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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Surface damage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epicentral_distance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epicentral_distance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Epicentral distance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epicentral_distance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fault_rupture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fault_rupture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fault rupture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fault_rupture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macroseismic_epicenter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macroseismic_epicenter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Macroseismic epicenter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macroseismic_epicenter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Epicenter</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 63 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-63" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">63 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%B2_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%84%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD%D9%8A" title="مركز الزلزال السطحي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مركز الزلزال السطحي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episentr" title="Episentr – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Episentr" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="উপকেন্দ্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উপকেন্দ্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACn-iong" title="Chìn-iong – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chìn-iong" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Эпіцэнтр землетрасення – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эпіцэнтр землетрасення" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80" title="Епицентър – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Епицентър" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentar" title="Epicentar – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Epicentar" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikreizenn" title="Epikreizenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Epikreizenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentre" title="Epicentre – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Epicentre" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentrum" title="Epicentrum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Epicentrum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uwchganolbwynt" title="Uwchganolbwynt – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Uwchganolbwynt" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicenter" title="Epicenter – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Epicenter" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epizentrum" title="Epizentrum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Epizentrum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitsenter" title="Epitsenter – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Epitsenter" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF" title="Επίκεντρο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επίκεντρο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentro" title="Epicentro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Epicentro" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentro" title="Epicentro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Epicentro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epizentro" title="Epizentro – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Epizentro" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B2" title="رومرکز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رومرکز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89picentre" title="Épicentre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Épicentre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eipeal%C3%A1r" title="Eipealár – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eipealár" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentro" title="Epicentro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Epicentro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%EC%95%99" title="진앙 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="진앙" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Էպիկենտրոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էպիկենտրոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="उपरिकेंद्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उपरिकेंद्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentar" title="Epicentar – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Epicentar" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episentrum" title="Episentrum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Episentrum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skj%C3%A1lftami%C3%B0ja" title="Skjálftamiðja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skjálftamiðja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentro" title="Epicentro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Epicentro" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%94" title="מוקד רעידת אדמה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוקד רעידת אדמה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episant" title="Episant – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Episant" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentrum" title="Epicentrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Epicentrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentrum" title="Epicentrum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Epicentrum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Епицентар – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Епицентар" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusat_gempa" title="Pusat gempa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pusat gempa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentrum" title="Epicentrum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Epicentrum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%87%E5%A4%AE" title="震央 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="震央" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episentrum" title="Episentrum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Episentrum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episenter" title="Episenter – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Episenter" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentre" title="Epicentre – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Epicentre" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicenter" title="Epicenter – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Epicenter" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitsentr" title="Epitsentr – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Epitsentr" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epizentrum" title="Epizentrum – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Epizentrum" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentrum" title="Epicentrum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Epicentrum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentro" title="Epicentro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Epicentro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentru" title="Epicentru – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epicentru" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80" title="Эпицентр – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпицентр" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicenter" title="Epicenter – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Epicenter" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentrum_(zemetrasenie)" title="Epicentrum (zemetrasenie) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Epicentrum (zemetrasenie)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicenter" title="Epicenter – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Epicenter" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Епицентар – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Епицентар" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentar" title="Epicentar – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Epicentar" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episentrumi" title="Episentrumi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Episentrumi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicentrum" title="Epicentrum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Epicentrum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நிலநடுக்க மையம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நிலநடுக்க மையம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9C%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A7" title="จุดเหนือศูนย์เกิดแผ่นดินไหว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จุดเหนือศูนย์เกิดแผ่นดินไหว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprem_oda%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Deprem odağı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Deprem odağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80" title="Епіцентр – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Епіцентр" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B2_%D8%B2%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%84%DB%81" title="مرکز زلزلہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مرکز زلزلہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BA%A5n_t%C3%A2m" title="Chấn tâm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chấn tâm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%87%E4%B8%AD" title="震中 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="震中" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%87%E5%A4%AE" title="震央 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="震央" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Point on the Earth's surface that is directly above the hypocentre or focus in an earthquake</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Epicenter_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Epicenter (disambiguation)">Epicenter (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epicenter_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Epicenter_Diagram.svg/220px-Epicenter_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Epicenter_Diagram.svg/330px-Epicenter_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Epicenter_Diagram.svg/440px-Epicenter_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>The epicenter is directly above the <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hypocenter" title="Hypocenter">hypocenter</a> (also called the <em>focus</em>).</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Earthquakes" title="Category:Earthquakes">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquakes</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/80px-Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/120px-Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/160px-Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="410" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_earthquake" title="Types of earthquake">Types</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainshock" title="Mainshock">Mainshock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreshock" title="Foreshock">Foreshock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftershock" title="Aftershock">Aftershock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_thrust_earthquake" title="Blind thrust earthquake">Blind thrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublet_earthquake" title="Doublet earthquake">Doublet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplate_earthquake" title="Interplate earthquake">Interplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraplate_earthquake" title="Intraplate earthquake">Intraplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake" title="Megathrust earthquake">Megathrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remotely_triggered_earthquakes" title="Remotely triggered earthquakes">Remotely triggered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_earthquake" title="Slow earthquake">Slow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_earthquake" title="Submarine earthquake">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supershear_earthquake" title="Supershear earthquake">Supershear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami_earthquake" title="Tsunami earthquake">Tsunami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_swarm" title="Earthquake swarm">Earthquake swarm</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Causes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">Fault movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_tectonic_earthquake" title="Volcano tectonic earthquake">Volcanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induced_seismicity" title="Induced seismicity">Induced seismicity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Characteristics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Epicenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicentral_distance" title="Epicentral distance">Epicentral distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocenter" title="Hypocenter">Hypocenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_zone" title="Shadow zone">Shadow zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">Seismic waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P_wave" title="P wave">P wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">S wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Measurement</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismometer" title="Seismometer">Seismometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_magnitude_scales" title="Seismic magnitude scales">Seismic magnitude scales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_intensity_scales" title="Seismic intensity scales">Seismic intensity scales</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_prediction" title="Earthquake prediction">Prediction</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Coordinating_Committee_for_Earthquake_Prediction" title="Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction">Coordinating Committee for<br />Earthquake Prediction</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_forecasting" title="Earthquake forecasting">Forecasting</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Other topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shear_wave_splitting" title="Shear wave splitting">Shear wave splitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93Williamson_equation" title="Adams–Williamson equation">Adams–Williamson equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flinn%E2%80%93Engdahl_regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Flinn–Engdahl regions">Flinn–Engdahl regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismite" title="Seismite">Seismite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth Sciences Portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Earthquakes" title="Category:Earthquakes">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Related topics</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earthquakes" title="Template:Earthquakes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earthquakes" title="Template talk:Earthquakes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earthquakes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earthquakes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>epicenter</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>), <b>epicentre</b>, or <b>epicentrum</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a> is the point on the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s surface directly above a <a href="/wiki/Hypocenter" title="Hypocenter">hypocenter or focus</a>, the point where an <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> or an underground explosion originates. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Determination">Determination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicenter&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Determination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1906_loma_prieta.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/1906_loma_prieta.png/220px-1906_loma_prieta.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/1906_loma_prieta.png/330px-1906_loma_prieta.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/1906_loma_prieta.png/440px-1906_loma_prieta.png 2x" data-file-width="733" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption>Modern and historic seismograms</figcaption></figure> <p>The primary purpose of a <a href="/wiki/Seismometer" title="Seismometer">seismometer</a> is to locate the initiating points of earthquake epicenters. The secondary purpose, of determining the 'size' or <a href="/wiki/Moment_magnitude_scale" title="Moment magnitude scale">magnitude</a> must be calculated after the precise location is known.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The earliest seismographs were designed to give a sense of the direction of the first motions from an earthquake. The Chinese frog seismograph<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> would have dropped its ball in the general compass direction of the earthquake, assuming a strong positive pulse. We now know that first motions can be in almost any direction depending on the type of initiating rupture (<a href="/wiki/Focal_mechanism" title="Focal mechanism">focal mechanism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first refinement that allowed a more precise determination of the location was the use of a <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> scale. Instead of merely noting, or recording, the absolute motions of a <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Displacement_(vector)" class="mw-redirect" title="Displacement (vector)">displacements</a> were plotted on a moving graph, driven by a <a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">clock</a> mechanism. This was the first <a href="/wiki/Seismogram" title="Seismogram">seismogram</a>, which allowed precise timing of the first <a href="/wiki/Ground_motion" title="Ground motion">ground motion</a>, and an accurate plot of subsequent motions. </p><p>From the first seismograms, as seen in the figure, it was noticed that the trace was divided into two major portions. The first seismic wave to arrive was the <a href="/wiki/P_wave" title="P wave">P wave</a>, followed closely by the <a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">S wave</a>. Knowing the relative 'velocities of propagation', it was a simple matter to calculate the distance of the earthquake.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One seismograph would give the distance, but that could be plotted as a circle, with an infinite number of possibilities. Two seismographs would give two intersecting circles, with two possible locations. Only with a third seismograph would there be a precise location. </p><p>Modern earthquake location still requires a minimum of three seismometers. Most likely, there are many, forming a seismic array. The emphasis is on precision since much can be learned about the <a href="/wiki/Fault_mechanics" title="Fault mechanics">fault mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">seismic hazard</a>, if the locations can be determined to be within a kilometer or two, for small earthquakes. For this, computer programs use an iterative process, involving a 'guess and correction' algorithm.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well, a very good model of the local crustal <a href="/wiki/Seismic_velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic velocity">velocity</a> structure is required: seismic velocities vary with the local geology. For P waves, the relation between velocity and <a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">bulk density</a> of the medium has been quantified in <a href="/wiki/Gardner%27s_relation" title="Gardner's relation">Gardner's relation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surface_damage">Surface damage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicenter&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Surface damage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the instrumental period of earthquake observation, the epicenter was thought to be the location where the greatest damage occurred,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the subsurface <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">fault</a> rupture may be long and spread surface damage across the entire rupture zone. As an example, in the magnitude 7.9 <a href="/wiki/2002_Denali_earthquake" title="2002 Denali earthquake">Denali earthquake of 2002</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, the epicenter was at the western end of the rupture, but the greatest damage was about 330 km (210 mi) away at the eastern end.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Focal depths of earthquakes occurring in continental crust mostly range from 2 to 20 kilometers (1.2 to 12.4 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Continental earthquakes below 20 km (12 mi) are rare whereas in <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zone earthquakes can originate at depths deeper than 600 km (370 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epicentral_distance">Epicentral distance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicenter&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Epicentral distance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epicentral_distance" title="Epicentral distance">Epicentral distance</a></div> <p>During an earthquake, <a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">seismic waves</a> propagates in all directions from the hypocenter. <a href="/wiki/Seismic_shadowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic shadowing">Seismic shadowing</a> occurs on the opposite side of the Earth from the earthquake epicenter because the planet's <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_outer_core" title="Earth's outer core">liquid outer core</a> <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refracts</a> the <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Longitudinal waves">longitudinal</a> or compressional (<a href="/wiki/P_wave" title="P wave">P waves</a>) while it absorbs the <a href="/wiki/Transverse_wave" title="Transverse wave">transverse</a> or shear waves (<a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">S waves</a>). Outside the seismic shadow zone, both types of wave can be detected, but because of their different velocities and paths through the Earth, they arrive at different times. By measuring the time difference on any seismograph and the distance on a travel-time graph on which the P wave and S wave have the same separation, geologists can calculate the distance to the quake's epicenter. This distance is called the <i>epicentral distance</i>, commonly measured in <a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">°</a> (degrees) and denoted as Δ (delta) in seismology. The <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_L%C3%A1ska_(mathematician)" title="Václav Láska (mathematician)">Láska's empirical rule</a> provides an approximation of epicentral distance in the range of 2,000−10,000 km. </p><p>Once distances from the epicenter have been calculated from at least three seismographic measuring stations, the point can be located, using <a href="/wiki/Trilateration" title="Trilateration">trilateration</a>. </p><p>Epicentral distance is also used in calculating <a href="/wiki/Seismic_scale#Local_magnitude_scale_and_related_scales" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic scale">seismic magnitudes as developed by Richter and Gutenberg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fault_rupture">Fault rupture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicenter&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fault rupture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_rupture" title="Earthquake rupture">Earthquake rupture</a></div> <p>The point at which fault slipping begins is referred to as the focus of the earthquake.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fault rupture begins at the focus and then expands along the fault surface. The rupture stops where the stresses become insufficient to continue breaking the fault (because the rocks are stronger) or where the rupture enters ductile material.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the total area of its fault rupture.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most earthquakes are small, with rupture dimensions less than the depth of the focus so the rupture doesn't break the surface, but in high magnitude, destructive earthquakes, surface breaks are common.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fault ruptures in large earthquakes can extend for more than 100 km (62 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a fault ruptures unilaterally (with the epicenter at or near the end of the fault break) the waves are stronger in one direction along the fault.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Macroseismic_epicenter">Macroseismic epicenter</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicenter&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Macroseismic epicenter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The macroseismic epicenter is the best estimate of the location of the epicenter derived without instrumental data. This may be estimated using intensity data, information about foreshocks and aftershocks, knowledge of local fault systems or extrapolations from data regarding similar earthquakes. For historical earthquakes that have not been instrumentally recorded, only a macroseismic epicenter can be given.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicenter&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> noun <i>epicentrum</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinisation (literature)">latinisation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> adjective ἐπίκεντρος (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">epikentros</i></span>), "occupying a cardinal point, situated on a centre",<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from ἐπί (<i>epi</i>) "on, upon, at"<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and κέντρον (<i>kentron</i>) "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/center" class="extiw" title="wikt:center">centre</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was coined by Irish <a href="/wiki/Seismologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismologist">seismologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mallet" title="Robert Mallet">Robert Mallet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is also used to mean "center of activity", as in "Travel is restricted in the Chinese province thought to be the epicentre of the SARS outbreak."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Garner%27s_Modern_American_Usage" class="mw-redirect" title="Garner's Modern American Usage">Garner's Modern American Usage</a></i> gives several examples of use in which "epicenter" is used to mean "center". <a href="/wiki/Bryan_A._Garner" title="Bryan A. Garner">Garner</a> also refers to a <a href="/wiki/William_Safire" title="William Safire">William Safire</a> article in which Safire quotes a geophysicist as attributing the use of the term to "spurious erudition on the part of writers combined with scientific illiteracy on the part of copy editors".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Garner has speculated that these misuses may just be "metaphorical descriptions of focal points of unstable and potentially destructive environments."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicenter&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>: "The point over the centre: applied in Seismol. to the outbreaking point of earthquake shocks."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190916022456/http://engagetolearn.com/ETL/quakeimages/ChineseSeismograph.jpg">"Chinese Seismograph"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://engagetolearn.com/ETL/quakeimages/ChineseSeismograph.jpg">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(jpg)</span> on 2019-09-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese+Seismograph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fengagetolearn.com%2FETL%2Fquakeimages%2FChineseSeismograph.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051222083702/http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/recenteqs/beachball.htm">"USGS Earthquake Hazards Program"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quake.wr.usgs.gov/recenteqs/beachball.htm">the original</a> on 2005-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=USGS+Earthquake+Hazards+Program&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquake.wr.usgs.gov%2Frecenteqs%2Fbeachball.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/locating.html">"How Can I Locate the Earthquake Epicenter?"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Can+I+Locate+the+Earthquake+Epicenter%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geo.mtu.edu%2FUPSeis%2Flocating.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051218055744/http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/info/eqlocation/">"USGS Earthquake Hazards Program"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quake.wr.usgs.gov/info/eqlocation">the original</a> on 2005-12-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=USGS+Earthquake+Hazards+Program&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquake.wr.usgs.gov%2Finfo%2Feqlocation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeatsSiehAllen1997" class="citation book cs1">Yeats, R. S.; <a href="/wiki/Kerry_Sieh" title="Kerry Sieh">Sieh, K. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Allen_(geologist)" title="Clarence Allen (geologist)">Allen, C. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Surface-Wave+Magnitude+%28M%3Csub%3Es%3C%2Fsub%3E%29+and+Body-Wave+Magnitude+%28mb%29&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft.date=1991&rft.au=William+L.+Ellsworth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.johnmartin.com%2Fearthquakes%2Feqsafs%2Fsafs_694.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/data/rupture/directivity.php">"What is Directivity?"</a>. United States Geological Survey<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Academic Press. pp. 807–822. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0074-6142%2802%2980256-X">10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80256-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780124406520" title="Special:BookSources/9780124406520"><bdi>9780124406520</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=49+Macroseismology&rft.btitle=49+%E2%80%93+Macroseismology&rft.pages=807-822&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2002-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0074-6142%2802%2980256-X&rft.isbn=9780124406520&rft.aulast=Musson&rft.aufirst=R.+M.+W.&rft.au=Ceci%C4%87%2C+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS007461420280256X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epicenter">"epicenter"</a>. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=epicenter&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fepicenter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De%29pi%2Fkentros">ἐπίκεντρος</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De%29pi%2F2">ἐπί</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100925151005/http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0269590#m_en_gb0269590">epicentre</a>, on Oxford Dictionaries</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiliatrault2002" class="citation book cs1">Filiatrault, A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zEqHNr4YHkgC&pg=PR7"><i>Elements of Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics</i></a> (2nd ed.). Presses inter Polytechnique. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-553-01021-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-553-01021-7"><bdi>978-2-553-01021-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Earthquake+Engineering+and+Structural+Dynamics&rft.pages=1&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Presses+inter+Polytechnique&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-2-553-01021-7&rft.aulast=Filiatrault&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzEqHNr4YHkgC%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRick_Thompson2004" class="citation book cs1">Rick Thompson (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u_fiOtsJL8UC"><i>Writing for Broadcast Journalists</i></a>. Routledge. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-36915-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-36915-7"><bdi>978-1-134-36915-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+for+Broadcast+Journalists&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-134-36915-7&rft.au=Rick+Thompson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du_fiOtsJL8UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOltermann2009" class="citation book cs1">Oltermann, P. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LMueSHGvPjwC&pg=PA246"><i>How to Write</i></a>. Random House. p. 246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85265-138-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85265-138-4"><bdi>978-0-85265-138-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Write&rft.pages=246&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-85265-138-4&rft.aulast=Oltermann&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLMueSHGvPjwC%26pg%3DPA246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafire2001" class="citation news cs1">Safire, William (2001-05-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221017100755/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/06/magazine/the-way-we-live-now-5-6-01-on-language-fulminations.html?searchResultPosition=3">"On Language"</a>. <i>The New York Times Magazine</i>. p. 22. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/06/magazine/the-way-we-live-now-5-6-01-on-language-fulminations.html">the original</a> on 2022-10-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=On+Language&rft.pages=22&rft.date=2001-05-06&rft.aulast=Safire&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2001%2F05%2F06%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-way-we-live-now-5-6-01-on-language-fulminations.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicenter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarner2009" class="citation book cs1">Garner, B. A. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FwmQpyibKkAC&pg=PA310"><i>Garner's Modern American Usage</i></a>. 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