé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Bowden_(diver)" title="Jim Bowden (diver)">Jim Bowden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ellyatt" title="Mark Ellyatt">Mark Ellyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuno_Gomes_(diver)" title="Nuno Gomes (diver)">Nuno Gomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Serpieri" title="Claudia Serpieri">Claudia Serpieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Starnawski" title="Krzysztof Starnawski">Krzysztof Starnawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />filmmakers<br />and presenters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Alhafith" title="Samir Alhafith">Samir Alhafith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Attenborough" title="David Attenborough">David Attenborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Bravo" title="Ramón Bravo">Ramón Bravo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Michel_Cousteau" title="Jean-Michel Cousteau">Jean-Michel Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Kohler" title="Richie Kohler">Richie Kohler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Rose_(TV_presenter)" title="Paul Rose (TV presenter)">Paul Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Torbet" title="Andy Torbet">Andy Torbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Tors" title="Ivan Tors">Ivan Tors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wight" title="Andrew Wight">Andrew Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cameron" title="James Cameron">James Cameron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />photographers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Allan" title="Doug Allan">Doug Allan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Benitez" title="Tamara Benitez">Tamara Benitez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Beuchat" title="Georges Beuchat">Georges Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Biddle" title="Adrian Biddle">Adrian Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bird" title="Jonathan Bird">Jonathan Bird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Cheng" title="Eric Cheng">Eric Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Coleman" title="Neville Coleman">Neville Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Craig" title="John D. Craig">John D. Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Cropp" title="Ben Cropp">Ben Cropp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Delemotte" title="Bernard Delemotte">Bernard Delemotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Doubilet" title="David Doubilet">David Doubilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candice_Farmer" title="Candice Farmer">Candice Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Christopher_Fine" title="John Christopher Fine">John Christopher Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Fox" title="Rodney Fox">Rodney Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ric_Frazier" title="Ric Frazier">Ric Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Frink" title="Stephen Frink">Stephen Frink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gimbel" title="Peter Gimbel">Peter Gimbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monty_Halls" title="Monty Halls">Monty Halls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass" title="Hans Hass">Hans Hass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudie_Kuiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudie Kuiter">Rudie Kuiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._MacInnis" title="Joseph B. MacInnis">Joseph B. MacInnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Marden" title="Luis Marden">Luis Marden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Milowka" title="Agnes Milowka">Agnes Milowka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noel_Monkman" title="Noel Monkman">Noel Monkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Oxford" title="Pete Oxford">Pete Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Parish" title="Steve Parish">Steve Parish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zale_Parry" title="Zale Parry">Zale Parry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Petit_(photographer)" title="Pierre Petit (photographer)">Pierre Petit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leni_Riefenstahl" title="Leni Riefenstahl">Leni Riefenstahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Scoones" title="Peter Scoones">Peter Scoones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Skerry" title="Brian Skerry">Brian Skerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Skiles" title="Wesley C. Skiles">Wesley C. Skiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Lee_Spence" title="E. Lee Spence">E. Lee Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Tailliez" title="Philippe Tailliez">Philippe Tailliez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Taylor_(diver)" title="Ron Taylor (diver)">Ron Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_Taylor_(diver)" title="Valerie Taylor (diver)">Valerie Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Tillman" title="Albert Tillman">Albert Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Veltri" title="John Veltri">John Veltri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stan_Waterman" title="Stan Waterman">Stan Waterman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michele_Westmorland" title="Michele Westmorland">Michele Westmorland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ernest_Williamson" title="John Ernest Williamson">John Ernest Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Lamar_Worzel" title="J. Lamar Worzel">J. Lamar Worzel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caves <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Balcombe" title="Graham Balcombe">Graham Balcombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyn_Farr" title="Martyn Farr">Martyn Farr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochen_Hasenmayer" title="Jochen Hasenmayer">Jochen Hasenmayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jill_Heinerth" title="Jill Heinerth">Jill Heinerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrod_Jablonski" title="Jarrod Jablonski">Jarrod Jablonski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hogarth_Main" title="William Hogarth Main">William Hogarth Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mount" title="Tom Mount">Tom Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Sheppard_(cave_diver)" title="Jack Sheppard (cave diver)">Jack Sheppard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stone_(caver)" title="William Stone (caver)">Bill Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li>Reefs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wrecks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Bishop" title="Leigh Bishop">Leigh Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chatterton" title="John Chatterton">John Chatterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Cussler" title="Clive Cussler">Clive Cussler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Nagle" title="Bill Nagle">Bill Nagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_van_Heest" title="Valerie van Heest">Valerie van Heest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelis_Zervoudis" title="Aristotelis Zervoudis">Aristotelis Zervoudis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aquanaut" title="Aquanaut">Aquanauts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Abercromby" title="Andrew Abercromby">Andrew Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_M._Acaba" title="Joseph M. Acaba">Joseph M. Acaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Anderson" title="Clayton Anderson">Clayton Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Arnold" title="Richard R. Arnold">Richard R. Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Au%C3%B1%C3%B3n-Chancellor" title="Serena Auñón-Chancellor">Serena Auñón-Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Barratt_(astronaut)" title="Michael Barratt (astronaut)">Michael Barratt (astronaut)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Barth" title="Robert A. Barth">Robert A. Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Behnken" title="Bob Behnken">Robert L. Behnken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Bresnik" title="Randolph Bresnik">Randolph Bresnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_J._Broderick" title="Timothy J. Broderick">Timothy J. Broderick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Brown_(aquanaut)" title="Justin Brown (aquanaut)">Justin Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_L._Cannon" title="Berry L. Cannon">Berry L. Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Carpenter" title="Scott Carpenter">Scott Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Chamitoff" title="Gregory Chamitoff">Gregory Chamitoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Chappell" title="Steve Chappell">Steve Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Coleman" title="Catherine Coleman">Catherine Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Cook_(American_novelist)" title="Robin Cook (American novelist)">Robin Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_B._Cooper" title="Craig B. Cooper">Craig B. Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabien_Cousteau" title="Fabien Cousteau">Fabien Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Cousteau" title="Philippe Cousteau">Philippe Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Creamer" title="Timothy Creamer">Timothy Creamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dory" title="Jonathan Dory">Jonathan Dory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Duque" title="Pedro Duque">Pedro Duque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Earle" title="Sylvia Earle">Sylvia Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanette_Epps" title="Jeanette Epps">Jeanette Epps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Falco" title="Albert Falco">Albert Falco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_J._Feustel" title="Andrew J. Feustel">Andrew J. Feustel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fincke" title="Michael Fincke">Michael Fincke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satoshi_Furukawa" title="Satoshi Furukawa">Satoshi Furukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_J._Garan_Jr." title="Ronald J. Garan Jr.">Ronald J. Garan Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Gernhardt" title="Michael L. Gernhardt">Michael L. Gernhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_E._Gerty" title="Christopher E. Gerty">Christopher E. Gerty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gruber" title="David Gruber">David Gruber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hadfield" title="Chris Hadfield">Chris Hadfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Hansen" title="Jeremy Hansen">Jeremy Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_M._Hern%C3%A1ndez" title="José M. Hernández">José M. Hernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Herrington" title="John Herrington">John Herrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hill_(flight_director)" title="Paul Hill (flight director)">Paul Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akihiko_Hoshide" title="Akihiko Hoshide">Akihiko Hoshide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hulsbeck" title="Mark Hulsbeck">Mark Hulsbeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Hwang" title="Emma Hwang">Emma Hwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norishige_Kanai" title="Norishige Kanai">Norishige Kanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Kaufman" title="Les Kaufman">Les Kaufman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Kelly_(astronaut)" title="Scott Kelly (astronaut)">Scott Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Kohanowich" title="Karen Kohanowich">Karen Kohanowich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Kopra" title="Timothy Kopra">Timothy Kopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Landucci" title="Dominic Landucci">Dominic Landucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Lindbergh" title="Jon Lindbergh">Jon Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjell_N._Lindgren" title="Kjell N. Lindgren">Kjell N. Lindgren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L%C3%B3pez-Alegr%C3%ADa" title="Michael López-Alegría">Michael López-Alegría</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._MacInnis" title="Joseph B. MacInnis">Joseph B. MacInnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Magnus" title="Sandra Magnus">Sandra Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Marshburn" title="Thomas Marshburn">Thomas Marshburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Maurer" title="Matthias Maurer">Matthias Maurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._Megan_McArthur" title="K. Megan McArthur">K. Megan McArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_McKinley_(physician)" title="Craig McKinley (physician)">Craig McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Meir" title="Jessica Meir">Jessica Meir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Melchior" title="Simone Melchior">Simone Melchior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Metcalf-Lindenburger" title="Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger">Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Mogensen" title="Andreas Mogensen">Andreas Mogensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Nyberg" title="Karen Nyberg">Karen Nyberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Olivas" title="John D. Olivas">John D. Olivas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takuya_Onishi" title="Takuya Onishi">Takuya Onishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luca_Parmitano" title="Luca Parmitano">Luca Parmitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Patrick" title="Nicholas Patrick">Nicholas Patrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Peake" title="Tim Peake">Tim Peake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pesquet" title="Thomas Pesquet">Thomas Pesquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Reagan" title="Marc Reagan">Marc Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Reisman" title="Garrett Reisman">Garrett Reisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Rubins" title="Kathleen Rubins">Kathleen Rubins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutkowski" title="Dick Rutkowski">Dick Rutkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_Ruttley" title="Tara Ruttley">Tara Ruttley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Saint-Jacques" title="David Saint-Jacques">David Saint-Jacques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Schmid_(flight_surgeon)" title="Josef Schmid (flight surgeon)">Josef Schmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sheats" title="Robert Sheats">Robert Sheats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Smith" title="Dewey Smith">Dewey Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Squyres" title="Steve Squyres">Steve Squyres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidemarie_Stefanyshyn-Piper" title="Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper">Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_St%C3%A9nuit" title="Robert Sténuit">Robert Sténuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Stevenin" title="Hervé Stevenin">Hervé Stevenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Stott" title="Nicole Stott">Nicole Stott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Talacek" title="James Talacek">James Talacek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_M._Tani" title="Daniel M. Tani">Daniel M. Tani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Thirsk" title="Robert Thirsk">Robert Thirsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Todd" title="Bill Todd">Bill Todd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_T._Vande_Hei" title="Mark T. Vande Hei">Mark T. Vande Hei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koichi_Wakata" title="Koichi Wakata">Koichi Wakata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_J._Walheim" title="Rex J. Walheim">Rex J. Walheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shannon_Walker" title="Shannon Walker">Shannon Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morgan_Wells" title="John Morgan Wells">John Morgan Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wendler" title="Joachim Wendler">Joachim Wendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_H._Wheelock" title="Douglas H. Wheelock">Douglas H. Wheelock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peggy_Whitson" title="Peggy Whitson">Peggy Whitson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dafydd_Williams" title="Dafydd Williams">Dafydd Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Williams_(astronaut)" title="Jeffrey Williams (astronaut)">Jeffrey Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunita_Williams" title="Sunita Williams">Sunita Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reid_Wiseman" title="Reid Wiseman">Reid Wiseman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimiya_Yui" title="Kimiya Yui">Kimiya Yui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers and journalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Barnette" title="Michael C. Barnette">Michael C. Barnette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Berge" title="Victor Berge">Victor Berge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Diol%C3%A9" title="Philippe Diolé">Philippe Diolé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Gentile" title="Gary Gentile">Gary Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bret_Gilliam" title="Bret Gilliam">Bret Gilliam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Halstead" title="Bob Halstead">Bob Halstead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillary_Hauser" title="Hillary Hauser">Hillary Hauser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Jackson_(diver)" title="Trevor Jackson (diver)">Trevor Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Lewis_(diver)" title="Steve Lewis (diver)">Steve Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mattera" title="John Mattera">John Mattera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rescuers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Challen" title="Craig Challen">Craig Challen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Harris_(anaesthetist)" title="Richard Harris (anaesthetist)">Richard Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Stanton" title="Rick Stanton">Rick Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Volanthen" title="John Volanthen">John Volanthen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frogmen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Crabb" title="Lionel Crabb">Lionel Crabb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Edward_Fraser" title="Ian Edward Fraser">Ian Edward Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Knowles" title="Sydney Knowles">Sydney Knowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joseph_Magennis" title="James Joseph Magennis">James Joseph Magennis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial salvors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Jessop" title="Keith Jessop">Keith Jessop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Science_of_underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_of_underwater_diving" title="Science of underwater diving">Science of underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_underwater_diving" title="List of researchers in underwater diving">List of researchers in underwater diving</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_physics" title="Diving physics">Diving<br />physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metre_sea_water" title="Metre sea water">Metre sea water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy" title="Neutral buoyancy">Neutral buoyancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modulated_ultrasound" title="Modulated ultrasound">Modulated ultrasound</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_computer_vision" title="Underwater computer vision">Underwater computer vision</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving physiology">Diving<br />physiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex#Blood_shift" title="Diving reflex">Blood shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_shock_response" title="Cold shock response">Cold shock response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex" title="Diving reflex">Diving reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_narcotic_depth" title="Equivalent narcotic depth">Equivalent narcotic depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_operating_depth" title="Maximum operating depth">Maximum operating depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_response_to_water_immersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological response to water immersion">Physiological response to water immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_balance_of_the_underwater_diver" title="Thermal balance of the underwater diver">Thermal balance of the underwater diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_breathing" title="Work of breathing">Work of breathing</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Decompressiontheory" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decompression<br />theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Decompression models: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChlmann_decompression_algorithm" title="Bühlmann decompression algorithm">Bühlmann decompression algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane%27s_decompression_model" title="Haldane's decompression model">Haldane's decompression model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_gradient_bubble_model" title="Reduced gradient bubble model">Reduced gradient bubble model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalmann_algorithm" title="Thalmann algorithm">Thalmann algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression" title="Thermodynamic model of decompression">Thermodynamic model of decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varying_Permeability_Model" title="Varying Permeability Model">Varying Permeability Model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_air_depth" title="Equivalent air depth">Equivalent air depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_window" title="Oxygen window">Oxygen window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_decompression" title="Physiology of decompression">Physiology of decompression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_environment" title="Underwater diving environment">Diving<br />environments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_exploration" title="Deep-sea exploration">Deep-sea exploration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_environments_by_type" title="List of diving environments by type">List of diving environments by type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benign_water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign water diving">Benign water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confined_water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Confined water diving">Confined water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_diving" title="Deep diving">Deep diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inland_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Inland diving">Inland diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inshore_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Inshore diving">Inshore diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muck_diving" title="Muck diving">Muck diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_diving" title="Night diving">Night diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-water_diving" title="Open-water diving">Open-water diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-water diving">Black-water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue-water diving">Blue-water diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_diving" title="Penetration diving">Penetration diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torricellian_chamber" title="Torricellian chamber">Torricellian chamber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_diving" title="Ice diving">Ice diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_diving" title="Wreck diving">Wreck diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_dive_sites" title="Recreational dive sites">Recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_environment" title="Underwater environment">Underwater environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_environment" title="Underwater diving environment">Underwater diving environment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathysphere" title="Bathysphere">Bathysphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_against_swimmer_incursions" title="Defense against swimmer incursions">Defense against swimmer incursions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_detection_sonar" title="Diver detection sonar">Diver detection sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore survey">Offshore survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_compact_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rugged compact camera">Rugged compact camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_domain_awareness" title="Underwater domain awareness">Underwater domain awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vehicle" title="Underwater vehicle">Underwater vehicle</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence vehicle">Deep-submergence<br />vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminaut" title="Aluminaut"><i>Aluminaut</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_submarine_NR-1" title="American submarine NR-1">American submarine NR-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe" title="Bathyscaphe">Bathyscaphe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archim%C3%A8de" title="Archimède"><i>Archimède</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FNRS-2" title="FNRS-2">FNRS-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FNRS-3" title="FNRS-3">FNRS-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe#Harmony_class_bathyscaphe" title="Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe"><i>Harmony</i> class bathyscaphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe" title="Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe"><i>Sea Pole</i>-class bathyscaphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe_Trieste_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyscaphe Trieste II"><i>Trieste II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepsea_Challenger" title="Deepsea Challenger"><i>Deepsea Challenger</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ictineu_3" title="Ictineu 3"><i>Ictineu 3</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JAGO_(German_research_submersible)" title="JAGO (German research submersible)"><i>JAGO</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaolong_(submersible)" title="Jiaolong (submersible)"><i>Jiaolong</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konsul-class_submersible" title="Konsul-class submersible"><i>Konsul</i>-class submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Limiting_Factor" title="DSV Limiting Factor"><i>Limiting Factor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_submarine_Losharik" title="Russian submarine Losharik">Russian submarine <i>Losharik</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_(submersible)" title="Mir (submersible)"><i>Mir</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautile" title="Nautile"><i>Nautile</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisces-class_deep_submergence_vehicle" title="Pisces-class deep submergence vehicle"><i>Pisces</i>-class deep submergence vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Sea_Cliff" title="DSV Sea Cliff">DSV <i>Sea Cliff</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai" title="DSV Shinkai">DSV <i>Shinkai</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_2000" title="DSV Shinkai 2000">DSV <i>Shinkai 2000</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_6500" title="DSV Shinkai 6500">DSV <i>Shinkai 6500</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Turtle" title="DSV Turtle">DSV <i>Turtle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV-5_Nemo" title="DSV-5 Nemo">DSV-5 <i>Nemo</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue" title="Submarine rescue">Submarine rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Submarine_Escape_and_Rescue_Liaison_Office" title="International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office">International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_and_Rescue_system_(Royal_Swedish_Navy)" title="Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)">Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCann_Rescue_Chamber" title="McCann Rescue Chamber">McCann Rescue Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship" title="Submarine rescue ship">Submarine rescue ship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Deep-submergencerescue_vehicle" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence rescue vehicle">Deep-submergence<br />rescue vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LR5" title="LR5">LR5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LR7" title="LR7">LR7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSM-1" title="MSM-1">MSM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystic-class_deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Mystic-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle"><i>Mystic</i>-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DSRV-1_Mystic" title="DSRV-1 Mystic">DSRV-1 <i>Mystic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSRV-2_Avalon" title="DSRV-2 Avalon">DSRV-2 <i>Avalon</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_Submarine_Rescue_System" title="NATO Submarine Rescue System">NATO Submarine Rescue System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priz-class_deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Priz-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle"><i>Priz</i>-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_deep_submergence_rescue_vehicle_AS-28" title="Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28">Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_submarine_AS-34" title="Russian submarine AS-34">Russian submarine AS-34</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASRV_Remora" class="mw-redirect" title="ASRV Remora">ASRV <i>Remora</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SRV-300" title="SRV-300">SRV-300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Rescue_Diving_Recompression_System" title="Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System">Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_7103_DSRV" class="mw-redirect" title="Type 7103 DSRV">Type 7103 DSRV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/URF_(Swedish_Navy)" title="URF (Swedish Navy)">URF (Swedish Navy)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_escape&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Submarine escape (page does not exist)">Submarine escape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Escape_trunk" title="Escape trunk">Escape trunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_escape_training_facility" title="Submarine escape training facility">Submarine escape training facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_Training_Facility_(Australia)" title="Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)">Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Escape_set" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Escape_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Escape set">Escape set</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Davis_Submerged_Escape_Apparatus" title="Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus">Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momsen_lung" title="Momsen lung">Momsen lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinke_hood" title="Steinke hood">Steinke hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_Immersion_Equipment" title="Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment">Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special<br />interest<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Reef_Society_of_British_Columbia" title="Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia">Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS_Europe" title="CMAS Europe">CMAS Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Reef_Alliance" title="Coral Reef Alliance">Coral Reef Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Fins" title="Green Fins">Green Fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_Lakes_Underwater_Preserve_Association" title="Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association">Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_Underwater_Research" title="Karst Underwater Research">Karst Underwater Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Program" title="Nautical Archaeology Program">Nautical Archaeology Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Air_Command_Sub_Aqua_Club" title="Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club">Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PADI_AWARE" title="PADI AWARE">PADI AWARE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Check" title="Reef Check">Reef Check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Life_Survey" title="Reef Life Survey">Reef Life Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_Ontario_Shipwrecks" title="Save Ontario Shipwrecks">Save Ontario Shipwrecks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaKeys" title="SeaKeys">SeaKeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Historical_Research" title="Society for Underwater Historical Research">Society for Underwater Historical Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Technology" title="Society for Underwater Technology">Society for Underwater Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Archaeology_Branch,_Naval_History_%26_Heritage_Command" title="Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command">Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Neutral buoyancy<br />facilities for<br />Astronaut training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Laboratory" title="Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory">Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy_pool" title="Neutral buoyancy pool">Neutral buoyancy pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy_simulation_as_a_training_aid" title="Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid">Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Simulator" title="Neutral Buoyancy Simulator">Neutral Buoyancy Simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Systems_Laboratory_(Maryland)" title="Space Systems Laboratory (Maryland)">Space Systems Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin_Cosmonaut_Training_Center" title="Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center">Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Productions" title="Nautilus Productions">Nautilus Productions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_Aircrew_Breathing_Device" title="Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device">Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_therapy" title="Scuba diving therapy">Scuba diving therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_mining" title="Seabed mining">Seabed mining</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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[\"CITEREFBurton2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBühlmann1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCialoniPieriBalestraMarroni2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCole2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;AoustWhiteSwansonDunford1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenoble2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoboszynskiSickoKot2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoolette2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDooletteGaultGerth2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDooletteMitchell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDooletteMitchell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEckenhoffOsborneParkerBondi1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlook2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGernhardt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerthDoolette2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldmanGoldman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldmanGoldman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorman1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGormanPearceWebb1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGurr2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamiltonThalmann2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHampel1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHempleman1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry1803\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillPetrucci1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHills1978\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHills1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffmanYount1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowleWeberHadaVann2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuggins1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuggins1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHugonMetelkinaBarbaudNishi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImbertParisHugon2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasture2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKindwallBazLightfootLanphier1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitano1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKotSickoDoboszynski2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuchButtazzoSieber2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLambertson1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangVann1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeMessurierHills1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLippmannMitchell2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaiken1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasurelGutierrezGiacomoni1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoonKisslo1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMouret2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapadopoulouEckersleyBalestraKarapantsios2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParkerS.S._SurvanshiP.K._WeathersbyE.D._Thalmann1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPilmanisPetropoulosKannanWebb2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPittman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPyle1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPyle2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalama2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScharlinBattinoSillaTuñón1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShearwater_Research2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephenson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThalmann1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThalmann1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTikuisis1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUS_Navy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_LiewConkin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_LiewConkinBurkard1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVann1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVann1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVannDenobleHowleWeber2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVannDunford2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVannGerthDenoblePieper2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWienke\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWienke1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWienke1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWienke2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsPriorBryson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorkman1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungBattinoClever1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYount1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYount1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYount2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYountHoffman1984\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 16,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 43,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite periodical\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 31,\n [\"Convert\"] = 13,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Expand section\"] = 5,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 21,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Note\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref label\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 14,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Underwater diving\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Visible anchor\"] = 2,\n [\"Wide image\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","240","20.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","15.5"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","6.9"],["date","80","6.9"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","60","5.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","40","3.4"],["newFrame \u003Cmw.lua:153\u003E","40","3.4"],["\u003CModule:Citation/CS1:813\u003E","40","3.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","3.4"],["[others]","300","25.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-678566b588-2jjjv","timestamp":"20241128194325","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Decompression theory","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decompression_theory","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q16000452","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q16000452","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2013-03-14T19:26:01Z","dateModified":"2024-11-25T17:43:37Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/80\/Leszek_Czarnecki_wyprawa_na_Atol_Bikini_2006.JPG","headline":"theoretical modelling of decompression physiology"}</script> </body> </html>