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<li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Early years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reign_of_Zhang_Jun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_Zhang_Jun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Reign of Zhang Jun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_Zhang_Jun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_turmoil_and_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_turmoil_and_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Internal turmoil and decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_turmoil_and_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Fall and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rulers_of_the_Former_Liang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rulers_of_the_Former_Liang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Rulers of the Former Liang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rulers_of_the_Former_Liang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rulers_family_tree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rulers_family_tree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Rulers family tree</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rulers_family_tree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Note" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Note"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Note</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Note-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%BChere_Liang" title="Frühere Liang – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Frühere Liang" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang_ant%C3%A9rieur" title="Liang antérieur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Liang antérieur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhi%C3%A8n-Li%C3%B2ng" title="Chhièn-Liòng – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chhièn-Liòng" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EB%9F%89" title="전량 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전량" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raniji_Liang" title="Raniji Liang – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Raniji Liang" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D2%AF%D1%80%D2%AF%D2%AF_%D0%9B%D1%8F%D0%BD" title="Түрүү Лян – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Түрүү Лян" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E6%B6%BC" title="前涼 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="前涼" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidlige_Liang" title="Tidlige Liang – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tidlige Liang" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%9B%D1%8F%D0%BD" title="Ранняя Лян – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ранняя Лян" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raniji_Liang" title="Raniji Liang – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Raniji Liang" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidigare_Liang" title="Tidigare Liang – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tidigare Liang" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%9B%D1%8F%D0%BD" title="Династія Рання Лян – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Династія Рання Лян" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BB%81n_L%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Tiền Lương – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiền Lương" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E6%B6%BC" title="前涼 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="前涼" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E5%87%89" title="前凉 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="前凉" 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#a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Former Liang (前涼)</div><div class="ib-country-names">西平, 涼</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">301–376</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Sixteen_Kingdoms_338_AD_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Former Liang in the northwest"><img alt="Former Liang in the northwest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Sixteen_Kingdoms_338_AD_%282%29.jpg/250px-Sixteen_Kingdoms_338_AD_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Sixteen_Kingdoms_338_AD_%282%29.jpg/375px-Sixteen_Kingdoms_338_AD_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Sixteen_Kingdoms_338_AD_%282%29.jpg/500px-Sixteen_Kingdoms_338_AD_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="776" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Former Liang in the northwest</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data">Vassal of <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Han_Zhao" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Zhao">Han Zhao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data">Guzang</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Duke/Prince</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 301–314 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Gui" title="Zhang Gui">Zhang Gui</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 314–320 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shi_(Former_Liang)" title="Zhang Shi (Former Liang)">Zhang Shi</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 320–324 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Mao" title="Zhang Mao">Zhang Mao</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 324–346 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jun_(prince)" title="Zhang Jun (prince)">Zhang Jun</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 346–353 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chonghua" title="Zhang Chonghua">Zhang Chonghua</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 353 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yaoling" title="Zhang Yaoling">Zhang Yaoling</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 353–355 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuo" title="Zhang Zuo">Zhang Zuo</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 355–363 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuanjing" title="Zhang Xuanjing">Zhang Xuanjing</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 363–376 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tianxi" title="Zhang Tianxi">Zhang Tianxi</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Gui" title="Zhang Gui">Zhang Gui</a>'s appointment as Inspector of <a href="/wiki/Liang_Province" title="Liang Province">Liang Province</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">301</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shi_(Former_Liang)" title="Zhang Shi (Former Liang)">Zhang Shi</a>'s retention of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Min_of_Jin" title="Emperor Min of Jin">Emperor Min</a>'s reign era </div></th><td class="infobox-data">318</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Mao" title="Zhang Mao">Zhang Mao</a>'s acceptance of Prince of Liang title </div></th><td class="infobox-data">323</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jun_(prince)" title="Zhang Jun (prince)">Zhang Jun</a>'s proclamation as Acting Prince of Liang </div></th><td class="infobox-data">345</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuo" title="Zhang Zuo">Zhang Zuo</a>'s formal rejection of Eastern Jin suzerainty </div></th><td class="infobox-data">354</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuanjing" title="Zhang Xuanjing">Zhang Xuanjing</a>'s formal acceptance of Eastern Jin suzerainty </div></th><td class="infobox-data">361</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">26 September<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 376</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tianxi" title="Zhang Tianxi">Zhang Tianxi</a>'s death </div></th><td class="infobox-data">406</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage" title="Ancient Chinese coinage">Chinese coin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cash_(Chinese_coin)" title="Cash (Chinese coin)">Chinese cash</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhu#Former_Liang_Kingdom" title="Wu Zhu">Wu Zhu</a>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Former Liang</b> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">前涼</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Qián Liáng</span></i>; 301<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–376) was a <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">dynastic state</a>, and one of the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a>, in <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese history</a>. It was founded by Zhang Shi<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_(surname)" title="Zhang (surname)">Zhang</a> family. Its territories included present-day <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All rulers of the Former Liang remained largely titularly under the court of the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin dynasty</a> as the Duke of Xiping except <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuo" title="Zhang Zuo">Zhang Zuo</a> who proclaimed himself emperor (or king). However, at times the other Former Liang rulers also used the king title when imposed on them when they were forced to submit to their powerful neighbour states—initially the <a href="/wiki/Former_Zhao" class="mw-redirect" title="Former Zhao">Former Zhao</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao</a>, and finally the <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a>. As the early rulers did not explicitly declare their independence, the official year of Former Liang's establishment is up to interpretation, but no earlier than 301, the year when <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Gui" title="Zhang Gui">Zhang Gui</a> was appointed Inspector of <a href="/wiki/Liang_Province" title="Liang Province">Liang province</a>. Historiographers gave the state the prefix of "Former" to distinguish it from the <a href="/wiki/Di_(Five_Barbarians)" title="Di (Five Barbarians)">Di</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Later Liang</a> that came after them, along with the other Liang states of the Sixteen Kingdoms, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Southern Liang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Western Liang</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The founding of the Former Liang can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Gui" title="Zhang Gui">Zhang Gui</a>. He was a <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> official under the Western Jin dynasty who claimed descent from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Er_(King_of_Changsha)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Er (King of Changsha) (page does not exist)">Zhang Er</a>, the King of Changsha during <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Emperor Gaozu of Han’s</a> era. Zhang Gui was appointed as provincial inspector by the imperial court in 301.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with his two sons, Zhang Mao and Zhang Shi, he made Guzang (姑臧, in modern <a href="/wiki/Wuwei,_Gansu" title="Wuwei, Gansu">Wuwei, Gansu</a>) his main base and worked closely with the local population to ensure the dynastic rule of his family.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the stability in the area, Former Liang became a refuge for those fleeing the chaos of the heartland.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhang Gui also developed the region by promoting agriculture and establishing new schools. Despite his influence in Liang, Zhang Gui never declared independence and remained a <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a> official up to his death in 314. Likewise, his successors for the most part nominally retained their status as Jin officials, maintaining their legitimacy by maintaining ties with the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the migration of refugees from the collapsing <a href="/wiki/Western_Jin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin">Western Jin</a>, there was an influx of literati who fled to Former Liang rather than the Jin court-in-exile in the south, which resulted in the Former Liang becoming a cultural center of North China.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years">Early years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Zhang Gui aided the Western Jin in its war against the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han dynasty</a> (renamed to <a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Former Zhao</a> in 319), as did his son and successor <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shi_(Former_Liang)" title="Zhang Shi (Former Liang)">Zhang Shi</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Min_of_Jin" title="Emperor Min of Jin">Emperor Min of Jin’s</a> capture and execution, Zhang Shi sent envoys to the prince, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Jin" title="Emperor Yuan of Jin">Sima Rui</a> at <a href="/wiki/Jiankang" title="Jiankang">Jiankang</a> in the south, urging him to take the throne. The dynasty was re-established as the Eastern Jin in 318, but despite his endorsement, Zhang Shi refused to adopt Sima Rui’s new reign era. Instead, he continued to use Emperor Min’s reign era, <i>Jianxing</i> (建興) within his territory, a practice that was upheld by most of his successors. Zhang Shi is considered the de facto founder of the Former Liang, establishing Guzang as its capital in 317.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Zhang Shi's assassination in 320, his brother, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Mao" title="Zhang Mao">Zhang Mao</a> took power. He came into conflict with the Former Zhao, who were expanding westward to compete with their rival <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao</a>. In 323, Zhang Mao submitted to the Former Zhao, receiving the title of King of Liang and the <a href="/wiki/Nine_bestowments" title="Nine bestowments">nine bestowments</a>, while internally retaining his Jin title of Duke of Xiping. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_Zhang_Jun">Reign of Zhang Jun</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reign of Zhang Jun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Former Liang reached its peak under <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jun_(prince)" title="Zhang Jun (prince)">Zhang Jun</a>, who succeeded his uncle Zhang Mao in 324. After the Later Zhao conquered Former Zhao in 329, he rejected Later Zhao's authority at first, but was eventually pressured into submission.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless, in 335 his forces marched across the sands and expanded his territory, forcing several oasis states in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a> like <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> to submit to him.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid-fourth century, it is believed that Former Liang could have maintained control over much of modern day <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, as well as portions of <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhang Jun also established ties with the <a href="/wiki/Cheng-Han" title="Cheng-Han">Cheng-Han</a> dynasty in southwestern China.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under him, the Former Liang began to use the ranks and titles of the imperial court, as well as imitating the flag, trappings, and carriage of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> roughly twenty-one years into his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His state's immense wealth was exemplified by his extravagant building projects, most notably the five palaces he built south of Guzang.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 345, he proclaimed himself Acting Prince of Liang, all while still recognizing Jin as his overlord. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_turmoil_and_decline">Internal turmoil and decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Internal turmoil and decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Zhang Jun died in 346 and was succeeded by his son Zhang Chonghua. Relations between Former Liang and Later Zhao had soured near the end of Zhang Jun's reign, and shortly after Chonghua ascended, Zhao launched an invasion on Liang. The Liang general, <a href="/wiki/Xie_Ai" title="Xie Ai">Xie Ai</a> initially repelled the invaders, but they still lost their territory south of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During and after the Later Zhao collapse in the early 350s, Chonghua attempted to reclaim lost land and expand eastward, but his efforts were frustrated by the new and rising <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a> dynasty. His death in 353 began a lengthy period of internal turmoil within the state as he left behind his 10-year-old son <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yaoling" title="Zhang Yaoling">Zhang Yaoling</a> on the throne. </p><p>Shortly after ascending, Yaoling was deposed by his uncle and regent, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuo" title="Zhang Zuo">Zhang Zuo</a>. In 354, Zhang Zuo declared himself emperor (or king), being the only Former Liang ruler to fully reject Jin's suzerainty. In 355, a distant relative, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guan" title="Zhang Guan">Zhang Guan</a>, overthrew him and installed Zhang Chonghua's five-year-old son, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuanjing" title="Zhang Xuanjing">Zhang Xuanjing</a>, to take the throne. Zhang Guan acted as regent but later considered usurping the throne before he was killed by <a href="/wiki/Song_Hun" title="Song Hun">Song Hun</a>. Song Hun and his brother, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_Cheng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Song Cheng (page does not exist)">Song Cheng</a>, were members of the prominent Song clan of <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> and served as Xuanjing's regents in succession, during which they discarded Zhang Zuo's imperial title. In 361, Song Cheng was assassinated by the general, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Yong_(Former_Liang)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Yong (Former Liang) (page does not exist)">Zhang Yong</a>, who soon suffered the same fate at the hands of his co-regent and Xuanjing's uncle, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tianxi" title="Zhang Tianxi">Zhang Tianxi</a>. Tianxi was the last of Xuanjing's regents, as in 363, he deposed his nephew and assumed power for himself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_and_aftermath">Fall and aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fall and aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunhuang_Mogao_Ku_2013.12.31_12-30-18.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Dunhuang_Mogao_Ku_2013.12.31_12-30-18.jpg/220px-Dunhuang_Mogao_Ku_2013.12.31_12-30-18.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Dunhuang_Mogao_Ku_2013.12.31_12-30-18.jpg/330px-Dunhuang_Mogao_Ku_2013.12.31_12-30-18.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Dunhuang_Mogao_Ku_2013.12.31_12-30-18.jpg/440px-Dunhuang_Mogao_Ku_2013.12.31_12-30-18.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, which first began construction during the Former Liang era.</figcaption></figure> <p>Infighting within the Former Liang left the state severely weakened. Several pro-Eastern Jin rebellions broke out in 356 and they once more lost all their territory south of the Yellow River. Faced with pressure from the Former Qin, they were also forced to submit to them as vassals. During his regency and reign, Zhang Tianxi finally discarded the <i>Jianxing</i> reign era and adopted the Eastern Jin's reign eras, thus fully recognizing their sovereignty. Later, he attempted to get the Jin commander, <a href="/wiki/Huan_Wen" title="Huan Wen">Huan Wen</a>, to coordinate a campaign with him against Qin but was ignored. In 376, Former Qin invaded Former Liang, prompting Tianxi to surrender and ending the state. </p><p>Zhang Tianxi served as a mid-level official under the Qin, but in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fei_River" title="Battle of Fei River">Battle of Fei River</a> in 383, he managed to escape to the Eastern Jin. He became a Jin official and was restored to his family's title of Duke of Xiping before dying in 406. His son, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Dayu_(Former_Liang)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Dayu (Former Liang) (page does not exist)">Zhang Dayu</a> attempted to restore his family's state in 386, but was killed in 387 by <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Guang" title="Lü Guang">Lü Guang</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Later Liang</a>. </p><p>Despite the chaos that plagued Former Liang in its later years, it also saw the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a>, as these <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Grotto" title="Grotto">grottoes</a> are widely believed to have been first constructed by the monk, Le Zun (樂尊) near <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> in 366.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rulers_of_the_Former_Liang">Rulers of the Former Liang</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rulers of the Former Liang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">Posthumous names</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese family name">Family names</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_name" title="Chinese name">given name</a> </th> <th>Durations of reigns </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Era_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Era name">Era names</a> and their according durations </th></tr> <tr> <td>Wu </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Gui" title="Zhang Gui">Zhang Gui</a> </td> <td>301–314 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ming </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shi_(Former_Liang)" title="Zhang Shi (Former Liang)">Zhang Shi</a> </td> <td>314–320<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Jianxing 建興 318–320<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cheng </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Mao" title="Zhang Mao">Zhang Mao</a> </td> <td>320–324<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Jianxing 建興 or Yongyuan 永元 320–324 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Zhongcheng </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jun_(Former_Liang)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Jun (Former Liang)">Zhang Jun</a> </td> <td>324–346<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Jianxing 建興 or Taiyuan 太元 324–346 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Huan </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chonghua" title="Zhang Chonghua">Zhang Chonghua</a> </td> <td>346–353<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Jianxing 建興 or Yongle 永樂 346–353 </td></tr> <tr> <td>– </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yaoling" title="Zhang Yaoling">Zhang Yaoling</a> </td> <td>353 </td> <td>Jianxing 建興 353 </td></tr> <tr> <td>King Wei </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuo" title="Zhang Zuo">Zhang Zuo</a> </td> <td>353–355<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Heping 和平 354–355 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jingdao </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuanjing" title="Zhang Xuanjing">Zhang Xuanjing</a> </td> <td>355–363<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Jianxing 建興 355–361 <p>Shengping 升平 361–363<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dao </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tianxi" title="Zhang Tianxi">Zhang Tianxi</a> </td> <td>364–376<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Shengping 升平 363–372 <p>Xian'an 咸安 372–376<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rulers_family_tree">Rulers family tree</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rulers family tree"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="collapsible expanded" style="margin: 0.3em auto auto; clear:none; min-width:auto; width:auto; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #aaa"> <tbody><tr> <th style="padding:0.2em 0.3em 0.2em 4.3em;background:none; color: inherit; width:auto">Former Liang rulers family tree </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"> <table style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate; margin: 0 auto; font-size:112%;"> <tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em;border-width:1px"><small>Zhang Gui 张轨 (255–314)</small><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Gui" title="Zhang Gui">Wǔwáng 武王</a></b><br />(r. 301–314)</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><small>Zhang Shi 张寔 (d. 320)</small><br /><span class="nowrap"><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shi_(Former_Liang)" title="Zhang Shi (Former Liang)">Míngwáng 明王 / Zhāowáng 昭王</a></b> </span><br />(r. 314–320)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><small>Zhang Mao 張茂 (276–324)</small><br /><span class="nowrap"><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Mao" title="Zhang Mao">Chenglie 成烈 / Cheng 成</a></b></span><br /> r. (320–)323–324</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><small>Zhang Jun 張駿 (307–346)</small><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jun_(prince)" title="Zhang Jun (prince)">Wen 文 / Zhongcheng 忠成</a></b><br />r. 324–346</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><small>Zhang Zuo 张祚 (d. 355)</small><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuo" title="Zhang Zuo">Wei</a></b> 威 <br />(r. 353–355)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><small>Zhang Chonghua 張重華 (327–353)</small><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chonghua" title="Zhang Chonghua">Jinglie 敬烈 / Huan 桓</a></b> <br />r. 346–353</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><small>Zhang Tianxi 張天錫 (346–406)</small><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tianxi" title="Zhang Tianxi">Dao 悼</a></b> <br />(r. 363–376)</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><small><span class="nowrap">Zhang Yaoling 張曜靈 (344–355)</span></small><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yaoling" title="Zhang Yaoling">Ai 哀</a></b><br /> (r. 353–355)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em"><small>Zhang Xuanjing 張玄靖 (350–363)</small><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuanjing" title="Zhang Xuanjing">Jingdao 敬悼 / Chong 沖</a></b> <br />r. 355–363</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid;padding:0.2em;border-width:1px"><b>Zhang Dayu</b> 张大豫<br /><small>d. 387; r. 386–387</small></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Note">Note</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Note"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Earliest possible interpretation of Former Liang's year of establishment. Other interpretations include 318, 323, 345 and 354.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Min_of_Jin" title="Emperor Min of Jin">Emperor Min of Jin's</a> reign era.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Mu_of_Jin" title="Emperor Mu of Jin">Emperor Mu of Jin's</a> reign era.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jianwen_of_Jin" title="Emperor Jianwen of Jin">Emperor Jianwen of Jin's</a> reign era.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Former_Liang&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/kiwi1/luso.sh?lstype=2&dyna=%AAF%AE%CA&king=%A7%B5%AAZ%AB%D2&reign=%A4%D3%A4%B8&yy=1&ycanzi=&mm=8&dd=&dcanzi=%A5%D2%A4%C8">"中央研究院網站"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E9%99%A2%E7%B6%B2%E7%AB%99&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sinica.edu.tw%2Fftms-bin%2Fkiwi1%2Fluso.sh%3Flstype%3D2%26dyna%3D%25AAF%25AE%25CA%26king%3D%25A7%25B5%25AAZ%25AB%25D2%26reign%3D%25A4%25D3%25A4%25B8%26yy%3D1%26ycanzi%3D%26mm%3D8%26dd%3D%26dcanzi%3D%25A5%25D2%25A4%25C8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a></i>, <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7104" class="extiw" title="zh:s:資治通鑑/卷104">vol. 104</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiong2009" class="citation book cs1">Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/164803666"><i>Historical dictionary of medieval China</i></a>. Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press (published 2008). pp. 661–667. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6053-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6053-7"><bdi>978-0-8108-6053-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/164803666">164803666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+dictionary+of+medieval+China&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md&rft.series=Historical+dictionaries+of+ancient+civilizations+and+historical+eras&rft.pages=661-667&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F164803666&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6053-7&rft.aulast=Xiong&rft.aufirst=Victor+Cunrui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F164803666&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDienKnapp2019" class="citation book cs1">Dien, Albert E.; Knapp, Keith N., eds. (2019-11-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781139107334/type/book"><i>The Cambridge History of China</i></a>. Vol. 2 (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781139107334">10.1017/9781139107334</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-10733-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-10733-4"><bdi>978-1-139-10733-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.pages=133&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019-11-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781139107334&rft.isbn=978-1-139-10733-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2F9781139107334%2Ftype%2Fbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTse2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tse, Wicky W. 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(2007). <i>Six dynasties civilization</i>. Early Chinese civilization series. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07404-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07404-8"><bdi>978-0-300-07404-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Six+dynasties+civilization&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Conn&rft.series=Early+Chinese+civilization+series&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07404-8&rft.aulast=Dien&rft.aufirst=Albert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Eugene Y. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20167018">"What Do Trigrams Have to Do with Buddhas? The Northern Liang Stupas as a Hybrid Spatial Model"</a>. <i>RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics</i> (35): 73. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0277-1322">0277-1322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RES%3A+Anthropology+and+Aesthetics&rft.atitle=What+Do+Trigrams+Have+to+Do+with+Buddhas%3F+The+Northern+Liang+Stupas+as+a+Hybrid+Spatial+Model&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=73&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=0277-1322&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Eugene+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20167018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuCao2019" class="citation book cs1">Fu, Chonglan; Cao, Wenming (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-13-8207-9"><i>Introduction to the Urban History of China</i></a>. China Connections. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-13-8207-9">10.1007/978-981-13-8207-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-13-8206-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-13-8206-2"><bdi>978-981-13-8206-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Urban+History+of+China&rft.place=Singapore&rft.series=China+Connections&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Singapore&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-13-8207-9&rft.isbn=978-981-13-8206-2&rft.aulast=Fu&rft.aufirst=Chonglan&rft.au=Cao%2C+Wenming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-981-13-8207-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLü2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lü, Simian (2020). <i>两晋南北朝史</i> [<i>A History of Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties</i>] (in Chinese). <a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_Book_Company" title="Zhonghua Book Company">Zhonghua Book Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787999131410" title="Special:BookSources/9787999131410"><bdi>9787999131410</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%A4%E6%99%8B%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E5%8F%B2&rft.pub=Zhonghua+Book+Company&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9787999131410&rft.aulast=L%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Simian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleeman2019" class="citation book cs1">Kleeman, Terry F., ed. (2019-11-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781139107334/type/book"><i>The Cambridge History of China</i></a>. Vol. 2 (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781139107334">10.1017/9781139107334</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-10733-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-10733-4"><bdi>978-1-139-10733-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.pages=153&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019-11-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781139107334&rft.isbn=978-1-139-10733-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2F9781139107334%2Ftype%2Fbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRongChurch2023" class="citation book cs1">Rong, Xinjiang; Church, Sally K. (2023). <i>The Silk Road and cultural exchanges between East and West</i>. East and west. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. pp. 476–477. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-51259-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-51259-7"><bdi>978-90-04-51259-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road+and+cultural+exchanges+between+East+and+West&rft.place=Leiden+%3B+Boston&rft.series=East+and+west&rft.pages=476-477&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-90-04-51259-7&rft.aulast=Rong&rft.aufirst=Xinjiang&rft.au=Church%2C+Sally+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu_Hung2023" class="citation book cs1">Wu Hung (2023). <i>Spatial Dunhuang: experiencing the Mogao Caves</i>. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-75021-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-75021-7"><bdi>978-0-295-75021-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spatial+Dunhuang%3A+experiencing+the+Mogao+Caves&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-295-75021-7&rft.au=Wu+Hung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormer+Liang" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sixteen_Kingdoms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:16_Kingdoms" title="Template:16 Kingdoms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:16_Kingdoms" title="Template talk:16 Kingdoms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:16_Kingdoms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:16 Kingdoms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sixteen_Kingdoms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians" title="Upheaval of the Five Barbarians">Upheaval of the Five Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_of_Yongjia" title="Disaster of Yongjia">Disaster of Yongjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Shi Le's conquest of North China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ran_Wei%E2%80%93Later_Zhao_War" title="Ran Wei–Later Zhao War">Wei–Zhao War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Ran_Wei_by_Former_Yan" title="Conquest of Ran Wei by Former Yan">Conquest of Wei by Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huan_Wen%27s_Northern_Expeditions" title="Huan Wen's Northern Expeditions">Huan Wen's Expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Fu Jian's unification of North China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fei_River" title="Battle of Fei River">Battle of Fei River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yu%27s_Northern_Expeditions" title="Liu Yu's Northern Expeditions">Liu Yu's Expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei's unification of North China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The 16 Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao (304–329)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang (397–460)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Xia (407–431)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Di_(Five_Barbarians)" title="Di (Five Barbarians)">Di</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheng-Han" title="Cheng-Han">Cheng-Han (304–347)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin (351–394)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Later Liang (386–403)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao (319–351)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Former_Yan" title="Former Yan">Former Yan (337–370)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Yan" title="Later Yan">Later Yan (384–409)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qin" title="Western Qin">Western Qin (385–431)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Southern Liang (397–414)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Yan" title="Southern Yan">Southern Yan (398–410)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin (384–417)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Former Liang (318–376)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Western Liang (400–421)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yan" title="Northern Yan">Northern Yan (407–436)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Short-lived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ran_Wei" title="Ran Wei">Ran Wei (350–352)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duan_Kan" title="Duan Kan">Duan Qi (350–356)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yan" title="Western Yan">Western Yan (384–394)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhai_Wei" title="Zhai Wei">Zhai Wei (388–392)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huan_Xuan" title="Huan Xuan">Huan Chu (403–404)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiao_Zong" title="Qiao Zong">Qiao Shu (405–413)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Tribes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuwen" title="Yuwen">Yuwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duan_tribe" title="Duan tribe">Duan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chouchi" title="Chouchi">Chouchi (296–580)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Dai (310–376)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei (386–535)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Involved</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Di_(Five_Barbarians)" title="Di (Five Barbarians)">Di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key personalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yuan_(Han-Zhao)" title="Liu Yuan (Han-Zhao)">Liu Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Cong_(Han-Zhao)" title="Liu Cong (Han-Zhao)">Liu Cong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi_Le" title="Shi Le">Shi Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi_Hu" title="Shi Hu">Shi Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ran_Min" title="Ran Min">Ran Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huan_Wen" title="Huan Wen">Huan Wen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Jian_(337%E2%80%93385)" title="Fu Jian (337–385)">Fu Jian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Meng_(Former_Qin)" title="Wang Meng (Former Qin)">Wang Meng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murong_Chui" title="Murong Chui">Murong Chui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Xing" title="Yao Xing">Yao Xing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Daowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei">Tuoba Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taiwu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei">Tuoba Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Song" title="Emperor Wu of Song">Liu Yu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Histories of the Era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals_of_the_Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms">Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jin" title="Book of Jin">Book of Jin</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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