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vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">目錄</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">移去側欄</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">收埋</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">文頭</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-術語同分期" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#術語同分期"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>術語同分期</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-術語同分期-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-簡史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#簡史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>簡史</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-簡史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>切換去封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）細章節</span> </button> <ul id="toc-封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-封建革命" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#封建革命"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>封建革命</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-封建革命-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-公元1000年之前嘅西方經濟" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#公元1000年之前嘅西方經濟"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>公元1000年之前嘅西方經濟</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-公元1000年之前嘅西方經濟-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-農業：為咗消費而生產" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#農業：為咗消費而生產"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>農業：為咗消費而生產</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-農業：為咗消費而生產-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-缺乏商業同城市結構" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#缺乏商業同城市結構"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>缺乏商業同城市結構</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-缺乏商業同城市結構-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-土地所有制度" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#土地所有制度"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>土地所有制度</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-土地所有制度-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-西歐嘅前羅馬式藝術" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#西歐嘅前羅馬式藝術"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>西歐嘅前羅馬式藝術</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-西歐嘅前羅馬式藝術-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-睇埋" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#睇埋"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>睇埋</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-睇埋-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-註" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#註"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>註</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-註-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-引述" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#引述"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>引述</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-引述-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-文獻" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#文獻"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>文獻</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-文獻-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目錄" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="開/收內容一覽" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">開/收內容一覽</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">中世紀</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="去睇另一種語文嘅文章。有164種語言版本。" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-164" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">164種語言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeue" title="Middeleeue – 南非荷蘭文" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Middeleeue" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelalter" title="Mittelalter – 德文（瑞士）" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Mittelalter" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="德文（瑞士）" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%98%E1%8A%AB%E1%8A%A8%E1%88%88%E1%8A%9B_%E1%8B%98%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95" title="መካከለኛ ዘመን – 阿姆哈拉文" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="መካከለኛ ዘመን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="阿姆哈拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Meya" title="Edat Meya – 阿拉貢文" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Edat Meya" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉貢文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="العصور الوسطى – 阿拉伯文" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لقرون لوسطانية – 摩洛哥阿拉伯文" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لقرون لوسطانية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="摩洛哥阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="عصور وسطانيه – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عصور وسطانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%A1_Media" title="Edá Media – 阿斯圖里亞文" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Edá Media" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯圖里亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C9%99srl%C9%99r" title="Orta əsrlər – 亞塞拜然文" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Orta əsrlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="亞塞拜然文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B1" title="اورتا عصرلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اورتا عصرلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Урта быуаттар – 巴什客爾文" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Урта быуаттар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什客爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middloita" title="Middloita – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Middloita" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%97dorom%C5%BE%C4%93" title="Vėdoromžē – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Vėdoromžē" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%B5" title="Сярэдневякоўе – 白俄羅斯文" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сярэдневякоўе" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄羅斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Сярэднявечча – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сярэднявечча" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Средновековие – 保加利亞文" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средновековие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9D" title="ခေတ်ထာႏဝ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ခေတ်ထာႏဝ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="মধ্যযুগ – 孟加拉文" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krennamzer" title="Krennamzer – 布列塔尼文" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Krennamzer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednji_vijek" title="Srednji vijek – 波士尼亞文" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Srednji vijek" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波士尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Дунда зуун – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Дунда зуун" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_mitjana" title="Edat mitjana – 加泰羅尼亞文" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Edat mitjana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰羅尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungang_Panahon" title="Tungang Panahon – 宿霧文" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Tungang Panahon" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="宿霧文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%AF%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سەدەکانی ناوین – 索拉尼庫爾德文" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەدەکانی ناوین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="索拉尼庫爾德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievu" title="Medievu – 科西嘉文" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Medievu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="科西嘉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C5%99edov%C4%9Bk" title="Středověk – 捷克文" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Středověk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strz%C3%A9dnowiek" title="Strzédnowiek – 卡舒布文" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Strzédnowiek" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="卡舒布文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%C4%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC_%C4%95%D0%BC%C4%95%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Вăтам ĕмĕрсем – 楚瓦什文" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вăтам ĕмĕрсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Oesoedd_Canol" title="Yr Oesoedd Canol – 威爾斯文" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Oesoedd Canol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威爾斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="推薦文章"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelalderen" title="Middelalderen – 丹麥文" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Middelalderen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麥文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelalter" title="Mittelalter – 德文" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelalter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srjej%C5%BAow%C4%9Bk" title="Srjejźowěk – 下索布文" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Srjejźowěk" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="下索布文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Μεσαίωνας – 希臘文" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεσαίωνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希臘文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages – 英文" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Middle Ages" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="好文"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoko" title="Mezepoko – 世界文" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezepoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Media" title="Edad Media – 西班牙文" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskaeg" title="Keskaeg – 愛沙尼亞文" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keskaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="愛沙尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdi_Aroa" title="Erdi Aroa – 巴斯克文" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erdi Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%A1_Meia" title="Edá Meia – 埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Edá Meia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="قرون وسطی – 波斯文" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskiaika" title="Keskiaika – 芬蘭文" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keskiaika" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskaig" title="Keskaig – 佛羅文" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Keskaig" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="佛羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0%C3%B8ldin" title="Miðøldin – 法羅文" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Miðøldin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="Moyen Âge – 法文" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Moyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82jo" title="Moyen Âjo – 法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Moyen Âjo" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madel%C3%A4%C3%A4ler" title="Madelääler – 北弗里西亞文" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Madelääler" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="北弗里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A2t_di_mie%C3%A7" title="Etât di mieç – 弗留利文" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Etât di mieç" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="弗留利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midsiuwen" title="Midsiuwen – 西弗里西亞文" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Midsiuwen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Mhe%C3%A1naois" title="An Mheánaois – 愛爾蘭文" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Mheánaois" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="愛爾蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="中世紀 – 贛語" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="中世紀" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="贛語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwayen-Aj" title="Mwayen-Aj – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Mwayen-Aj" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meadhan-aoisean" title="Meadhan-aoisean – 蘇格蘭蓋爾文" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Meadhan-aoisean" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="蘇格蘭蓋爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_Media" title="Idade Media – 加里西亞文" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Idade Media" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ra_Mbytegua" title="Ára Mbytegua – 瓜拉尼文" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ára Mbytegua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ימי הביניים – 希伯來文" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯來文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="मध्ययुग – 北印度文" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मध्ययुग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="北印度文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages – 斐濟印地文" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Middle Ages" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="斐濟印地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednji_vijek" title="Srednji vijek – 克羅埃西亞文" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Srednji vijek" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克羅埃西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srjed%C5%BAow%C4%9Bk" title="Srjedźowěk – 上索布文" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Srjedźowěk" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="上索布文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mway%C3%A8naj" title="Mwayènaj – 海地文" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Mwayènaj" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6z%C3%A9pkor" title="Középkor – 匈牙利文" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Középkor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Միջնադար – 亞美尼亞文" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջնադար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亞美尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Միջնադար – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Միջնադար" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievo" title="Medievo – 國際文" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Medievo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="國際文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Pertengahan" title="Abad Pertengahan – 印尼文" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abad Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievie" title="Medievie – 國際文（E）" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Medievie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="國際文（E）" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengnga_a_Panpanawen" title="Tengnga a Panpanawen – 伊洛闊文" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Tengnga a Panpanawen" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="伊洛闊文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Юкъера бӀаьшераш – 印古什文" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Юкъера бӀаьшераш" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="印古什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoko" title="Mezepoko – 伊多文" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mezepoko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0aldir" title="Miðaldir – 冰島文" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Miðaldir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰島文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medioevo" title="Medioevo – 義大利文" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Medioevo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="義大利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96" title="中世 – 日文" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中世" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migl_Iejiz" title="Migl Iejiz – 牙買加克裏奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Migl Iejiz" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克裏奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Tengahan" title="Abad Tengahan – 爪哇文" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Abad Tengahan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="შუა საუკუნეები – 喬治亞文" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შუა საუკუნეები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="喬治亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallit-Tanammast" title="Tallit-Tanammast – 卡比爾文" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tallit-Tanammast" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="卡比爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C9%9Bk%CA%8A_n%C9%9B_H%C9%9Bk%CA%8A_Al%C9%A9waat%CA%8A" title="Hɛkʊ nɛ Hɛkʊ Alɩwaatʊ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Hɛkʊ nɛ Hɛkʊ Alɩwaatʊ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Ортағасыр – 哈薩克文" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ортағасыр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈薩克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8" title="중세 – 韓文" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serdema_Nav%C3%AEn" title="Serdema Navîn – 庫爾德文" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Serdema Navîn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="庫爾德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osow_Kres" title="Osow Kres – 康瓦耳文" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Osow Kres" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康瓦耳文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Орто кылымдар – 吉爾吉斯文" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Орто кылымдар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="吉爾吉斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_aevum" title="Medium aevum – 拉丁文" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Medium aevum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ABttelalter" title="Mëttelalter – 盧森堡文" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Mëttelalter" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="盧森堡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eda_medieval" title="Eda medieval – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Eda medieval" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeliewe" title="Middeliewe – 林堡文" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Middeliewe" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A6_de_M%C3%ABzo" title="Etæ de Mëzo – 利古里亞文" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Etæ de Mëzo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="利古里亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A9_medievala" title="Eté medievala – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Eté medievala" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medio%C3%A9v" title="Medioév – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Medioév" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%84%E0%BB%9D%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%87" title="ສະໄໝກາງ – 寮文" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສະໄໝກາງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="寮文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viduram%C5%BEiai" title="Viduramžiai – 立陶宛文" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viduramžiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viduslaiki" title="Viduslaiki – 拉脫維亞文" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Viduslaiki" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脫維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andro_Antenatenany" title="Andro Antenatenany – 馬拉加什文" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Andro Antenatenany" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="馬拉加什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaik_Patangahan" title="Abaik Patangahan – 米南卡堡文" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Abaik Patangahan" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="米南卡堡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Среден век – 馬其頓文" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Среден век" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="馬其頓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%82" title="മദ്ധ്യകാലം – 馬來亞拉姆文" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മദ്ധ്യകാലം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="馬來亞拉姆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Дундад зуун – 蒙古文" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дундад зуун" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="मध्य युग – 馬拉地文" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मध्य युग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="馬拉地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Pertengahan" title="Zaman Pertengahan – 馬來文" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaman Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="馬來文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medjuevu" title="Medjuevu – 馬爾他文" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Medjuevu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="馬爾他文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidade_M%C3%A9dia" title="Eidade Média – 米蘭德斯文" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eidade Média" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="米蘭德斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="အလယ်ခေတ် – 緬甸文" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အလယ်ခေတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="緬甸文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Куншкапинге – 厄爾茲亞文" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Куншкапинге" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="厄爾茲亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7" title="قرون وسطا – 馬贊德蘭文" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="قرون وسطا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="馬贊德蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medioevo" title="Medioevo – 拿波里文" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Medioevo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="拿波里文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middel%C3%B6ller" title="Middelöller – 低地德文" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Middelöller" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleywen" title="Middeleywen – 低地薩克遜文" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Middeleywen" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="低地薩克遜文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeuwen" title="Middeleeuwen – 荷蘭文" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middeleeuwen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellomalderen" title="Mellomalderen – 耐諾斯克挪威文" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mellomalderen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="耐諾斯克挪威文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelalderen" title="Middelalderen – 巴克摩挪威文" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Middelalderen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="巴克摩挪威文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyen_%C3%82ge" title="Meyen Âge – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Meyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Mejana" title="Edat Mejana – 奧克西坦文" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Edat Mejana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奧克西坦文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%C3%A6%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Астæузаман – 奧塞提文" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Астæузаман" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="奧塞提文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2" title="ਮੱਧਕਾਲ – 旁遮普文" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੱਧਕਾਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Media" title="Edad Media – 帕皮阿門托文" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="帕皮阿門托文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%C3%A9yin_Ache" title="Moéyin Ache – 庇卡底文" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Moéyin Ache" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="庇卡底文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="好文"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aredniowiecze" title="Średniowiecze – 波蘭文" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Średniowiecze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_%C3%ABd_mes" title="Età ëd mes – 皮埃蒙特文" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Età ëd mes" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="皮埃蒙特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%86%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7" title="وچکارلا ویلا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="وچکارلا ویلا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81%D9%86%DB%8D_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%93%DB%8D" title="منځنۍ پېړۍ – 普什圖文" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="منځنۍ پېړۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什圖文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_M%C3%A9dia" title="Idade Média – 葡萄牙文" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Idade Média" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temp_medieval" title="Temp medieval – 羅曼斯文" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Temp medieval" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="羅曼斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evul_Mediu" title="Evul Mediu – 羅馬尼亞文" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evul Mediu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="羅馬尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Средние века – 俄文" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Средние века" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Середновік – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Середновік" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE_%D2%AF%D0%B9%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Орто үйэлэр – 雅庫特文" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Орто үйэлэр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="雅庫特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edade_m%C3%A8dia" title="Edade mèdia – 撒丁文" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Edade mèdia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="撒丁文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediuevu" title="Mediuevu – 西西里文" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mediuevu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages – 蘇格蘭文" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Middle Ages" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="蘇格蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="وچون دور – 信德文" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="وچون دور" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednji_vijek" title="Srednji vijek – 塞爾維亞克羅埃西亞文" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srednji vijek" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞爾維亞克羅埃西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Middle Ages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredovek" title="Stredovek – 斯洛伐克文" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredovek" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%B0%DB%8C" title="قرون وسطٰی – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="قرون وسطٰی" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednji_vek" title="Srednji vek – 斯洛維尼亞文" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Srednji vek" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛維尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesjeta" title="Mesjeta – 阿爾巴尼亞文" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mesjeta" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿爾巴尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Средњи век – 塞爾維亞文" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Средњи век" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞爾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeloaler" title="Middeloaler – 沙特菲士蘭文" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Middeloaler" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="沙特菲士蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medeltiden" title="Medeltiden – 瑞典文" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medeltiden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzi_ya_kati" title="Enzi ya kati – 史瓦希里文" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Enzi ya kati" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="史瓦希里文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strzed%C5%84e_Storocza" title="Strzedńe Storocza – 西利西亞文" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Strzedńe Storocza" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="西利西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/cung-se-ci" title="cung-se-ci – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="cung-se-ci" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE)" title="நடுக்காலம் (ஐரோப்பா) – 坦米爾文" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நடுக்காலம் (ஐரோப்பா)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="坦米爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="สมัยกลาง – 泰文" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมัยกลาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_asyrlar" title="Orta asyrlar – 土庫曼文" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Orta asyrlar" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="土庫曼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitnang_Kapanahunan" title="Gitnang Kapanahunan – 塔加路族文" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Gitnang Kapanahunan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="塔加路族文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C3%87a%C4%9F" title="Orta Çağ – 土耳其文" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta Çağ" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Урта гасырлар – 韃靼文" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Урта гасырлар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="韃靼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F" title="Середньовіччя – 烏克蘭文" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Середньовіччя" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="烏克蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="قرون وسطی – 烏都文" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="烏都文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBrta_asr" title="Oʻrta asr – 烏茲別克文" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oʻrta asr" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="烏茲別克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_de_mezo" title="Età de mezo – 威尼斯文" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Età de mezo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trung_C%E1%BB%95" title="Trung Cổ – 越南文" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trung Cổ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middel%C3%AAeuwn" title="Middelêeuwn – 西佛蘭德文" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Middelêeuwn" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="西佛蘭德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A4nodatim%C3%A4d" title="Zänodatimäd – 沃拉普克文" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Zänodatimäd" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="沃拉普克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyin%C3%A5dje" title="Moyinådje – 瓦隆文" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Moyinådje" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="瓦隆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabutngaay_nga_Panahon" title="Kabutngaay nga Panahon – 瓦瑞文" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kabutngaay nga Panahon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96" title="中世 – 吳語" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="中世" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吳語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="შქა ოშწანურეფი – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="შქა ოშწანურეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%98%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="מיטל אלטער – 意第緒文" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מיטל אלטער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第緒文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middele%C3%AAuwen" title="Middeleêuwen – 西蘭文" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Middeleêuwen" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="西蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="好文"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA" title="中世纪 – 中文" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中世纪" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="中文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96" title="中世 – 文言文" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="中世" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="文言文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiong-s%C3%A8-k%C3%AD" title="Tiong-sè-kí – 閩南語" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiong-sè-kí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="閩南語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12554#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="改跨語言拎" class="wbc-editpage">改拎</a></span></div> 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title="多啲選項" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 動作 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80"><span>閱</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit" title="改呢版嘅代碼[e]" accesskey="e"><span>改</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=history"><span>睇返紀錄</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 基本 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%82%8A%E5%BA%A6%E9%8F%88%E5%8E%BB%E5%91%A2%E7%89%88/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="列出所有連接過嚟呢度嘅頁面[j]" accesskey="j"><span>有乜連過嚟</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E5%A4%96%E9%8F%88%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" rel="nofollow" title="由呢版連出去嘅版嘅最近修改[k]" accesskey="k"><span>連結頁嘅更改</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Project:%E4%B8%8A%E8%BC%89" title="上載檔案[u]" accesskey="u"><span>上載檔案</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E5%B0%88%E9%96%80%E7%89%88" title="所有專門版一覽[q]" accesskey="q"><span>專門版</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&oldid=2195653" title="呢版呢個修訂嘅永久網址"><span>固定連結</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=info" title="多啲同呢版有拏褦嘅資料"><span>此版明細</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a 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href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=show-download-screen"><span>下載PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="javascript:print();" rel="alternate" title="呢一版印得嘅版本[p]" accesskey="p"><span>印得嘅版本</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 第啲維基項目 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" hreflang="en"><span>維基同享</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12554" title="連到接住資料儲存庫嘅項目[g]" accesskey="g"><span>維基數據項</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="頁面工具"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="閱讀設定"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">閱讀設定</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">移去側欄</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">收埋</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">出自維基百科，自由嘅百科全書</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="yue" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg/220px-JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg/330px-JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg/440px-JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2403" /></a><figcaption>中世紀一件藝術品</figcaption></figure> <p><b>中世紀</b>（<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%B2%B5%E6%96%87%E6%8B%BC%E9%9F%B3" title="Wikipedia:粵文拼音">粵拼</a>：<span class="plainlinks" style="display:inline-block"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yue.forvo.com/word/yue/中世紀/#yue"><span>zung<span class="Jpingtone">1</span> sai<span class="Jpingtone">3</span> gei<span class="Jpingtone">2</span></span></a></span>），又叫做<b>中古時代</b>（<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%B2%B5%E6%96%87%E6%8B%BC%E9%9F%B3" title="Wikipedia:粵文拼音">粵拼</a>：<span class="plainlinks" style="display:inline-block"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yue.forvo.com/word/yue/中世紀/#yue"><span>zung<span class="Jpingtone">1</span> gu<span class="Jpingtone">2</span> si<span class="Jpingtone">4</span> doi<span class="Jpingtone">6</span></span></a></span>），係<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2" title="歐洲">歐洲</a>歷史嘅一個時代（主要係<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%AD%90" title="西歐">西歐</a>），係由<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西羅馬帝國">西羅馬帝國</a>滅亡到<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="東羅馬帝國">東羅馬帝國</a>滅亡期間嘅時期，大概係公元<a href="/wiki/476%E5%B9%B4" title="476年">476年</a>－<a href="/wiki/1453%E5%B9%B4" title="1453年">1453年</a>。 </p><p>中世紀呢段時期被認為係<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西方文化 (無呢版)">西方文化</a>嘅低潮，因為當時嘅歐洲冇一個強而有力嘅政權嚟統治，而係由唔同嘅封建堡主各自割據。所以搞到成日打仗，連帶個文明都長期停滯埋，亦有唔少歐洲嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="歷史學家">歷史學家</a>形容中世紀做<b>黑暗時代</b>（<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%B2%B5%E6%96%87%E6%8B%BC%E9%9F%B3" title="Wikipedia:粵文拼音">粵拼</a>：<span class="plainlinks" style="display:inline-block"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yue.forvo.com/word/yue/中世紀/#yue"><span>hak<span class="Jpingtone">1</span> am<span class="Jpingtone">3</span> si<span class="Jpingtone">4</span> doi<span class="Jpingtone">6</span></span></a></span>）。 </p><p>由喺<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="後古代史">後古代史</a>開始到中世紀早期，歐洲都係有文明衰退嘅跡象，包括<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3%E8%A1%B0%E9%80%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="人口衰退 (無呢版)">人口衰退</a>、逆<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E5%8C%96" title="城市化">城市化</a>、中央政權嘅崩潰、外族入侵、同大規模嘅<a href="/wiki/%E9%83%A8%E8%90%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="部落">部落</a>遷徙等等。喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%A4%A7%E9%81%B7%E5%BE%99%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" title="民族大遷徙時期">民族大遷徙時期</a>期間，大規模嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F" title="民族">民族</a>由中歐同東歐搬去<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西羅馬帝國">西羅馬帝國</a>以前嘅地頭，所以形成咗好多個新嘅王國。到咗7世紀，原本屬於<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="東羅馬帝國">東羅馬帝國</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%9D%9E" title="北非">北非</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E6%9D%B1" title="近東">近東</a>地區，因為<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E7%BD%95%E9%BB%98%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="穆罕默德">穆罕默德</a>同佢嘅<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B9%BC%E6%89%BF%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="繼承人 (無呢版)">繼承人</a>經過<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%81%E6%9C%8D" title="征服">征服</a>而落入咗<a href="/wiki/%E5%80%AD%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%9E%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="倭馬亞王朝">倭馬亞王朝</a>嘅統治之下。雖然社會同政治結構都發生咗好大嘅變化，但係同<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="古典時代">古典時代</a>都冇完全斷絕關係。<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="東羅馬帝國">東羅馬帝國</a>，即係<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="羅馬帝國">羅馬帝國</a>嘅中世紀階段，喺東地中海地區仲係一個好大嘅勢力。佢嘅法典《<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="民法大全" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英文" data-foreign-title="Corpus Juris Civilis"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%91%E6%B3%95%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="民法大全 (無呢版)">民法大全</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英文</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" class="extiw" title="en:Corpus Juris Civilis"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Corpus Juris Civilis</span></a></span>）</span></span>》喺11世紀喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E5%8D%8A%E5%B3%B6" title="意大利半島">意大利半島</a>北部重新被發現。喺西方，大多數王國都保留咗仲存在嘅少數羅馬制度，同時亦都成立咗修道院，繼續致力於將<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%B0%E6%95%99#前基督教嘅歐洲宗教" title="異教">異教歐洲</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99%E5%8C%96" title="基督教化">基督教化</a>。喺<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E6%B4%9B%E6%9E%97%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="加洛林王朝">加洛林王朝</a>嘅統治下，<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E4%BA%BA" title="法蘭克人">法蘭克人</a>喺8世紀末同9世紀初建立咗一個短命嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E6%B4%9B%E6%9E%97%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="加洛林帝國">加洛林帝國</a>。雖然佢曾經統治咗西歐大部分地區，但係最後因為<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0" title="內戰">內戰</a>同埋北面<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%BA" title="維京人">維京人</a>、東面<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%BA" title="匈牙利人">匈牙利人</a>同南面<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯人">阿拉伯人</a>嘅入侵而瓦解。 </p><p>喺<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="中世紀盛期" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英文" data-foreign-title="High Middle Ages"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E7%9B%9B%E6%9C%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中世紀盛期 (無呢版)">中世紀盛期</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英文</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" class="extiw" title="en:High Middle Ages"><span lang="en" dir="auto">High Middle Ages</span></a></span>）</span></span>，即係由公元1000年開始，歐洲人口大幅增長，全靠一系列<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="科技">科技</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD" title="農業">農業</a>嘅進步推動咗<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%BF%E6%98%93" title="貿易">貿易</a>發展，加上因為<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="中世紀暖期" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英文" data-foreign-title="Medieval Warm Period"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E6%9A%96%E6%9C%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中世紀暖期 (無呢版)">中世紀暖期</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英文</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" class="extiw" title="en:Medieval Warm Period"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Medieval Warm Period</span></a></span>）</span></span>而令到<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9" title="農作物">農作物</a>產量增加。<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="莊園制度" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英文" data-foreign-title="Manorialism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8E%8A%E5%9C%92%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="莊園制度 (無呢版)">莊園制度</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英文</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manorialism" class="extiw" title="en:Manorialism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Manorialism</span></a></span>）</span></span>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E6%B0%91" class="mw-redirect" title="農民">農民</a>集中喺村莊，向<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%B4%E6%97%8F" title="貴族">貴族</a>交租同勞動）同<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E5%BB%BA%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="封建制度">封建制度</a>（一種政治結構，<a href="/wiki/%E9%A8%8E%E5%A3%AB" title="騎士">騎士</a>同低級貴族向佢哋嘅領主提供軍事服務，以換取土地同領地嘅使用權）係盛世中世紀社會嘅兩個主要制度。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E8%BB%8D%E6%9D%B1%E5%BE%81" title="十字軍東征">十字軍東征</a>喺1095年首次發起，係西歐<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E5%BE%92" title="基督徒">基督徒</a>嘗試以武力，由<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E6%96%AF%E6%9E%97" title="穆斯林">穆斯林</a>手中攞返<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%96%E5%9C%B0" title="聖地">聖地</a>。中央集權嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6" title="民族國家">民族國家</a>國王權力嘅鞏固減少咗罪案同暴力，但係令到統一嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C" title="基督教世界">基督教世界</a>理想變得越嚟越唔實際。結合<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%B0" title="信仰">信仰</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7" title="理性">理性</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E9%99%A2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="經院哲學">經院哲學</a>，加上<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="大學">大學</a>嘅成立，標誌住呢個時期嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98" title="知識">知識</a>生活。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E5%A5%8E%E9%82%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="亞奎那">亞奎那</a>嘅神學、<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AC%E6%89%98" title="喬托">喬托</a>嘅繪畫、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%86%E4%B8%81" class="mw-redirect" title="但丁">但丁</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AC%E5%8F%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="喬叟">喬叟</a>嘅詩歌、<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="拉蒙·魯爾" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英文" data-foreign-title="Ramon Llull"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E8%92%99%C2%B7%E9%AD%AF%E7%88%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="拉蒙·魯爾 (無呢版)">拉蒙·魯爾</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英文</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramon_Llull" class="extiw" title="en:Ramon Llull"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Ramon Llull</span></a></span>）</span></span>嘅著作、<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%93%A5%E5%AD%9B%E7%BE%85" title="馬哥孛羅">馬哥孛羅</a>嘅旅遊經歷，同埋<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%99%E7%89%B9%E7%88%BE%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E5%BA%A7%E5%A0%82" title="沙特爾主教座堂">沙特爾主教座堂</a>等<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%A5%E5%BE%B7%E5%BC%8F%E5%BB%BA%E7%AF%89" title="哥德式建築">哥德式建築</a>嘅大教堂，都係呢個時期同晚期中世紀早期嘅重要成就。 </p><p>晚期中世紀受到好多災難嘅影響，包括<a href="/wiki/%E9%A5%91%E8%8D%92" title="饑荒">饑荒</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%98%9F%E7%96%AB" title="瘟疫">瘟疫</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%93%E4%BB%97" title="打仗">打仗</a>，對歐洲人口造成咗好大嘅打擊。喺1347年到1350年之間，<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%AD%BB%E7%97%85" title="黑死病">黑死病</a>殺死咗歐洲三分之一嘅人口。喺<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99" title="宗教">宗教</a>方面，<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E6%9C%83" title="天主教會">天主教會</a>受到爭議，特別係<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E6%95%99%E6%9C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" class="mw-redirect" title="西方教會大分裂">西方教會大分裂</a>，加上<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%B0%E7%AB%AF" title="異端">異端</a>嘅衝擊、世俗嘅權力鬥爭、<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0" title="內戰">內戰</a>、同<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E6%B0%91" class="mw-redirect" title="農民">農民</a>起義等等嘅影響，都城為中世紀嘅重要特徵。喺中世紀尾，<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化">文化</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="科技">科技</a>嘅進步改變咗歐洲社會，將歐洲由中世紀帶去<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="近代">近代</a>嘅開始。 </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="術語同分期"><span id=".E8.A1.93.E8.AA.9E.E5.90.8C.E5.88.86.E6.9C.9F"></span>術語同分期</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=1" title="編輯小節: 術語同分期"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint-Michel_de_Cuxa.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Saint-Michel_de_Cuxa.JPG/220px-Saint-Michel_de_Cuxa.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Saint-Michel_de_Cuxa.JPG/330px-Saint-Michel_de_Cuxa.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Saint-Michel_de_Cuxa.JPG/440px-Saint-Michel_de_Cuxa.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3399" data-file-height="2492" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BA%AB%E6%B2%99%E8%81%96%E7%B1%B3%E6%AD%87%E7%88%BE%E4%BF%AE%E9%81%93%E9%99%A2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="庫沙聖米歇爾修道院 (無呢版)">庫沙聖米歇爾修道院</a>，位於<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E9%81%94%E8%90%8A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科達萊 (無呢版)">科達萊</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AD%94%E5%A4%AB%E6%9C%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="孔夫朗 (無呢版)">孔夫朗</a>）</figcaption></figure> <p>中世紀係研究<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="歐洲歷史">歐洲歷史</a>最長久嘅概念框架中嘅三大時期之一：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="古代">古代</a>、中世紀同<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="近代">近代</a>（後來再加上咗<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%95%B6%E4%BB%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="當代 (無呢版)">當代</a>）。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPower2006「導論」（D._Power）_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPower2006「導論」（D._Power）-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>呢個三分法首先由意大利歷史學家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%90%8A%E6%98%82%E7%B4%8D%E5%A4%9A%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E9%AD%AF%E5%B0%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="萊昂納多·布魯尼 (無呢版)">萊昂納多·布魯尼</a>喺1442年提出，佢嘅同胞<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BC%97%E6%8B%89%E7%B6%AD%E5%A5%A7%C2%B7%E6%AF%94%E7%BF%81%E5%A4%9A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="弗拉維奧·比翁多 (無呢版)">弗拉維奧·比翁多</a>幾乎即刻跟隨，<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>兩個半世紀之後由德國歷史學家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E6%89%98%E5%BC%97%C2%B7%E5%A1%9E%E6%8B%89%E7%95%99%E6%96%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="克里斯托弗·塞拉留斯 (無呢版)">克里斯托弗·塞拉留斯</a>將佢規範化。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurray20044_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurray20044-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-六四_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-六四-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>註 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>「中世紀」（medieval）呢個形容詞嘅意思係「關於或屬於中世紀」，源自<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中世紀拉丁語 (無呢版)">中世紀拉丁語</a>嘅「medium aevum」（中間時代），<sup id="cite_ref-辭典_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-辭典-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>首次記錄喺1604年。其他喺呢個時期左右使用嘅類似叫法包括「media tempestas」（1469年）、「media aetes」（1518年）同「medium tempus」（1531年）。<sup id="cite_ref-Benito_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benito-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>一般嚟講，中世紀大約由5世紀末到15世紀下半葉，但係冇一個普遍認同嘅確切日期。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickham20161_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickham20161-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin20141_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin20141-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>一個常見嘅開始日期，由布魯尼本人提出，係476年，即係最後一位<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8B%E5%AF%A6%E4%B8%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="事實上">事實上</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西羅馬帝國">西羅馬帝國</a>皇帝<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E6%85%95%E8%B7%AF%E6%96%AF%E5%A5%A7%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E9%83%BD" title="羅慕路斯奧古斯都">羅慕路斯奧古斯都</a>（Romulus Augustulus）被廢黜嘅年份。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin20145_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin20145-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>另一個選擇係<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="羅馬皇帝">羅馬皇帝</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%9B%E5%A3%AB%E5%9D%A6%E4%B8%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%B8%9D" title="君士坦丁大帝">君士坦丁大帝</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B5%B1%E6%B2%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="統治 (無呢版)">統治</a>期306-337年）皈依<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99" title="基督教">基督教</a>嘅時間。至於中世紀嘅結束，最常見嘅日期係1453年（<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%9B%E5%A3%AB%E5%9D%A6%E4%B8%81%E5%A0%A1%E9%99%B7%E8%90%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="君士坦丁堡陷落">君士坦丁堡陷落</a>）、1492年（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E6%89%98%E5%BC%97%C2%B7%E5%93%A5%E5%80%AB%E5%B8%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="克里斯托弗·哥倫布 (無呢版)">克里斯托弗·哥倫布</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E7%8F%BE%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2" title="發現美洲">到達</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2" title="美洲">美洲</a>）同1517年（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%B0%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="新教改革 (無呢版)">新教改革</a>開始）。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1996291-293_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1996291-293-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>用歷史學家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B1%B3%E9%BA%97%C2%B7%E9%AD%AF%E8%B3%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="米麗·魯賓 (無呢版)">米麗·魯賓</a>嘅話嚟講，歐洲「喺呢段時期並冇以同一個節奏發展」：大陸嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99%E5%8C%96" title="基督教化">基督教化</a>係分階段進行嘅，而<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E5%8C%96" title="城市化">城市化</a>（或重新城市化）喺唔同地區發生嘅時間都唔一樣。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin20141_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin20141-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>根據學術界嘅共識，定義中世紀嘅現象包括<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD" title="農業">農業</a>喺經濟中嘅主導地位、對<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E6%B0%91" class="mw-redirect" title="農民">農民</a>嘅剝削、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%9A%9B%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82" title="人際關係">人際關係</a>（暴力、<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%8A%E5%8A%A9" title="贊助">贊助</a>、家庭同<a href="/wiki/%E9%AD%85%E5%8A%9B" title="魅力">魅力</a>）喺權力結構中嘅重要性、地區之間通訊嘅緩慢，以及國家官僚機構嘅脆弱。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold202121_同_132-134_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold202121_同_132-134-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="簡史"><span id=".E7.B0.A1.E5.8F.B2"></span>簡史</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=2" title="編輯小節: 簡史"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>隨住<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西羅馬帝國">西羅馬帝國</a>滅亡，<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%AD%90" title="西歐">西歐</a>陷入咗地方割據時期。呢啲割據勢力版圖裏面，以<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="法蘭克王國">法蘭克王國</a>勢力最大。公元6世紀法蘭克吞併咗而家嘅德國南部同意大利北部，成為法蘭克王國。到咗公元<a href="/wiki/843%E5%B9%B4" title="843年">843年</a>，法蘭克王國內亂，分裂成而家嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" title="法國">法國</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B" title="德國">德國</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9" title="意大利">意大利</a>北面。 </p><p>呢三個國家命運各有唔同。東法蘭克王國喺13世紀演變成<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E8%A5%BF%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="法蘭西王國">法蘭西王國</a>。東法蘭克王國就喺<a href="/wiki/951%E5%B9%B4" title="951年">951年</a>進佔意大利北部，重進軍埋<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC" title="羅馬">羅馬</a>，逐漸演變成「<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E8%81%96%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="神聖羅馬帝國">神聖羅馬帝國</a>」。 </p><p>而早喺公元6世紀，位處羅馬嘅教廷又建立咗「教皇國」，控制咗西歐嘅文化教育，只准傳播神學，科學理論要嚴格控制，重設立<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4%E6%89%80" title="宗教裁判所">宗教裁判所</a>懲罰異端。而且為咗對抗位處中東嘅<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E6%95%99" title="伊斯蘭教">伊斯蘭教</a>國家，教廷發動咗八次<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E8%BB%8D%E6%9D%B1%E5%BE%81" title="十字軍東征">十字軍東征</a>。 </p><p>中世紀係喺十字軍東征後慢慢結束。<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%AD%E6%B5%B7" title="地中海">地中海</a>一帶出現咗一批商業城市，好似<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF" title="威尼斯">威尼斯</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E7%BE%85%E5%80%AB%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="佛羅倫斯">佛羅倫斯</a>等等。對外貿易又將一啲新技術帶嚟歐洲，例如火藥、造紙術等等。武器嘅改良後來畀人用嚟消滅各個割據勢力。因為商業發達，歐洲文明重新復興，展開咗<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%97%9D%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88" title="文藝復興">文藝復興</a>，好多商業文化亦都由此而嚟。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）"><span id=".E5.B0.81.E5.BB.BA.E6.AD.90.E6.B4.B2.EF.BC.88.E5.85.AC.E5.85.838.E8.87.B310.E4.B8.96.E7.B4.80.EF.BC.89"></span>封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=3" title="編輯小節: 封建歐洲（公元8至10世紀）"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文：<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E5%BB%BA%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="封建制度">封建制度</a></div> <p>喺公元8至10世紀之間，西歐基督教世界確立咗一個經濟同政治上嘅混合系統。因為佢喺<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F" title="經濟">經濟</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83" title="社會">社會</a>方面有共同特徵，所以就叫做「<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E5%BB%BA%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="封建制度">封建制度</a>」。封建化意味住權力嘅私有化：「公權力嘅權利最終具有咗家產性質，而習慣法，即公權力嘅權利，變成咗交易嘅對象。」<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 將情況推到極致，可以話封建社會切割同分裂咗公權力。直到12世紀初，我哋見證緊公權力嘅逐步減弱；而之後嘅時期，即國家開始形成嘅時候，我哋就會見到公法嘅復甦。 </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olbrueck02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Olbrueck02.jpg/220px-Olbrueck02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Olbrueck02.jpg/330px-Olbrueck02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Olbrueck02.jpg/440px-Olbrueck02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="860" /></a><figcaption>德國<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A5%A7%E7%88%BE%E5%B8%83%E5%91%82%E5%85%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="奧爾布呂克 (無呢版)">奧爾布呂克</a>城堡嘅望樓。望樓（或稱主塔）係城堡最高嘅塔，係領主權力嘅最高象徵；可以用嚟做住所、最後嘅避難所、瞭望塔或者駐軍嘅住處</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="封建革命"><span id=".E5.B0.81.E5.BB.BA.E9.9D.A9.E5.91.BD"></span>封建革命</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=4" title="編輯小節: 封建革命"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>喺10世紀前後嘅幾十年，封建革命嘅輪廓逐漸明朗，<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 同有組織嘅社會生活農村化有關。封建宮廷取代咗城市，成為咗社會嘅組織模式。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西羅馬帝國">西羅馬帝國</a>滅亡三個世紀之後，希臘羅馬世界已經喺西歐消失得無影無蹤。西方變得蠻族化，因為日耳曼人雖然欣賞同想效仿羅馬嘅偉大，但佢哋唔認同「公共事務」呢個概念，而呢個概念係理解古代政治嘅關鍵。由朝廷到最底層嘅官員，再到城鄉嘅各個專業同宗教團體，我哋可以睇到國家同社會嘅私有化。喺蠻族部落中，一種全新嘅國家形態出現：權力有一個神奇、神聖同戰士嘅起源，由國王（戰爭領袖）同自由戰士行使；呢個不穩定嘅混合體只能靠軍事勝利嚟維持。呢個冇固定居所、冇保證穩定嘅組織嘅黏合劑，唔係好似羅馬咁係公共利益嘅概念，而係更加似喺一個臨時聯盟入面私人利益嘅集合，呢個聯盟會喺勝利之後自動解散。國王被視為戰利品同征服土地嘅主人，佢死咗之後，佢所有嘅財產都會好似私人財產咁平分畀佢啲繼承人。呢個就係王國家產化嘅原則。 </p><p>就連<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E7%90%86%E5%A4%A7%E5%B8%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="查理大帝">查理大帝</a>都喺806年計劃將帝國分畀佢三個仔。只係因為機緣巧合，兩個仔喺長子<a href="/wiki/%E8%99%94%E8%AA%A0%E8%80%85%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93" title="虔誠者路易">虔誠者路易</a>之前就死咗，先可以暫時保持帝國嘅統一。但係日耳曼法律唔覺意咁將公有同私有混為一談；司法嘅口頭主導性令到佢變得非常個人化同主觀，因為只有專家先識得法律。而且，每個人都係根據佢嘅出身（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E5%93%A5%E7%89%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西哥特 (無呢版)">西哥特</a>人、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="法蘭克 (無呢版)">法蘭克</a>人……）受審。法律嘅個人化加強咗社會嘅分裂，令到司法失去咗任何普遍性，而呢個係適用於帝國所有公民嘅羅馬法嘅根本點。因此，私法取代公法係日耳曼人嘅一個創新。 </p><p>由840年開始，加洛林王朝嘅官員叛變同佢哋篡奪王權嘅行為導致咗封建制度嘅出現。由950年開始，封建堡壘大量增加：即係話，權力分裂成為好多個自治單位，每個單位嘅頭頭都以私人身份擁有命令同懲罰嘅權力；而且佢將呢個權力當做佢可以繼承嘅家產嘅一部分嚟利用。<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>喺呢個模式嘅形成過程中，有幾個決定性嘅因素： </p> <ul><li>一個以領主制為基礎嘅農業經濟。</li> <li>大片農業區域同大型商業同貨幣流通圈脫節。由8世紀開始，部分由於穆斯林喺地中海嘅滲透，東西方之間嘅大型商品交易市場停止咗運作。經濟逐漸農村化同退化，導致咗經濟自給自足同貨幣流通停滯。結果，經濟以自給自足嘅農業生產為基礎。冇咗貿易，封建領地就要自給自足，農業開發同工坊喺同一個地方並存。</li> <li>權力中心同佢哋嘅下屬隔絕。農村化同古代世界以<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82" title="城市">城市</a>（<i>polis</i>、<i>urbs</i>）凌駕鄉村嘅觀念相對立。城市曾經係希臘同羅馬嘅行政同官僚機構。由<a href="/w/index.php?title=3%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%8D%B1%E6%A9%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3世紀危機 (無呢版)">3}}世紀嘅危機</a>開始，城市衰落加劇，人口向偏遠嘅鄉村地區遷移。</li> <li>最後，一個以個人忠誠鏈為基礎嘅社會組織。<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E7%8E%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="國王">國王</a>因為冇錢養唔起常備軍，要靠<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%81%E8%87%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="封臣 (無呢版)">封臣</a>嘅無條件效忠。為咗保持呢種效忠，國王要分封土地同特權。呢種王權嘅削弱導致咗互惠嘅忠誠關係出現，喺呢種關係中，君主唔係高高在上嘅至高無上嘅統治者：佢係自己領地嘅領主，喺其他地方只係一個儀式性嘅象徵。呢種主權分裂嘅政治體系令到大規模嘅常設行政機構冇辦法出現嚟執行法律。而且，政治權力同司法權力（解釋同應用現有法律）混為一談。國王因為冇軍隊、行政機構同法官，冇能力喺佢嘅領土上徵稅、執法同維持公共秩序，所以就將呢啲職責交畀貴族。即係話，喺9世紀，除咗擁有土地之外，仲有咗對居民嘅司法管轄權……冇<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="公法 (無呢版)">公法</a>令到複雜嘅個人關係等級制度出現，呢個就係封建世界嘅法律政治基礎。因此，效忠關係係兩個自由人之間建立嘅一種關係，其中一個人（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%81%E8%87%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="封臣 (無呢版)">封臣</a>）向另一個人（領主）承諾效忠同服務，以換取保護同供養。一開始，呢個關係被視為一種個人關係，但好快就失去咗呢個特性，因為一個人可以從唔同嘅領主嗰度收到<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%81%E5%9C%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="封地 (無呢版)">封地</a>。效忠關係會維持到締結關係嘅人死亡為止。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="公元1000年之前嘅西方經濟"><span id=".E5.85.AC.E5.85.831000.E5.B9.B4.E4.B9.8B.E5.89.8D.E5.98.85.E8.A5.BF.E6.96.B9.E7.B6.93.E6.BF.9F"></span>公元1000年之前嘅西方經濟</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=5" title="編輯小節: 公元1000年之前嘅西方經濟"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="農業：為咗消費而生產"><span id=".E8.BE.B2.E6.A5.AD.EF.BC.9A.E7.82.BA.E5.92.97.E6.B6.88.E8.B2.BB.E8.80.8C.E7.94.9F.E7.94.A2"></span>農業：為咗消費而生產</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=6" title="編輯小節: 農業：為咗消費而生產"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>喺6同7世紀，西歐嘅<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3%E5%AF%86%E5%BA%A6" title="人口密度">人口密度</a>估計喺<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E7%9B%A7" title="高盧">高盧</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%AF%94%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%8D%8A%E5%B3%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="伊比利亞半島">伊比利亞半島</a>係每平方公里5到6個人，喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9" title="意大利">意大利</a>北部稍高啲，喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E8%80%B3%E6%9B%BC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" title="日耳曼尼亞">日耳曼尼亞</a>就只有2.3個人。森林同牧場嘅主導地位、農具嘅缺乏同耕種人手嘅不足解釋咗西方嘅農村化。城市人口減少，除咗伊比利亞半島同意大利半島嘅某啲地區之外，人口冇超過六千人。建築活動減少，人哋重複利用舊時嘅建材。 </p><p>中世紀文明幾乎完全係<a href="/wiki/%E9%84%89%E6%9D%91" class="mw-redirect" title="鄉村">鄉村</a>嘅。所有人嘅生活都受到農業工作週期嘅支配，佢哋嘅生存都依賴於土地，所有資源都係由土地得到嘅。呢個係一個以滿足食物需求為主導嘅自給自足經濟，雖然土地係主角，但佢嘅產量極其低下。<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 喺<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西羅馬帝國">西羅馬帝國</a>滅亡之後，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B2%BE%E8%80%95%E7%B4%B0%E4%BD%9C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="精耕細作 (無呢版)">精耕細作</a>嘅做法停止咗，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%91%E8%80%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="休耕 (無呢版)">休耕</a>變成咗普遍做法。喺北歐，土壤表層嘅濕度容許三年輪作制，而且要求使用重型<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%81" class="mw-redirect" title="犁">犁</a>，目的係耕種更厚實嘅土地同將土地耕得更深；但係因為成本高，只有喺公社制嘅耕作系統入面先可行。相反，喺地中海地區，因為要保持濕度，三年輪作制就冇用，因為穀物唔可以喺春天種植（會喺收成之前乾枯）；缺乏<a href="/wiki/%E7%87%95%E9%BA%A5" title="燕麥">燕麥</a>導致咗牲畜同天然肥料嘅缺乏，唔夠肥料去肥沃土地，所以就要砍伐森林嚟為牲畜搵補充糧食。使用冇犁鏵嘅輕型犁嘅效率好有限，因為佢入唔到土深處，所以就要用兩年輪作制，即係每塊田地兩年先可以收一次穀。不過，好多土地都維持唔到呢個生產節奏，要喺幾年之後就要放棄。為咗彌補呢個損失，就要通過開墾或者燒山嚟開闢新嘅耕地。 </p><p>因此，<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD" title="農業">農業</a>要大量土地、粗放、半遊牧，而且以自給自足為目標，包括製造業。土地擁有者通常係本地羅馬貴族、日耳曼顯貴同大型<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E9%81%93%E9%99%A2" title="修道院">修道院</a>。以奴隸為基礎嘅開發模式減少緊，而以農民為主嘅勞動方式增加緊，農民嘅報酬係畀佢哋一塊土地嚟維持生計。為咗安全起見，農民會投靠一個地主嘅保護，佢哋嘅處境同以前嘅殖民者或者之後嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E5%A5%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="農奴">農奴</a>冇乜分別。 </p><p>農作物嘅產量，特別係穀物嘅產量好低：每粒種子平均只能產生兩到四粒穀物，有時仲少過兩粒。生產力低下，人哋想用大規模耕種嚟彌補。喺呢啲情況下，因為缺乏食物而導致大規模死亡嘅情況時有發生。喺公元1000年之前，<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E8%80%B3%E6%9B%BC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" title="日耳曼尼亞">日耳曼尼亞</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E7%9B%A7" title="高盧">高盧</a>經常會發生飢荒<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="缺乏商業同城市結構"><span id=".E7.BC.BA.E4.B9.8F.E5.95.86.E6.A5.AD.E5.90.8C.E5.9F.8E.E5.B8.82.E7.B5.90.E6.A7.8B"></span>缺乏商業同城市結構</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=7" title="編輯小節: 缺乏商業同城市結構"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>要恢復到<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="羅馬帝國">羅馬帝國</a>嘅商業同城市結構已經冇可能。<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82" title="城市">城市</a>變成咗細小嘅鄉村中心，經濟轉變成為一個以自給自足為目標嘅生產系統。 </p><p>喺6到10世紀之間，西方嘅商業交易減少，而內陸地區用錢做交易更加係罕見。大型農業開發以自給自足為目標，如果有剩餘嘅話，通常都係畀附近嘅農民去到開發中心（<i>莊園</i>）用以物易物嘅方式換走。因為冇一個組織良好嘅公權力嚟維護交通基礎設施，所以商業只能通過河流或者海路進行。再加上有賊匪出沒，就令到只有高價值嘅商品先值得組織同維持長途運輸。結果就係，喺西方內陸，只有一啲有錢買家（國王、伯爵、主教）所在嘅城市市場，或者係一啲高需求產品（好似<a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9F%E9%B9%BD" title="食鹽">食鹽</a>咁）貿易路線上嘅分銷中心先可以生存落去。 </p><p>喺呢啲情況下，任何惡劣天氣都可能變成災難。一個因為落雨太多、霜凍、蟲災等原因造成嘅歉收，就會令到產量跌到低過維持生計嘅最低水平：飢荒同瘟疫就係必然後果。週期性嘅生存危機成為咗中世紀經濟嘅一個常態。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="土地所有制度"><span id=".E5.9C.9F.E5.9C.B0.E6.89.80.E6.9C.89.E5.88.B6.E5.BA.A6"></span>土地所有制度</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=8" title="編輯小節: 土地所有制度"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>主要嘅土地所有制度有<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E8%A5%B2%E5%9C%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世襲地 (無呢版)">世襲地</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%9F%E5%80%9F%E5%9C%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="租借地 (無呢版)">租借地</a>同<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%81%E5%9C%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="封地 (無呢版)">封地</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E8%A5%B2%E5%9C%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世襲地 (無呢版)">世襲地</a>係完全同自由嘅所有權，冇任何服務同實物或個人義務，同封地或者<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%B8%E4%BD%83%E6%AC%8A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="永佃權 (無呢版)">永佃權</a>唔同。</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%9F%E5%80%9F%E5%9C%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="租借地 (無呢版)">租借地</a>源於大型<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E8%A5%B2%E5%9C%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世襲地 (無呢版)">世襲領地</a>嘅分割，形成咗伯爵封地或者榮譽封地嘅開端。租借地呢個概念仲可以用喺大莊園主將一塊土地畀一個自由農民，等佢同佢家人可以住喺度，同時要向莊園主提供一定嘅服務。第一個意思係講緊君主畀封臣嘅封地，以換取佢哋代表君主行使管治權。第二個意思中，細租借地就係<i>莊園</i>，即係一個農民家庭居住嘅地塊，農民喺唔使向封建領主提供服務嘅日子耕種呢塊地，為自己同家人提供基本生活所需（喺法國，呢啲地嘅平均面積係13公頃）。</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%81%E5%9C%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="封地 (無呢版)">封地</a>係一個自由人因為宣誓效忠一個領主，而由呢個領主畀佢擁有嘅一片土地。作為交換，佢要承擔一定嘅義務，呢啲義務可以用服務或者實物嚟支付，其中最主要嘅就係<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BB%8D%E4%BA%8B%E6%9C%8D%E5%8B%99&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="軍事服務 (無呢版)">軍事服務</a>。</li></ul> <p>呢三種主要嘅土地擁有方式喺領主領地入面係混合存在嘅。呢個領地或者大莊園分成領主保留地（<i>直接管轄地</i>），呢度係莊園管理嘅中心同領主家族嘅居所。佢有兩個功能：一係一啲建築（倉庫、麵包房、磨坊、鍛造坊）嘅所在地，二係提供最常見食物嘅耕地。第二，仲有一大片森林同公共土地，用嚟提供建築同取暖用嘅木材，以及畜牧嘅補充糧食。保留地嘅收成同產品全部歸領主所有。農民每個禮拜要用三日嚟耕種呢啲土地、修理道路、協助築防禦工事，佢哋可以用草地同森林嘅柴薪；同時，佢哋要用領主嘅磨坊、麵包房、鐵匠舖或者任何設施，但要先支付一定嘅實物費用。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="西歐嘅前羅馬式藝術"><span id=".E8.A5.BF.E6.AD.90.E5.98.85.E5.89.8D.E7.BE.85.E9.A6.AC.E5.BC.8F.E8.97.9D.E8.A1.93"></span>西歐嘅前羅馬式藝術</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=9" title="編輯小節: 西歐嘅前羅馬式藝術"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%89%8D%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%BC%8F%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="前羅馬式藝術 (無呢版)">前羅馬式藝術</a>同<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A0%E6%B3%B0%E7%BE%85%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E5%98%85%E5%89%8D%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%BC%8F%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="加泰羅尼亞嘅前羅馬式藝術 (無呢版)">加泰羅尼亞嘅前羅馬式藝術</a></div> <p>喺<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="西羅馬帝國">西羅馬帝國</a>滅亡到 </p> <table align="center" id="toc" style="margin-left: width:600px"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccccff"> <td colspan="11" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"><a href="/wiki/10%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="10世紀"><b><<</b></a>- <b><a href="/wiki/11%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="11世紀">11世紀</a>（1000年——1099年）</b>-<a href="/wiki/12%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="12世紀"><b>>></b></a> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/1000%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3" title="1000年代">1000年代</a>： </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1000%E5%B9%B4" title="1000年">1000年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1001%E5%B9%B4" title="1001年">1001年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1002%E5%B9%B4" title="1002年">1002年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1003%E5%B9%B4" title="1003年">1003年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1004%E5%B9%B4" title="1004年">1004年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1005%E5%B9%B4" title="1005年">1005年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1006%E5%B9%B4" title="1006年">1006年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1007%E5%B9%B4" title="1007年">1007年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1008%E5%B9%B4" title="1008年">1008年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1009%E5%B9%B4" title="1009年">1009年</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#ccccff; text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/1010%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3" title="1010年代">1010年代</a>： </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1010%E5%B9%B4" title="1010年">1010年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1011%E5%B9%B4" title="1011年">1011年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1012%E5%B9%B4" title="1012年">1012年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1013%E5%B9%B4" title="1013年">1013年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1014%E5%B9%B4" title="1014年">1014年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1015%E5%B9%B4" title="1015年">1015年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1016%E5%B9%B4" 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title="1080年">1080年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1081%E5%B9%B4" title="1081年">1081年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1082%E5%B9%B4" title="1082年">1082年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1083%E5%B9%B4" title="1083年">1083年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1084%E5%B9%B4" title="1084年">1084年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1085%E5%B9%B4" title="1085年">1085年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1086%E5%B9%B4" title="1086年">1086年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1087%E5%B9%B4" title="1087年">1087年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1088%E5%B9%B4" title="1088年">1088年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1089%E5%B9%B4" title="1089年">1089年</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#ccccff; text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/1090%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3" title="1090年代">1090年代</a>： </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1090%E5%B9%B4" title="1090年">1090年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1091%E5%B9%B4" title="1091年">1091年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1092%E5%B9%B4" title="1092年">1092年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1093%E5%B9%B4" title="1093年">1093年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1094%E5%B9%B4" title="1094年">1094年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1095%E5%B9%B4" title="1095年">1095年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1096%E5%B9%B4" title="1096年">1096年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1097%E5%B9%B4" title="1097年">1097年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1098%E5%B9%B4" title="1098年">1098年</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/1099%E5%B9%B4" title="1099年">1099年</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>世紀之間，<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%AD%90" title="西歐">西歐</a>發展出嚟嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93" title="藝術">藝術</a>叫做<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%89%8D%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%BC%8F%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="前羅馬式藝術 (無呢版)">前羅馬式藝術</a>。不過，呢個詞唔係講緊一種統一嘅風格，而係單純講緊一個時間段。除咗加洛林時期之外，總體上呢段時期嘅藝術係倒退嘅。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="睇埋"><span id=".E7.9D.87.E5.9F.8B"></span>睇埋</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=10" title="編輯小節: 睇埋"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E5%BB%BA%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="封建制度">封建制度</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%AD%BB%E7%97%85" title="黑死病">黑死病</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊斯蘭文明 (無呢版)">伊斯蘭文明</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%88%90%E5%90%89%E6%80%9D%E6%B1%97" class="mw-redirect" title="成吉思汗">成吉思汗</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%8E%E5%A0%A1" title="城堡">城堡</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BA%AD%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="拜占庭帝國">拜占庭帝國</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E9%BB%91%E6%9A%97%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="歐洲黑暗時代 (無呢版)">歐洲黑暗時代</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E5%B9%BB" title="奇幻">奇幻</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="註"><span id=".E8.A8.BB"></span>註</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=11" title="編輯小節: 註"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div id="references-NoteFoot"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-六四-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-六四_4-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">中世紀嘅作者將歷史分為<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%85%AD%E5%80%8B%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世界六個時代 (無呢版)">世界六個時代</a>或<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BD%86%E4%BB%A5%E7%90%86%E6%9B%B8%E5%9B%9B%E5%9C%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="但以理書四國 (無呢版)">但以理書四國</a>等時期，並認為佢哋生活喺世界末日之前嘅最後時期。</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="引述"><span id=".E5.BC.95.E8.BF.B0"></span>引述</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=12" title="編輯小節: 引述"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2020813">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPower2006「導論」（D._Power）-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPower2006「導論」（D._Power）_1-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPower2006">Power 2006</a>, 「導論」（D. Power）.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2190673">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .references-small,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.hai2zeoi3mei1ge3.zi6:after{transform:rotate(90deg)translate(-0.25em,0.5em)}.mw-parser-output .fan1gaak3+.zi6:after{clip-path:inset(0 0 0 0.1em)}.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4 .zi6:after,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4 .zi6:after,.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4 .zi6:after,.mw-parser-output .zoek6zung6 .zi6:after{position:absolute;align-self:baseline;margin-left:-1em}.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4 .zi6:after,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4 .zi6:after{padding-top:1em;content:"﹋"}.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4 .zi6:after{content:"︳";transform-origin:bottom left;transform:rotate(90deg)translate(-0.25em,0.35em)}.mw-parser-output .zoek6zung6 .zi6:after{padding-top:0.6em;content:"·";width:1em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .koen1zo2,.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4-b .hoi1-adj,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4-b .hoi1-adj{margin-left:-0.4em}.mw-parser-output .koen1jau6,.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4-b .saan1-adj,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4-b .saan1-adj{margin-right:-0.4em}.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4-b{white-space:nowrap;border-bottom:0.05em solid currentColor}.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4-b+link+.zyun1ming4-b,.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4-b+.zyun1ming4-b{margin-left:0.083em}.mw-parser-output .references-small>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .references-small>ul>li{margin-left:3em;text-indent:-3em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=3484"><span class="pin1ming4-b" aria-label="〈歷史三時期框架嘅起源：古代、中世紀同近代〉"><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1zo2">〈</span>歷</span><span class="zit3">史三時期框架嘅起源：古代、中世紀同近代</span><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1jau6">〉</span></span></span></a> (英文)。History of Information。2021<span class="reference-accessdate">。喺2024年5月31日搵到</span>。</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%89%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F%E6%A1%86%E6%9E%B6%E5%98%85%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90%EF%BC%9A%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%80%81%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%90%8C%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3&rft.pub=History+of+Information&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofinformation.com%2Fdetail.php%3Fid%3D3484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurray20044-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurray20044_3-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurray2004">Murray 2004</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-辭典-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-辭典_5-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diccionari.cat/GDLC/medieval"><span class="pin1ming4-b" aria-label="〈中世紀：大加泰羅尼亞語詞典〉"><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1zo2">〈</span>中</span><span class="zit3">世紀：大加泰羅尼亞語詞典</span><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1jau6">〉</span></span></span></a>。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A0%E6%B3%B0%E7%BE%85%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E9%9B%86%E5%9C%98&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="加泰羅尼亞百科全書集團 (無呢版)">加泰羅尼亞百科全書集團</a><span class="reference-accessdate">。喺2024年5月31日搵到</span>。</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%EF%BC%9A%E5%A4%A7%E5%8A%A0%E6%B3%B0%E7%BE%85%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E8%AA%9E%E8%A9%9E%E5%85%B8&rft.pub=%E5%8A%A0%E6%B3%B0%E7%BE%85%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E9%9B%86%E5%9C%98&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diccionari.cat%2FGDLC%2Fmedieval&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benito-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Benito_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.uoc.edu/humanitats/ca/historia-medieval-per-pere-benito/"><span class="pin1ming4-b" aria-label="〈佩雷·貝尼托嘅中世紀歷史〉"><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1zo2">〈</span>佩</span><span class="zit3">雷·貝尼托嘅中世紀歷史</span><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1jau6">〉</span></span></span></a>。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A0%E6%B3%B0%E7%BE%85%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="加泰羅尼亞開放大學 (無呢版)">加泰羅尼亞開放大學</a>。2018年1月29日<span class="reference-accessdate">。喺2024年5月31日搵到</span>。</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%BD%A9%E9%9B%B7%C2%B7%E8%B2%9D%E5%B0%BC%E6%89%98%E5%98%85%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&rft.pub=%E5%8A%A0%E6%B3%B0%E7%BE%85%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8&rft.date=2018-01-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.uoc.edu%2Fhumanitats%2Fca%2Fhistoria-medieval-per-pere-benito%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickham20161-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickham20161_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWickham2016">Wickham 2016</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin20141-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin20141_8-0">7.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin20141_8-1">7.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRubin2014">Rubin 2014</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin20145-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin20145_9-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRubin2014">Rubin 2014</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1996291-293-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1996291-293_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1996">Davies 1996</a>, p. 291-293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold202121_同_132-134-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold202121_同_132-134_11-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold2021">Arnold 2021</a>, p. 21 同 132-134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lemarignier, J.-F. <i>La France médiévale: institutions et société</i>. 巴黎, Armand Colin, 1992, 119頁</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catradio.com/reproductor/audio.htm?ID=90893"><i>封建革命</i></a> <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">互聯網檔案館</a>嘅<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071216125356/http://www.catradio.com/reproductor/audio.htm?ID=90893">歸檔</a>，歸檔日期2007-12-16. <i>提防！</i>。由Enric Capelna同Oriol Jonqueras主持嘅加泰羅尼亞電台第120集歷史節目</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michel Rouche喺「西方早期中世紀」一文中「私人生活征服國家同社會」一節嘅總結，收錄喺Phillippe Ariés同Georges Duby主編嘅《私人生活史》第一卷，405頁起。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catradio.cat/reproductor/audio.htm?ID=234446"><span class="pin1ming4-b" aria-label="〈中世紀經濟〉"><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1zo2">〈</span>中</span><span class="zit3">世紀經濟</span><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1jau6">〉</span></span></span></a>。</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catradio.cat%2Freproductor%2Faudio.htm%3FID%3D234446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">link</a>)</span> 加泰羅尼亞電台《小心！》節目第201集，2008年3月23日播出。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Doehaerd, René: <i>Occidente durante la Alta Edad Media. Economías y sociedades</i>. 巴塞隆拿, Labor, 1974。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sadurní i Puigbò, Núria: <i>Diccionari de l'any 1000 a Catalunya</i>. Edicions 62, El Cangur / Diccionaris系列, 第280號. 巴塞隆拿, 1999年10月. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/84-297-4607-2" title="Special:書本來源/84-297-4607-2">84-297-4607-2</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="文獻"><span id=".E6.96.87.E7.8D.BB"></span>文獻</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80&action=edit&section=13" title="編輯小節: 文獻"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2004" class="citation journal cs1">Murray, Alexander (2004). "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?". <i>Essays in Medieval Studies</i>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E7%B6%AD%E7%8F%8D%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E5%B7%9E%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西維珍尼亞州大學 (無呢版)">西維珍尼亞州大學</a>出版社. <b>21</b>: 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fems.2005.0010">10.1353/ems.2005.0010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1538-4608">1538-4608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Essays+in+Medieval+Studies&rft.atitle=Should+the+Middle+Ages+Be+Abolished%3F&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fems.2005.0010&rft.issn=1538-4608&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite id="CITEREFPower2006" class="citation book cs1">Power, Daniel (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-central-middle-ages-9780199253111?q=The%20Central%20Middle%20Ages&lang=en&cc=us"><i>The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320</i></a>. The Short Oxford History of Europe. <a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="牛津大學">牛津大學</a>出版社. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-925312-8" title="Special:書本來源/978-0-19-925312-8"><bdi>978-0-19-925312-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Central+Middle+Ages%3A+Europe+950%E2%80%931320&rft.series=The+Short+Oxford+History+of+Europe&rft.pub=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925312-8&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Fthe-central-middle-ages-9780199253111%3Fq%3DThe%2520Central%2520Middle%2520Ages%26lang%3Den%26cc%3Dus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite id="CITEREFWickham2016" class="citation book cs1">Wickham, Chris (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300228823/medieval-europe/"><i>Medieval Europe</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E9%AD%AF%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="耶魯大學">耶魯大學</a>出版社. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/978-0-3002-0834-4" title="Special:書本來源/978-0-3002-0834-4"><bdi>978-0-3002-0834-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Europe&rft.pub=%E8%80%B6%E9%AD%AF%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-3002-0834-4&rft.aulast=Wickham&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyalebooks.yale.edu%2Fbook%2F9780300228823%2Fmedieval-europe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2014" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Miri (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-middle-ages-a-very-short-introduction-9780199697298?prevNumResPerPage=20&prevSortField=2&resultsPerPage=20&sortField=2&type=listing&start=80&lang=en&cc=us"><i>The Middle Ages: A Very Short Introduction</i></a>. Very Short Introductions. <a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="牛津大學">牛津大學</a>出版社. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-969729-8" title="Special:書本來源/978-0-19-969729-8"><bdi>978-0-19-969729-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+Ages%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.series=Very+Short+Introductions&rft.pub=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969729-8&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Miri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Fthe-middle-ages-a-very-short-introduction-9780199697298%3FprevNumResPerPage%3D20%26prevSortField%3D2%26resultsPerPage%3D20%26sortField%3D2%26type%3Dlisting%26start%3D80%26lang%3Den%26cc%3Dus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1996" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0"><i>Europe: A History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="牛津大學">牛津大學</a>出版社. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-520912-9" title="Special:書本來源/978-0-19-520912-9"><bdi>978-0-19-520912-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+A+History&rft.pub=%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-520912-9&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuropehistory00davi_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2190673"><cite id="CITEREFArnold2021" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, John H. (2021) [2008]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politybooks.com/bookdetail?book_slug=what-is-medieval-history-2nd-edition--9781509532551"><i>What is Medieval History</i></a>. What is History? (第Second版). Polity. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/978-1-5095-3256-8" title="Special:書本來源/978-1-5095-3256-8"><bdi>978-1-5095-3256-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Medieval+History&rft.series=What+is+History%3F&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5095-3256-8&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politybooks.com%2Fbookdetail%3Fbook_slug%3Dwhat-is-medieval-history-2nd-edition--9781509532551&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">由「<a dir="ltr" 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