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<span>Modern era (1990–present)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era_(1990–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Measurement techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measurement_techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Measurement techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Measurement_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earth-to-space_methods_(satellite_tracking)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth-to-space_methods_(satellite_tracking)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Earth-to-space methods (satellite tracking)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth-to-space_methods_(satellite_tracking)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radio_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Radio techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Doppler_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doppler_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.1</span> <span>Doppler techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doppler_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optical_triangulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_triangulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Optical triangulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_triangulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laser_ranging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laser_ranging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Laser ranging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laser_ranging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space-to-Earth_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space-to-Earth_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Space-to-Earth methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space-to-Earth_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Altimetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altimetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Altimetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altimetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Laser_altimetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laser_altimetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.1</span> <span>Laser altimetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laser_altimetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radar_altimetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radar_altimetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.2</span> <span>Radar altimetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radar_altimetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interferometric_synthetic_aperture_radar_(InSAR)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interferometric_synthetic_aperture_radar_(InSAR)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interferometric_synthetic_aperture_radar_(InSAR)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space-to-space_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space-to-space_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Space-to-space methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space-to-space_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gravity_gradiometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravity_gradiometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Gravity gradiometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravity_gradiometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite-to-satellite_tracking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite-to-satellite_tracking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Satellite-to-satellite tracking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellite-to-satellite_tracking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-GNSS_tracking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#GNSS_tracking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.1</span> <span>GNSS tracking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-GNSS_tracking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_geodetic_satellites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_geodetic_satellites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>List of geodetic satellites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_geodetic_satellites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Attribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Attribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Satellite geodesy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geod%C3%A8sia_per_sat%C3%A8l%C2%B7lit" title="Geodèsia per satèl·lit – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geodèsia per satèl·lit" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellitengeod%C3%A4sie" title="Satellitengeodäsie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Satellitengeodäsie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="ژئودزی ماهواره‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژئودزی ماهواره‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9od%C3%A9sie_satellitaire" title="Géodésie satellitaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géodésie satellitaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodetski_satelit" title="Geodetski satelit – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geodetski satelit" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesia_satellitare" title="Geodesia satellitare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geodesia satellitare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="კოსმოსური გეოდეზია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კოსმოსური გეოდეზია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Геодетски сателит – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Геодетски сателит" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A_%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D9%BE%D9%88%DA%96%D9%85%DA%A9%DB%8D_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%87" title="جیودوزي د سپوږمکۍ په واسطه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جیودوزي د سپوږمکۍ په واسطه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodezja_satelitarna" title="Geodezja satelitarna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geodezja satelitarna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Космическая геодезия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Космическая геодезия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%BEicov%C3%A1_geod%C3%A9zia" title="Družicová geodézia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Družicová geodézia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Сателитска геодезија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сателитска геодезија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Супутникова геодезія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Супутникова геодезія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1928951#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_Atlantic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Globe_Atlantic.svg/120px-Globe_Atlantic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Globe_Atlantic.svg/180px-Globe_Atlantic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Globe_Atlantic.svg/240px-Globe_Atlantic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="721" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Fundamentals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geodesy" title="History of geodesy">History</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_distance" title="Geographical distance">Geographical distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">Geoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">Figure of the Earth</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Earth_radius" title="Earth radius">radius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_circumference" title="Earth's circumference">circumference</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_coordinates" title="Geodetic coordinates">Geodetic coordinates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_datum" title="Geodetic datum">Geodetic datum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesic" title="Geodesic">Geodesic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_position_representation" title="Horizontal position representation">Horizontal position representation</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">Latitude</a> / <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">Longitude</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_projection" title="Map projection">Map projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference_ellipsoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference ellipsoid">Reference ellipsoid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Satellite geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_reference_system" title="Spatial reference system">Spatial reference system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_relation" title="Spatial relation">Spatial relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_position" title="Vertical position">Vertical positions</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Technologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Global Nav. Sat. Systems (GNSSs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Pos. System (GPS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS <span style="font-size:85%;">(Russia)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BeiDou" title="BeiDou">BeiDou (BDS) <span style="font-size:85%;">(China)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)" title="Galileo (satellite navigation)">Galileo <span style="font-size:85%;">(Europe)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Regional_Navigation_Satellite_System" title="Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System">NAVIC <span style="font-size:85%;">(India)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-Zenith_Satellite_System" title="Quasi-Zenith Satellite System">Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. (QZSS) <span style="font-size:85%;">(Japan)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_Global_Grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrete Global Grid">Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Standards (history)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;line-height:1.2em;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea Level Datum of 1929">NGVD 29</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> Sea Level Datum 1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/OSGB36" class="mw-redirect" title="OSGB36">OSGB36</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/SK-42_reference_system" title="SK-42 reference system">SK-42</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> Systema Koordinat 1942 goda</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/ED50" title="ED50">ED50</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> European Datum 1950</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/South_American_Datum#SAD69" title="South American Datum">SAD69</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> South American Datum 1969</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/GRS_80" class="mw-redirect" title="GRS 80">GRS 80</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> Geodetic Reference System 1980</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/ISO_6709" title="ISO 6709">ISO 6709</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> Geographic point coord. 1983</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/North_American_Datum#North_American_Datum_of_1983" title="North American Datum">NAD 83</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> North American Datum 1983</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">WGS 84</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> World Geodetic System 1984</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/North_American_Vertical_Datum_of_1988" title="North American Vertical Datum of 1988">NAVD 88</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> N. American Vertical Datum 1988</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/European_Terrestrial_Reference_System_1989" title="European Terrestrial Reference System 1989">ETRS89</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Restrictions_on_geographic_data_in_China" title="Restrictions on geographic data in China">GCJ-02</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> Chinese obfuscated datum 2002</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Geo_URI_scheme" title="Geo URI scheme">Geo URI</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;padding-right:0.55em;"> Internet link to a point 2010</td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Terrestrial_Reference_System" class="mw-redirect" title="International Terrestrial Reference System">International Terrestrial Reference System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SRID" class="mw-redirect" title="SRID">Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Transverse_Mercator_coordinate_system" title="Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system">Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geodesy" title="Template:Geodesy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geodesy" title="Template talk:Geodesy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geodesy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geodesy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Satellite geodesy</b> is <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a> by means of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellites">artificial satellites</a>—the measurement of the form and dimensions of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, the location of objects on its surface and the <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">figure of the Earth</a>'s gravity field by means of artificial satellite techniques. It belongs to the broader field of <a href="/wiki/Space_geodesy" title="Space geodesy">space geodesy</a>. Traditional <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">astronomical geodesy</a> is <i>not</i> commonly considered a part of satellite geodesy, although there is considerable overlap between the techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p><p>The main goals of satellite geodesy are: </p> <ol><li>Determination of the figure of the Earth, positioning, and navigation (geometric satellite geodesy)<sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 3">: 3 </span></sup></li> <li>Determination of <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Earth's gravity</a> field and its temporal variations (dynamical satellite geodesy<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or satellite <a href="/wiki/Physical_geodesy" title="Physical geodesy">physical geodesy</a>)</li> <li>Measurement of <a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">geodynamical phenomena</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crustal dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polar_motion" title="Polar motion">polar motion</a><sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 4">: 4 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1">: 1 </span></sup></li></ol> <p>Satellite geodetic data and methods can be applied to diverse fields such as <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">geophysics</a>. Satellite geodesy relies heavily on <a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">orbital mechanics</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2011</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_steps_(1957–1970)"><span id="First_steps_.281957.E2.80.931970.29"></span>First steps (1957–1970)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First steps (1957–1970)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Satellite geodesy began shortly after the launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik">Sputnik</a> in 1957. Observations of <a href="/wiki/Explorer_1" title="Explorer 1">Explorer 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a> in 1958 allowed for an accurate determination of <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">Earth's flattening</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 5">: 5 </span></sup> The 1960s saw the launch of the Doppler satellite <a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">Transit-1B</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Balloon_satellite" title="Balloon satellite">balloon satellites</a> <a href="/wiki/Project_Echo" title="Project Echo">Echo 1</a>, Echo 2, and <a href="/wiki/PAGEOS" title="PAGEOS">PAGEOS</a>. The first dedicated geodetic satellite was <a href="/wiki/ANNA_1B" title="ANNA 1B">ANNA-1B</a>, a collaborative effort between <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">DoD</a>, and other civilian agencies.<sup id="cite_ref-GfL_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GfL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51">: 51 </span></sup> ANNA-1B carried the first of the <a href="/wiki/US_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="US Army">US Army</a>'s SECOR (Sequential Collation of Range) instruments. These missions led to the accurate determination of the leading <a href="/wiki/Spherical_harmonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spherical harmonic">spherical harmonic</a> coefficients of the geopotential, the general shape of the <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a>, and linked the world's geodetic datums.<sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 6">: 6 </span></sup> </p><p>Soviet military satellites undertook geodesic missions to assist in <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBM</a> targeting in the late 1960s and early 1970s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toward_the_World_Geodetic_System_(1970–1990)"><span id="Toward_the_World_Geodetic_System_.281970.E2.80.931990.29"></span>Toward the World Geodetic System (1970–1990)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Toward the World Geodetic System (1970–1990)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WORLDWIDE_GEOMETRIC_SATELLITE_TRIANGULATION_NETWORK,_BC-4_CAMERAS.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/WORLDWIDE_GEOMETRIC_SATELLITE_TRIANGULATION_NETWORK%2C_BC-4_CAMERAS.GIF/220px-WORLDWIDE_GEOMETRIC_SATELLITE_TRIANGULATION_NETWORK%2C_BC-4_CAMERAS.GIF" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/WORLDWIDE_GEOMETRIC_SATELLITE_TRIANGULATION_NETWORK%2C_BC-4_CAMERAS.GIF/330px-WORLDWIDE_GEOMETRIC_SATELLITE_TRIANGULATION_NETWORK%2C_BC-4_CAMERAS.GIF 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/WORLDWIDE_GEOMETRIC_SATELLITE_TRIANGULATION_NETWORK%2C_BC-4_CAMERAS.GIF/440px-WORLDWIDE_GEOMETRIC_SATELLITE_TRIANGULATION_NETWORK%2C_BC-4_CAMERAS.GIF 2x" data-file-width="1322" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption>Worldwide BC-4 camera geometric satellite triangulation network</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">Transit</a> satellite system was used extensively for Doppler surveying, navigation, and positioning. Observations of satellites in the 1970s by worldwide triangulation networks allowed for the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a>. The development of <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> by the United States in the 1980s allowed for precise navigation and positioning and soon became a standard tool in surveying. In the 1980s and 1990s satellite geodesy began to be used for monitoring of <a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">geodynamic</a> phenomena, such as <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">crustal motion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth_rotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth rotation">Earth rotation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polar_motion" title="Polar motion">polar motion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era_(1990–present)"><span id="Modern_era_.281990.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Modern era (1990–present)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern era (1990–present)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GRACE_artist_concept.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/GRACE_artist_concept.jpg/220px-GRACE_artist_concept.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/GRACE_artist_concept.jpg/330px-GRACE_artist_concept.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/GRACE_artist_concept.jpg/440px-GRACE_artist_concept.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment">GRACE</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The 1990s were focused on the development of permanent geodetic networks and reference frames.<sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> Dedicated satellites were launched to measure Earth's gravity field in the 2000s, such as <a href="/wiki/CHAMP_(satellite)" title="CHAMP (satellite)">CHAMP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment">GRACE</a>, and <a href="/wiki/GOCE" title="GOCE">GOCE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_techniques">Measurement techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Measurement techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jason-1_measurement_system.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Jason-1_measurement_system.gif/220px-Jason-1_measurement_system.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Jason-1_measurement_system.gif/330px-Jason-1_measurement_system.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Jason-1_measurement_system.gif/440px-Jason-1_measurement_system.gif 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="527" /></a><figcaption>The Jason-1 measurement system combines major geodetic measurement techniques, including <a href="/wiki/DORIS_(geodesy)" class="mw-redirect" title="DORIS (geodesy)">DORIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satellite_laser_ranging" title="Satellite laser ranging">SLR</a>, <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_altimetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite altimetry">altimetry</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Techniques of satellite geodesy may be classified by instrument platform: A satellite may </p> <ol><li>be observed with ground-based instruments (<i>Earth-to-space-methods</i>),</li> <li>carry an instrument or sensor as part of its payload to observe the Earth (<i>space-to-Earth methods</i>),</li> <li>or use its instruments to track or be tracked by another satellite (<i>space-to-space methods</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Seeber_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 6">: 6 </span></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earth-to-space_methods_(satellite_tracking)"><span id="Earth-to-space_methods_.28satellite_tracking.29"></span>Earth-to-space methods (satellite tracking)<span class="anchor" id="Earth-to-space_methods"></span><span class="anchor" id="Satellite_tracking"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Earth-to-space methods (satellite tracking)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Satellite_tracking" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Satellite tracking">Satellite tracking</a>.</div><p><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Disambiguation/Fixing_links" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Disambiguation/Fixing links"><span title="Link needs disambiguation (August 2024)">disambiguation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radio_techniques">Radio techniques</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Radio techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/GNSS" class="mw-redirect" title="GNSS">GNSS</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">Radio navigation</a></div> <p>Global navigation satellite systems are dedicated radio positioning services, which can locate a receiver to within a few meters. The most prominent system, <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, consists of a constellation of 31 satellites (as of December 2013) in high, 12-hour circular orbits, distributed in six planes with 55° <a href="/wiki/Orbital_inclination" title="Orbital inclination">inclinations</a>. The principle of location is based on <a href="/wiki/Trilateration" title="Trilateration">trilateration</a>. Each satellite transmits a precise <a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">ephemeris</a> with information on its own position and a message containing the exact time of transmission. The receiver compares this time of transmission with its own clock at the time of reception and multiplies the difference by the speed of light to obtain a "<a href="/wiki/Pseudorange" title="Pseudorange">pseudorange</a>." Four pseudoranges are needed to obtain the precise time and the receiver's position within a few meters. More sophisticated methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Real_Time_Kinematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Time Kinematic">real-time kinematic</a> (RTK) can yield positions to within a few millimeters. </p><p>In geodesy, GNSS is used as an economical tool for <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Time transfer">time transfer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gnssgeodesy_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gnssgeodesy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also used for monitoring <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth's rotation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polar_motion" title="Polar motion">polar motion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crustal</a> dynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-gnssgeodesy_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gnssgeodesy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of the GPS signal in space also makes it suitable for <a href="/wiki/Orbit_determination" title="Orbit determination">orbit determination</a> and satellite-to-satellite tracking. </p> <dl><dd><i>Examples: <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo positioning system">Galileo</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Doppler_techniques">Doppler techniques</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Doppler techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect">Doppler</a> positioning involves recording the Doppler shift of a radio signal of stable frequency emitted from a satellite as the satellite approaches and recedes from the observer. The observed frequency depends on the radial velocity of the satellite relative to the observer, which is constrained by <a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">orbital mechanics</a>. If the observer knows the orbit of the satellite, then recording the Doppler profile determines the observer's position. Conversely, if the observer's position is precisely known, then the orbit of the satellite can be determined and used to study the Earth's gravity. In <a href="/wiki/DORIS_(geodesy)" class="mw-redirect" title="DORIS (geodesy)">DORIS</a>, the ground station emits the signal and the satellite receives. </p> <dl><dd><i>Examples: <a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">Transit</a>, <a href="/wiki/DORIS_(geodesy)" class="mw-redirect" title="DORIS (geodesy)">DORIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argos_(satellite_system)" title="Argos (satellite system)">Argos</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Optical_triangulation">Optical triangulation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Optical triangulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Stellar_triangulation" title="Stellar triangulation">Stellar triangulation</a></div> <p>In optical triangulation, the satellite can be used as a very high target for <a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">triangulation</a> and can be used to ascertain the geometric relationship between multiple observing stations. Optical triangulation with the BC-4, PC-1000, MOTS, or Baker Nunn cameras consisted of photographic observations of a satellite, or flashing light on the satellite, against a background of stars. The stars, whose positions were accurately determined, provided a framework on the photographic plate or film for a determination of precise directions from camera station to satellite. Geodetic positioning work with cameras was usually performed with one camera observing simultaneously with one or more other cameras. Camera systems are weather dependent and that is one major reason why they fell out of use by the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-GfL_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GfL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 51">: 51 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ANNA_1B_track.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/ANNA_1B_track.png/220px-ANNA_1B_track.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/ANNA_1B_track.png/330px-ANNA_1B_track.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/ANNA_1B_track.png/440px-ANNA_1B_track.png 2x" data-file-width="1030" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>ANNA 1B track on photography taken by <a href="/wiki/Santiago" title="Santiago">Santiago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>) MOTS station on November 11, 1962</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><i>Examples: <a href="/wiki/PAGEOS" title="PAGEOS">PAGEOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Echo" title="Project Echo">Project Echo</a>, <a href="/wiki/ANNA_1B" title="ANNA 1B">ANNA 1B</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Laser_ranging">Laser ranging</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Laser ranging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Satellite_laser_ranging" title="Satellite laser ranging">Satellite laser ranging</a></div> <p>In satellite laser ranging (SLR) a global network of observation stations measure the round trip time of flight of ultrashort pulses of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> to satellites equipped with <a href="/wiki/Retroreflectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroreflectors">retroreflectors</a>. This provides instantaneous range measurements of millimeter level precision which can be accumulated to provide accurate orbit parameters, gravity field parameters (from the orbit perturbations), Earth rotation parameters, tidal Earth's deformations, coordinates and velocities of SLR stations, and other substantial geodetic data. Satellite laser ranging is a proven geodetic technique with significant potential for important contributions to scientific studies of the Earth/Atmosphere/Oceans system. It is the most accurate technique currently available to determine the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_position" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentric position">geocentric position</a> of an Earth satellite, allowing for the precise calibration of radar <a href="/wiki/Altimeter" title="Altimeter">altimeters</a> and separation of long-term instrumentation drift from secular changes in <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">ocean surface topography</a>. Satellite laser ranging contributes to the definition of the international terrestrial reference frames by providing the information about the scale and the origin of the reference frame, the so-called geocenter coordinates.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><i>Example: <a href="/wiki/LAGEOS" title="LAGEOS">LAGEOS</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space-to-Earth_methods">Space-to-Earth methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Space-to-Earth methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Altimetry">Altimetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Altimetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sealevel_chart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sealevel_chart.jpg/300px-Sealevel_chart.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sealevel_chart.jpg/450px-Sealevel_chart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sealevel_chart.jpg/600px-Sealevel_chart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption> This graph shows the rise in global sea level (in millimeters) measured by the <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>/<a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">CNES</a> ocean altimeter mission <a href="/wiki/TOPEX/Poseidon" title="TOPEX/Poseidon">TOPEX/Poseidon</a> (on the left) and its follow-on mission <a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a>. Image credit: University of Colorado</figcaption></figure> <p>Satellites such as <a href="/wiki/Seasat" title="Seasat">Seasat</a> (1978) and <a href="/wiki/TOPEX/Poseidon" title="TOPEX/Poseidon">TOPEX/Poseidon</a> (1992-2006) used advanced dual-band <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> altimeters to measure the height of the Earth's surface (sea, ice, and terrestrial surfaces) from a <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a> began in 2001, <a href="/wiki/Jason-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Jason-2">Jason-2</a> in 2008 and <a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a> in January 2016. That measurement, coupled with <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbital</a> elements (possibly augmented by GPS), enables determination of the <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a>. The two different <a href="/wiki/Wavelengths" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> of radio waves used permit the altimeter to automatically correct for varying delays in the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a>. </p><p>Spaceborne radar altimeters have proven to be superb tools for mapping <a href="/wiki/Ocean-surface_topography" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean-surface topography">ocean-surface topography</a>, the hills and valleys of the sea surface. These instruments send a microwave pulse to the ocean's surface and record the time it takes to return. A <a href="/wiki/Microwave_radiometer" title="Microwave radiometer">microwave radiometer</a> corrects any delay that may be caused by <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. Other corrections are also required to account for the influence of electrons in the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> and the dry air mass of the atmosphere. Combining these data with the precise location of the spacecraft makes it possible to determine sea-surface height to within a few centimeters (about one inch). The strength and shape of the returning signal also provides information on wind speed and the height of ocean waves. These data are used in ocean models to calculate the speed and direction of <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a> and the amount and location of heat stored in the ocean, which in turn reveals global <a href="/wiki/Climate_variation" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate variation">climate variations</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Laser_altimetry">Laser altimetry</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Laser altimetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Satellite laser altimetry" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Satellite_laser_ranging" title="Satellite laser ranging">Satellite laser ranging</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2011</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Laser_altimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser altimeter">laser altimeter</a> uses the round-trip flight-time of a beam of light at optical or infrared wavelengths to determine the spacecraft's altitude or, conversely, the ground topography. </p> <dl><dd><i>Examples: <a href="/wiki/ICESat" title="ICESat">ICESat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars_Orbiter_Laser_Altimeter" title="Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter">MOLA</a>.</i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Radar_altimetry">Radar altimetry</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Radar altimetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Radar_altimeter" title="Radar altimeter">radar altimeter</a> uses the round-trip flight-time of a microwave pulse between the satellite and the Earth's surface to determine the distance between the spacecraft and the surface. From this distance or height, the local surface effects such as tides, winds and currents are removed to obtain the satellite height above the geoid. With a precise ephemeris available for the satellite, the geocentric position and ellipsoidal height of the satellite are available for any given observation time. It is then possible to compute the geoid height by subtracting the measured altitude from the ellipsoidal height. This allows direct measurement of the geoid, since the ocean surface closely follows the geoid.<sup id="cite_ref-GfL_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GfL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 64">: 64 </span></sup> The difference between the ocean surface and the actual geoid gives <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">ocean surface topography</a>. </p> <dl><dd><i>Examples: <a href="/wiki/Seasat" title="Seasat">Seasat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geosat" title="Geosat">Geosat</a>, <a href="/wiki/TOPEX/Poseidon" title="TOPEX/Poseidon">TOPEX/Poseidon</a>, <a href="/wiki/ERS-1" class="mw-redirect" title="ERS-1">ERS-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/ERS-2" class="mw-redirect" title="ERS-2">ERS-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jason-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Jason-2">Jason-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Envisat" title="Envisat">Envisat</a>, <a href="/wiki/SWOT_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="SWOT (satellite)">SWOT (satellite)</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interferometric_synthetic_aperture_radar_(InSAR)"><span id="Interferometric_synthetic_aperture_radar_.28InSAR.29"></span>Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interferometric_synthetic_aperture_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferometric synthetic aperture radar">Interferometric synthetic aperture radar</a></div> <p>Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is a <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> technique used in <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>. This geodetic method uses two or more <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_aperture_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic aperture radar">synthetic aperture radar</a> (SAR) images to generate maps of surface deformation or <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital elevation map">digital elevation</a>, using differences in the phase of the waves returning to the satellite.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The technique can potentially measure centimetre-scale changes in deformation over timespans of days to years. It has applications for geophysical monitoring of natural hazards, for example earthquakes, volcanoes and landslides, and also in structural engineering, in particular monitoring of subsidence and structural stability. </p> <dl><dd><i>Example: <a href="/wiki/Seasat" title="Seasat">Seasat</a>, <a href="/wiki/TerraSAR-X" title="TerraSAR-X">TerraSAR-X</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space-to-space_methods">Space-to-space methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Space-to-space methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gravity_gradiometry">Gravity gradiometry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Gravity gradiometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gravity_gradiometry" title="Gravity gradiometry">Gravity gradiometry</a></div> <p>A gravity gradiometer can independently determine the components of the gravity vector on a real-time basis. A gravity gradient is simply the spatial derivative of the gravity vector. The gradient can be thought of as the rate of change of a component of the gravity <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_vector" title="Euclidean vector">vector</a> as measured over a small distance. Hence, the gradient can be measured by determining the difference in gravity at two close but distinct points. This principle is embodied in several recent moving-base instruments. The gravity gradient at a point is a <a href="/wiki/Tensor" title="Tensor">tensor</a>, since it is the derivative of each component of the gravity vector taken in each sensitive axis. Thus, the value of any component of the gravity vector can be known all along the path of the vehicle if gravity gradiometers are included in the system and their outputs are integrated by the system computer. An accurate gravity model will be computed in real-time and a continuous map of normal gravity, elevation, and anomalous gravity will be available.<sup id="cite_ref-GfL_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GfL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 71">: 71 </span></sup> </p> <dl><dd><i>Example: <a href="/wiki/GOCE" title="GOCE">GOCE</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Satellite-to-satellite_tracking">Satellite-to-satellite tracking</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Satellite-to-satellite tracking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This technique uses satellites to track other satellites. There are a number of variations which may be used for specific purposes such as <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> field investigations and <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a> improvement. </p> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit" title="Medium Earth orbit">high altitude satellite</a> may act as a relay from ground tracking stations to a <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low altitude satellite</a>. In this way, low altitude satellites may be observed when they are not accessible to ground stations. In this type of tracking, a signal generated by a tracking station is received by the relay satellite and then retransmitted to a lower altitude satellite. This signal is then returned to the ground station by the same path.</li> <li>Two low altitude satellites can track one another observing mutual orbital variations caused by gravity field irregularities. A prime example of this is <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment">GRACE</a>.</li> <li>Several high altitude satellites with accurately known orbits, such as <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> satellites, may be used to fix the position of a low altitude satellite.</li></ul> <p><br />These examples present a few of the possibilities for the application of satellite-to-satellite tracking. Satellite-to-satellite tracking data was first collected and analyzed in a high-low configuration between <a href="/wiki/ATS-6" title="ATS-6">ATS-6</a> and <a href="/wiki/GEOS_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="GEOS (satellite)">GEOS-3</a>. The data was studied to evaluate its potential for both orbit and gravitational model refinement.<sup id="cite_ref-GfL_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GfL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 68">: 68 </span></sup> </p> <dl><dd><i>Example: <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment">GRACE</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="GNSS_tracking"><a href="/wiki/GNSS" class="mw-redirect" title="GNSS">GNSS</a> tracking</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: GNSS tracking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2011</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd><i>Examples: <a href="/wiki/CHAMP_(satellite)" title="CHAMP (satellite)">CHAMP</a>, <a href="/wiki/GOCE" title="GOCE">GOCE</a></i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_geodetic_satellites">List of geodetic satellites</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: List of geodetic satellites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Geodetic_satellites" title="Category:Geodetic satellites">Geodetic satellites</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_passive_satellites" title="List of passive satellites">List of passive satellites</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2011</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ANNA_1B" title="ANNA 1B">ANNA-1B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beidou_navigation_satellite_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Beidou navigation satellite system">Beidou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BLITS" title="BLITS">BLITS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CHAMP_(satellite)" title="CHAMP (satellite)">CHAMP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/missions/satellite_missions/past_missions/di1c_general.html">Diadème</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Echo satellite">Echo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envisat" title="Envisat">Envisat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ERS-1" class="mw-redirect" title="ERS-1">ERS-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ERS-2" class="mw-redirect" title="ERS-2">ERS-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etalon_(satellite)" title="Etalon (satellite)">Etalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_Geodetic_Payload" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental Geodetic Payload">Experimental Geodetic Payload</a> "Ajisai"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Explorer program">Explorer program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Positioning_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo Positioning System">Galileo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geo-IK-2" title="Geo-IK-2">Geo-IK-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GEOS-3" title="GEOS-3">GEOS-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosat" title="Geosat">Geosat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosat_Follow-On" class="mw-redirect" title="Geosat Follow-On">Geosat Follow-On</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GFZ-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GFZ-1 (page does not exist)">GFZ-1</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment">GRACE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GOCE" title="GOCE">GOCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICESat" title="ICESat">ICESat-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICESat-2" title="ICESat-2">ICESat-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAGEOS" title="LAGEOS">LAGEOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LARES_(satellite)" title="LARES (satellite)">LARES</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Larets&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Larets (page does not exist)">Larets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-IIA" title="H-IIA">H-IIA</a>-<a href="/w/index.php?title=LRE_(satellite)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LRE (satellite) (page does not exist)">LRE</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PAGEOS" title="PAGEOS">PAGEOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasat" title="Seasat">Seasat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlette_and_Stella" title="Starlette and Stella">Starlette and Stella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TOPEX/Poseidon" title="TOPEX/Poseidon">TOPEX/Poseidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">TRANSIT</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=WESTPAC_(satellite)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="WESTPAC (satellite) (page does not exist)">WESTPAC</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_gravimetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite gravimetry">Satellite gravimetry</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Seeber-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seeber_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSeeber2003" class="citation book cs1">Seeber, Gunter (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/satellitegeodesy00seeb"><i>Satellite geodesy</i></a></span>. Berlin New York: <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110200089">10.1515/9783110200089</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017549-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017549-3"><bdi>978-3-11-017549-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Satellite+geodesy&rft.place=Berlin+New+York&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110200089&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017549-3&rft.aulast=Seeber&rft.aufirst=Gunter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsatellitegeodesy00seeb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSosnica2014" class="citation book cs1">Sosnica, Krzysztof (2014). <i>Determination of Precise Satellite Orbits and Geodetic Parameters using Satellite Laser Ranging</i>. Bern: Astronomical Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8393889808" title="Special:BookSources/978-8393889808"><bdi>978-8393889808</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Determination+of+Precise+Satellite+Orbits+and+Geodetic+Parameters+using+Satellite+Laser+Ranging&rft.place=Bern&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Astronomical+Institute%2C+University+of+Bern%2C+Switzerland&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-8393889808&rft.aulast=Sosnica&rft.aufirst=Krzysztof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GfL-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GfL_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GfL_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GfL_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GfL_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GfL_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDefense_Mapping_Agency1983" class="citation report cs1">Defense Mapping Agency (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/GeoLay.pdf">Geodesy for the Layman</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). United States Air Force.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Geodesy+for+the+Layman&rft.pub=United+States+Air+Force&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Defense+Mapping+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ngs.noaa.gov%2FPUBS_LIB%2FGeoLay.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gnssgeodesy-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gnssgeodesy_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gnssgeodesy_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgaja2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clement_Ogaja" title="Clement Ogaja">Ogaja, Clement</a> (2022). <i>Introduction to GNSS Geodesy: Foundations of Precise Positioning Using Global Navigation Satellite Systems</i>. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing AG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-91821-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-91821-7"><bdi>978-3-030-91821-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+GNSS+Geodesy%3A+Foundations+of+Precise+Positioning+Using+Global+Navigation+Satellite+Systems&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing+AG&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-030-91821-7&rft.aulast=Ogaja&rft.aufirst=Clement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSosnica2014" class="citation book cs1">Sosnica, Krzysztof (2014). <i>Determination of Precise Satellite Orbits and Geodetic Parameters using Satellite Laser Ranging</i>. Bern: Astronomical Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8393889808" title="Special:BookSources/978-8393889808"><bdi>978-8393889808</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Determination+of+Precise+Satellite+Orbits+and+Geodetic+Parameters+using+Satellite+Laser+Ranging&rft.place=Bern&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Astronomical+Institute%2C+University+of+Bern%2C+Switzerland&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-8393889808&rft.aulast=Sosnica&rft.aufirst=Krzysztof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassonnetFeigl1998" class="citation cs2">Massonnet, D.; Feigl, K. L. (1998), "Radar interferometry and its application to changes in the earth's surface", <i>Rev. Geophys.</i>, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 441–500, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RvGeo..36..441M">1998RvGeo..36..441M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F97RG03139">10.1029/97RG03139</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24519422">24519422</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rev.+Geophys.&rft.atitle=Radar+interferometry+and+its+application+to+changes+in+the+earth%27s+surface&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=441-500&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24519422%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F97RG03139&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998RvGeo..36..441M&rft.aulast=Massonnet&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Feigl%2C+K.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurgmannRosenFielding2000" class="citation cs2">Burgmann, R.; Rosen, P.A.; Fielding, E.J. (2000), "Synthetic aperture radar interferometry to measure Earth's surface topography and its deformation", <i>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</i>, vol. 28, pp. 169–209, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000AREPS..28..169B">2000AREPS..28..169B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.28.1.169">10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.169</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Synthetic+aperture+radar+interferometry+to+measure+Earth%27s+surface+topography+and+its+deformation&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=169-209&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.28.1.169&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000AREPS..28..169B&rft.aulast=Burgmann&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Rosen%2C+P.A.&rft.au=Fielding%2C+E.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanssen2001" class="citation cs2">Hanssen, Ramon F. (2001), <i>Radar Interferometry: Data Interpretation and Error Analysis</i>, Kluwer Academic, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780792369455" title="Special:BookSources/9780792369455"><bdi>9780792369455</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radar+Interferometry%3A+Data+Interpretation+and+Error+Analysis&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780792369455&rft.aulast=Hanssen&rft.aufirst=Ramon+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/missions/satellite_missions/past_missions/gfz1_general.html">"International Laser Ranging Service"</a>. Ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2012-09-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-08-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Laser+Ranging+Service&rft.pub=Ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov&rft.date=2012-09-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Filrs.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fmissions%2Fsatellite_missions%2Fpast_missions%2Fgfz1_general.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/missions/satellite_missions/past_missions/lre__general.html">H2A-LRE</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/missions/satellite_missions/past_missions/west_general.html">"International Laser Ranging Service"</a>. Ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2012-09-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-08-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Laser+Ranging+Service&rft.pub=Ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov&rft.date=2012-09-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Filrs.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fmissions%2Fsatellite_missions%2Fpast_missions%2Fwest_general.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attribution">Attribution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Attribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDefense_Mapping_Agency1983" class="citation report cs1">Defense Mapping Agency (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170513193523/https://www.nga.mil/ProductsServices/GeodesyandGeophysics/Documents/Geo4lay.pdf">Geodesy for the Layman</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). United States Air Force. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nga.mil/ProductsServices/GeodesyandGeophysics/Documents/Geo4lay.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-05-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Geodesy+for+the+Layman&rft.pub=United+States+Air+Force&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Defense+Mapping+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nga.mil%2FProductsServices%2FGeodesyandGeophysics%2FDocuments%2FGeo4lay.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrançois_BarlierMichel_Lefebvre2001" class="citation cs2">François Barlier; Michel Lefebvre (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipgp.fr/~tarantola/Files/Professional/Teaching/Seminar/Texts/Barlier-Lefebvre.pdf"><i>A new look at planet Earth: Satellite geodesy and geosciences</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Kluwer Academic Publishers</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+new+look+at+planet+Earth%3A+Satellite+geodesy+and+geosciences&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Fran%C3%A7ois+Barlier&rft.au=Michel+Lefebvre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipgp.fr%2F~tarantola%2FFiles%2FProfessional%2FTeaching%2FSeminar%2FTexts%2FBarlier-Lefebvre.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASatellite+geodesy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Smith, David E. and Turcotte, Donald L. (eds.) (1993). Contributions of Space Geodesy to Geodynamics: Crustal Dynamics Vol. 23, Earth Dynamics Vol. 24, Technology Vol. 25, American Geophysical Union Geodynamics Series <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0277-6669">0277-6669</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_geodesy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esa.int/goce">GOCE</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/">GRACE</a></li> 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