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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Building layout</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Building_layout-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Building layout subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Building_layout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Palaestra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaestra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Palaestra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaestra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Use_of_the_palaestra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_the_palaestra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Use of the palaestra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_of_the_palaestra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apodyterium_and_frigidarium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apodyterium_and_frigidarium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Apodyterium and frigidarium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apodyterium_and_frigidarium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tepidarium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tepidarium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Tepidarium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tepidarium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caldarium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caldarium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Caldarium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caldarium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laconicum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laconicum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Laconicum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laconicum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Service_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Service_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Service areas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Service_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_bath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_bath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Women's bath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_bath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purpose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Purpose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cultural significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Location</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remains_of_Roman_public_baths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remains_of_Roman_public_baths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Remains of Roman public baths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remains_of_Roman_public_baths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Thermae</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_(%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A)" title="حمام (روماني) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حمام (روماني)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terml%C9%99r" title="Termlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Termlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Тэрмы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тэрмы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Терми – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Терми" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termes_romanes" title="Termes romanes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Termes romanes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Термсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Термсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termer" title="Termer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Termer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermen" title="Thermen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Thermen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termid" title="Termid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Termid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Θέρμες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θέρμες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termas_romanas" title="Termas romanas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Termas romanas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termoj" title="Termoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Termoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terma" title="Terma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Terma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="حمام رومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حمام رومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermes_romains" title="Thermes romains – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Thermes romains" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termas_romanas" title="Termas romanas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Termas romanas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%85%8C%EB%A5%B4%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B4" title="테르마이 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="테르마이" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4" title="Թերմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թերմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terme" title="Terme – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Terme" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Thermae" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terme_romane" title="Terme romane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Terme romane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermae_Romanae" title="Thermae Romanae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Thermae Romanae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termas" title="Termas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Termas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terma_(f%C3%BCrd%C5%91)" title="Terma (fürdő) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Terma (fürdő)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="റോമൻ സ്നാനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റോമൻ സ്നാനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermen" title="Thermen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Thermen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E3%81%AE%E5%85%AC%E8%A1%86%E6%B5%B4%E5%A0%B4" title="古代ローマの公衆浴場 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代ローマの公衆浴場" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_bad" title="Romersk bad – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romersk bad" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_bad" title="Romersk bad – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Romersk bad" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A8rmes_romans" title="Tèrmes romans – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tèrmes romans" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termy" title="Termy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Termy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termas_romanas" title="Termas romanas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Termas romanas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terme" title="Terme – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Terme" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Термы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Термы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%8D" title="Тиэрмэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Тиэрмэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimske_terme" title="Rimske terme – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimske terme" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Римске терме – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римске терме" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimske_terme" title="Rimske terme – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimske terme" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termit" title="Termit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Termit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termer" title="Termer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Termer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae – Tagalog" 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Public facilities for bathing in ancient Rome</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Thermae_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Thermae (disambiguation)">Thermae (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Roman baths" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Roman_Baths_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Baths (disambiguation)">Roman Baths (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about buildings used for Roman recreation and cleaning. For the activity in general, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Ancient Roman bathing</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa,_England_-_July_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of the Baths showing a rectangular area of greenish water surrounded by yellow stone buildings with pillars. In the background is the tower of the abbey." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg/300px-Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg/450px-Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg/600px-Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2638" data-file-height="2296" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Baths_(Bath)" title="Roman Baths (Bath)">Roman public baths</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>, England. The entire structure above the level of the pillar bases is a later reconstruction.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_l%E2%80%99_int%C3%A9rieur_des_thermes.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/A_l%E2%80%99_int%C3%A9rieur_des_thermes.JPG/220px-A_l%E2%80%99_int%C3%A9rieur_des_thermes.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/A_l%E2%80%99_int%C3%A9rieur_des_thermes.JPG/330px-A_l%E2%80%99_int%C3%A9rieur_des_thermes.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/A_l%E2%80%99_int%C3%A9rieur_des_thermes.JPG/440px-A_l%E2%80%99_int%C3%A9rieur_des_thermes.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption>Bulla Regia, inside the thermal baths</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">thermae</i></span></b> (from Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">θερμός</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">thermos</i></span>, "hot") and <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneae</i></span></b> (from Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">βαλανεῖον</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">balaneion</i></span>) were facilities for bathing. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Thermae</i></span> usually refers to the large <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">imperial</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Public bath">bath complexes</a>, while <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneae</i></span> were smaller-scale facilities, public or private, that existed in great numbers throughout Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Roman cities had at least one – if not many – such buildings, which were centers not only for bathing, but socializing and reading as well. Bathhouses were also provided for wealthy private <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">villas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domus" title="Domus">town houses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">forts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or within cities by <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">aqueduct</a>. The water would be heated by fire then channelled into the <a href="/wiki/Caldarium" title="Caldarium">caldarium</a> (hot bathing room). The design of baths is discussed by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/5*.html#10">(V.10)</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Public_bath_sign_-_Sabratha_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/58/Public_bath_sign_-_Sabratha_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Public_bath_sign_-_Sabratha_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/58/Public_bath_sign_-_Sabratha_%28cropped%29.jpg/375px-Public_bath_sign_-_Sabratha_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/58/Public_bath_sign_-_Sabratha_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Public_bath_sign_-_Sabratha_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption>Mosaic bath sign from <a href="/wiki/Sabratha" title="Sabratha">Sabratha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Libya</a>, showing bathing sandals, three <a href="/wiki/Strigils" class="mw-redirect" title="Strigils">strigils</a>, and the slogan SALVOM LAVISSE, "A bath is good for you"<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Thermae</i></span><i>,</i> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneae</i></span><i>,</i> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balineae</i></span><i>,</i> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneum</i></span> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balineum</i></span> may all be translated as 'bath' or 'baths', though Latin sources distinguish among these terms. </p><p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Balneum</i></span> or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balineum</i></span>, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">βαλανεῖον</span></span><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> signifies, in its primary sense, a bath or bathing-vessel, such as most persons of any consequence among the Romans possessed in their own houses,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hence the chamber which contained the bath,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is also the proper translation of the word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balnearium</i></span>. The diminutive <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneolum</i></span> is adopted by <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to designate the bathroom of <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio</a> in the villa at <a href="/wiki/Liternum" title="Liternum">Liternum</a>, and is expressly used to characterize the modesty of republican manners as compared with the luxury of his own times. But when the baths of private individuals became more sumptuous and comprised many rooms, instead of the one small chamber described by Seneca, the plural <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balnea</i></span> or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balinea</i></span> was adopted, which still, in correct language, had reference only to the baths of private persons. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> terms the baths at the villa of his brother <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Quintus Tullius Cicero">Quintus</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balnearia</i></span>. </p><p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Balneae</i></span> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balineae</i></span>, which according to <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have no singular number, were the public baths, but this accuracy of diction is neglected by many of the subsequent writers, and particularly by the poets, amongst whom <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balnea</i></span> is not uncommonly used in the plural number to signify the public baths, since the word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneae</i></span> could not be introduced in a <a href="/wiki/Hexameter" title="Hexameter">hexameter</a> verse. <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny</a> also, in the same sentence, makes use of the neuter plural <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balnea</i></span> for public, and of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneum</i></span> for a private bath.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Thermae</i></span> (Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Θέρμαι</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Thermai</i></span>, 'hot springs, hot baths',<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the Greek adjective <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">thermos</i></span>, 'hot') meant properly warm springs, or baths of warm water; but came to be applied to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">empire</a>, in place of the simple <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneae</i></span> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">republic</a>, and which comprised within their range of buildings all the appurtenances belonging to the Greek <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)" title="Gymnasium (ancient Greece)">gymnasia</a>, as well as a regular establishment appropriated for bathing.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writers, however, use these terms without distinction. Thus the baths erected by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Claudius_Etruscus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claudius Etruscus (page does not exist)">Claudius Etruscus</a>, the freedman of the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>, are styled by <a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balnea</i></span>, and by <a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Etrusci thermulae</i></span>. In an epigram by <i>Martial</i><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">subice balneum thermis</i></span>—the terms are not applied to the whole building, but to two different chambers in the same edifice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Building_layout">Building layout</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Building layout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Plan_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.jpg/330px-Plan_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="422" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Plan_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.jpg/495px-Plan_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Plan_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Plan of the Old Baths (Forum Baths) at <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A public bath was built around three principal rooms: the <i><a href="/wiki/Tepidarium" title="Tepidarium">tepidarium</a></i> (warm room), the <i><a href="/wiki/Caldarium" title="Caldarium">caldarium</a></i> (hot room), and the <i><a href="/wiki/Frigidarium" title="Frigidarium">frigidarium</a></i> (cold room). Some <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">thermae</i></span> also featured steam baths: the <i><a href="/wiki/Sudatorium" title="Sudatorium">sudatorium</a></i>, a moist steam bath, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Laconicum" title="Laconicum">laconicum</a></i>, a dry hot room.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2019)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Thermae#How_is_a_dry_room_an_example_for_a_steam_bath?_Nonsense..." title="Talk:Thermae">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By way of illustration, this article will describe the layout of <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>'s Old Baths, otherwise known as the Forum Baths, which are among the best-preserved Roman baths. These baths were connected to the forum at Pompeii, hence the name. The references are to the floor plan pictured to the right.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This specific complex consists of a double set of baths, one for men and one for women. It has six different entrances from the street, one of which (<i>b</i>) gives admission to the smaller women's set only. Five other entrances lead to the men's department, of which two (<i>c</i> and <i>c2</i>), communicate directly with the furnaces, and the other three (<i>a3, a2, a</i>) with the bathing apartments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palaestra">Palaestra</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Palaestra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Passing through the principal entrance, <i>a</i> (barely visible, right side, one third of the total length from above), which is removed from the street by a narrow footway surrounding the building and after descending three steps, the bather would find a small chamber on his left (<i>x</i>) with a toilet (<i><a href="/wiki/Latrine" title="Latrine">latrina</a></i>), and proceed into a covered <a href="/wiki/Portico" title="Portico">portico</a> (<i>g, g</i>), which ran round three sides of an open court (<i><a href="/wiki/Palaestra" title="Palaestra">palaestra</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The wiklilink connects to an article where palaestra is ONLY defined as a type of GREEK wrestling school, not as the courtyard of a ROMAN bath-house. Very confusing! Maybe the source is old and uses terms in a way discarded by now. (July 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A</i>). These together formed the <a href="/wiki/Vestibule_(architecture)" title="Vestibule (architecture)">vestibule</a> of the baths (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vestibulum balnearum</i></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the servants waited. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Use_of_the_palaestra">Use of the palaestra</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Use of the palaestra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This palaestra was the exercise ground for the young men, or perhaps served as a promenade for visitors to the baths. Within this court the keeper of the baths (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">balneator</i></span>), who exacted the <i><a href="/wiki/Quadrans" title="Quadrans">quadrans</a></i> paid by each visitor, was also stationed. The room (<i>f)</i> which runs back from the portico, might have been appropriated to him; but most probably it was an <i><a href="/wiki/Oecus" title="Oecus">oecus</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Exedra" title="Exedra">exedra</a></i>, for the convenience of the better classes while awaiting the return of their acquaintances from the interior. In this court, advertisements for the theatre or other announcements of general interest were posted, one of which, announcing a <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial</a> show, still remains. At the sides of the entrance were seats (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">scholae</i></span>). </p><p>The 1898 edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Dictionary_of_Classical_Antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities">Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities</a></i> provided illustrations envisioning the rooms of the Old Baths at <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>: </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 972px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Apodyterium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Apodyterium"><img alt="Apodyterium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Apodyterium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/200px-Apodyterium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Apodyterium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/300px-Apodyterium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Apodyterium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/400px-Apodyterium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="356" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Apodyterium" title="Apodyterium">Apodyterium</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tepidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Tepidarium"><img alt="Tepidarium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Tepidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/200px-Tepidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Tepidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/300px-Tepidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Tepidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/400px-Tepidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="378" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Tepidarium" title="Tepidarium">Tepidarium</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Caldarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Caldarium"><img alt="Caldarium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Caldarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/129px-Caldarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png" decoding="async" width="129" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Caldarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/194px-Caldarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Caldarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/259px-Caldarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="866" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Caldarium" title="Caldarium">Caldarium</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Frigidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Frigidarium"><img alt="Frigidarium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Frigidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/134px-Frigidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png" decoding="async" width="134" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Frigidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/201px-Frigidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Frigidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png/268px-Frigidarium_of_the_Old_Baths_at_Pompeii_by_Overbeck.png 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="863" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Frigidarium" title="Frigidarium">Frigidarium</a></i></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apodyterium_and_frigidarium">Apodyterium and frigidarium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Apodyterium and frigidarium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Apodyterium" title="Apodyterium">Apodyterium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frigidarium" title="Frigidarium">Frigidarium</a></div> <p>A passage (<i>c</i>) leads into the <i><a href="/wiki/Apodyterium" title="Apodyterium">apodyterium</a></i> (<i>B</i>), a room for undressing in which all visitors must have met before entering the baths proper. Here, the bathers removed their clothing, which was taken in charge by slaves known as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capsarii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capsarii (page does not exist)">capsarii</a></i>, notorious in ancient times for their dishonesty.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apodyterium</i></span> was a spacious chamber, with stone seats along three sides of the wall (<i>h</i>). Holes are still visible on the walls, and probably mark the places where the pegs for the bathers' clothes were set. The chamber was lighted by a glass window, and had six doors. One of these led to the <i><a href="/wiki/Tepidarium" title="Tepidarium">tepidarium</a></i> (<i>D</i>) and another to the <i><a href="/wiki/Frigidarium" title="Frigidarium">frigidarium</a></i> (<i>C</i>), with its cold plunge-bath referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Baptisterium" title="Baptisterium">baptisterium</a></i> (more commonly called <i><a href="/wiki/Natatorium" class="mw-redirect" title="Natatorium">natatorium</a></i> or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">piscina</i></span>), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">loutron</i></span>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2022)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Thermae#Greek_word._Has_it_been_used_in_an_identical_form_in_Latin_too,_or_is_it_a_plain_mistake?_See_https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/λουτρόν" title="Talk:Thermae">discuss</a></i>]</sup> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">natatio</i></span>, or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">puteus</i></span>; the terms <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">natatio</i></span> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">natatorium</i></span> suggest that some of those baths were also <a href="/wiki/Swimming_pool" title="Swimming pool">swimming pools</a>. The bath in this chamber is of white marble, surrounded by two marble steps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tepidarium">Tepidarium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tepidarium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tepidarium" title="Tepidarium">Tepidarium</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tepidarium_at_the_Forum_baths_in_Pompeii_by_Hansen,_Joseph_Theodor_(1848-1912).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Tepidarium_at_the_Forum_baths_in_Pompeii_by_Hansen%2C_Joseph_Theodor_%281848-1912%29.jpg/220px-Tepidarium_at_the_Forum_baths_in_Pompeii_by_Hansen%2C_Joseph_Theodor_%281848-1912%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Tepidarium_at_the_Forum_baths_in_Pompeii_by_Hansen%2C_Joseph_Theodor_%281848-1912%29.jpg/330px-Tepidarium_at_the_Forum_baths_in_Pompeii_by_Hansen%2C_Joseph_Theodor_%281848-1912%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Tepidarium_at_the_Forum_baths_in_Pompeii_by_Hansen%2C_Joseph_Theodor_%281848-1912%29.jpg/440px-Tepidarium_at_the_Forum_baths_in_Pompeii_by_Hansen%2C_Joseph_Theodor_%281848-1912%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1524" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><i>Pompeian interior, The Thermae by Forum</i> by Joseph Theodor Hansen (1848–1912)</figcaption></figure> <p>From the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apodyterium</i></span> the bather who wished to go through the warm bath and sweating process entered the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tepidarium</i></span> (<i>D</i>). It did not contain water either at Pompeii nor at the Baths of Hippias, but was merely heated with warm air of an agreeable temperature, in order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm baths, and, upon returning, to prevent a too-sudden transition to the open air. In the baths at Pompeii this chamber also served as an <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apodyterium</i></span> for those who took the warm bath. The walls feature a number of separate compartments or recesses for receiving the garments when taken off. The compartments are divided from each other by figures of the kind called <a href="/wiki/Atlas_(architecture)" title="Atlas (architecture)">atlantes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Telamones" class="mw-redirect" title="Telamones">telamones</a>, which project from the walls and support a rich cornice above them in a wide arch. </p><p>Three bronze benches were also found in the room, which was heated as well by its contiguity to the <a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">hypocaust</a> of the adjoining chamber, as by a <a href="/wiki/Brazier" title="Brazier">brazier</a> of bronze (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foculus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foculus (page does not exist)">foculus</a></i>), in which the charcoal ashes were still remaining when the excavation was made. Sitting and perspiring beside such a brazier was called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ad flammam sudare</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tepidarium</i></span> is generally the most highly ornamented room in baths. It was merely a room to sit and be anointed in. In the Forum Baths at Pompeii the floor is mosaic, the arched ceiling adorned with stucco and painting on a coloured ground, the walls red. </p><p>Anointing was performed by slaves called <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unctores&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unctores (page does not exist)">unctores</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aliptae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aliptae (page does not exist)">aliptae</a></i>. It sometimes took place before going to the hot bath, and sometimes after the cold bath, before putting on the clothes, in order to check the perspiration.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some baths had a special room (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Destrictarium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Destrictarium (page does not exist)">destrictarium</a></i> or <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unctorium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unctorium (page does not exist)">unctorium</a></i>) for this purpose. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caldarium">Caldarium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Caldarium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caldarium" title="Caldarium">Caldarium</a></div> <p>From the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tepidarium</i></span> a door opened into the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">caldarium</i></span> (<i>E</i>), whose <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> floor was directly above the furnace or <a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">hypocaust</a>. Its walls also were hollow, behind the decorated plaster one part of the wall was made from interconnected hollow bricks called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tubuli lateraci</i></span>, forming a great flue filled with heated air. At one end was a round basin (<i><a href="/wiki/Labrum_(architecture)" title="Labrum (architecture)">labrum</a></i>), and at the other a quadrangular bathing place (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">puelos</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alveus</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">solium</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">calida piscina</i></span>), approached from the platform by steps. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">labrum</i></span> held cold water, for pouring upon the bather's head before he left the room. These basins are of marble in the Old Baths, but we hear of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alvei</i></span> of solid silver.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the great heat of the room, the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">caldarium</i></span> was but slightly ornamented. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laconicum">Laconicum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Laconicum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Laconicum" title="Laconicum">Laconicum</a></div> <p>The Old Baths have no <i><a href="/wiki/Laconicum" title="Laconicum">laconicum</a></i>, which was a chamber still hotter than the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">caldarium</i></span>, and used simply as a sweating-room, having no bath. It was said to have been introduced at Rome by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Agrippa</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was also called <i><a href="/wiki/Sudatorium" title="Sudatorium">sudatorium</a></i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles"><span title="This contradicts the article, sudatorium, and the earlier mention in this article which distinguishes them by dry heat and steam respectively. Which is correct? Or were they historically sometimes the same room and other times separate? If so, clarification is needed here. (July 2023)">contradictory</span></a></i>]</sup> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">assa</i></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Service_areas">Service areas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Service areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milarium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Milarium.jpg/220px-Milarium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Milarium.jpg/330px-Milarium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Milarium.jpg/440px-Milarium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>A three-tiered water boiler (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">miliarium</i></span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apodyterium</i></span> has a passage (q) communicating with the mouth of the furnace (i), called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Praefurnium" title="Praefurnium">praefurnium</a></i></span> or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">propigneum</i></span> and, passing down that passage, we reach the chamber M, into which the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">praefurnium</i></span> projects, and which is entered from the street at <i>c</i>. It was assigned to the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">fornacatores</i></span>, or persons in charge of the fires. Of its two staircases, one leads to the roof of the baths, and one to the <a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">boilers</a> containing the water. </p><p>There were three boilers, one of which (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">caldarium</i></span>) held the hot water; a second, the tepid (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tepidarium</i></span>); and the third, the cold (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">frigidarium</i></span>). The warm water was filled into the warm bath by a pipe through the wall, marked on the plan. Underneath the hot chamber was set the circular furnace <i>d</i>, of more than 2 m (6 ft 7 in). in diameter, which heated the water and poured hot air into the hollow cells of the hypocaustum. It passed from the furnace under the first and last of the caldrons by two flues, which are marked on the plan. The boiler containing hot water was placed immediately over the furnace; as the water was drawn out from there, it was supplied from the next, the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tepidarium</i></span>, which was raised a little higher and stood a little way off from the furnace. It was already considerably heated from its contiguity to the furnace and the hypocaust below it, so that it supplied the deficiency of the former without materially diminishing its temperature; and the vacuum in this last was again filled up from the farthest removed, which contained the cold water received directly from the square reservoir seen behind them. The boilers themselves no longer remain, but the impressions which they have left in the mortar in which they were embedded are clearly visible, and enable us to determine their respective positions and dimensions. Such coppers or boilers appear to have been called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">miliaria</i></span>, from their similarity of shape to a <a href="/wiki/Milestone" title="Milestone">milestone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Behind the boilers, another corridor leads into the court or palaestra (<i>K</i>), appropriated to the servants of the bath. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women's_bath"><span id="Women.27s_bath"></span>Women's bath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Women's bath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The adjoining, smaller set of baths were assigned to the women. The entrance is by the door <i>b</i>, which conducts into a small vestibule (<i>m</i>) and from there into the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apodyterium</i></span> (<i>H</i>), which, like the one in the men's bath, has a seat (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">pulvinus</i></span><i>,</i> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">gradus</i></span>) on either side built up against the wall. This opens upon a cold bath (<i>J</i>), answering to the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">natatio</i></span> of the men's set, but of much smaller dimensions. There are four steps on the inside to descend into it. </p><p>Opposite to the door of entrance into the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apodyterium</i></span> is another doorway which leads to the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tepidarium</i></span> (<i>G</i>), which also communicates with the thermal chamber (<i>F</i>), on one side of which is a warm bath in a square recess, and at the farther extremity the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">labrum</i></span>. The floor of this chamber is suspended, and its walls perforated for flues, like the corresponding one in the men's baths. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tepidarium</i></span> in the women's baths had no brazier, but it had a hanging or suspended floor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG/220px-Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG/330px-Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG/440px-Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the enormous <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a>, completed in 216 on a 25 <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectare</a> (33 acre) site</figcaption></figure> <p>The baths often included, aside from the three main rooms listed above, a <i><a href="/wiki/Palaestra" title="Palaestra">palaestra</a></i>, or outdoor gymnasium where men would engage in various ball games and exercises. There, among other things, weights were lifted and the discus thrown. Men would oil themselves and remove the excess with a <a href="/wiki/Strigil" title="Strigil">strigil</a> (cf. the well known <a href="/wiki/Apoxyomenus" class="mw-redirect" title="Apoxyomenus">Apoxyomenus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lysippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysippus">Lysippus</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatican Museum">Vatican Museum</a>). Often wealthy bathers would bring a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">capsarius</i></span>, a slave that carried his master's towels, oils, and strigils to the baths and then watched over them once in the baths, as thieves and pickpockets were known to frequent the baths. </p><p>The changing room was known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Apodyterium" title="Apodyterium">apodyterium</a></i> (from Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">apodyterion</i></span> from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">apoduein</i></span> 'to take off'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_significance">Cultural significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cultural significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In many ways, baths were the ancient Roman equivalent of community centres. Because the bathing process took so long, conversation was necessary. Many Romans would use the baths as a place to invite their friends to dinner parties, and many politicians would go to the baths to convince fellow Romans to join their causes. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">thermae</i></span> had many attributes in addition to the baths. There were libraries, rooms for poetry readings, and places to buy and eat food. The modern equivalent would be a combination of a library, art gallery, mall, restaurant, gym, and spa.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One important function of the baths in Roman society was their role as what we would consider a "branch library" today. Many in the general public did not have access to the grand libraries in Rome and so as a cultural institution the baths served as an important resource where the more common citizen could enjoy the luxury of books. The <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Trajan" title="Baths of Trajan">Baths of Trajan</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Diocletian</a> all contained rooms determined to be libraries. They have been identified through the architecture of the baths themselves. The presence of niches in the walls are assumed to have been bookcases and have been shown to be sufficiently deep to have contained ancient scrolls. There is little documentation from the writers of the time that there did exist definitive public libraries maintained in the baths, but records have been found that indicated a slave from the imperial household was labelled <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vilicus thermarum bybliothecae Graecae</i></span> ('maintenance man of the Greek library of the baths'). However, this may only indicate that the same slave held two positions in succession: "maintenance man of the baths" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vilicus thermarum</i></span>) and "employee in the Greek library" (a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">bybliothecae Graecae</i></span>). The reason for this debate is that, although <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asinius_Pollio" class="mw-redirect" title="Asinius Pollio">Asinius Pollio</a> advocated for public access to books and that libraries be open to all readers, there is little evidence that public libraries existed in the modern sense as we know it. It is more likely that these reserves were maintained for the wealthy elite.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Baths were a site for important sculpture; among the well-known pieces recovered from the <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a> are the <i><a href="/wiki/Farnese_Bull" title="Farnese Bull">Farnese Bull</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Farnese_Hercules" title="Farnese Hercules">Farnese Hercules</a></i> and over life-size early 3rd century patriotic figures, (now in the <a href="/wiki/Museo_di_Capodimonte" title="Museo di Capodimonte">Museo di Capodimonte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>). </p><p>The Romans believed that good health came from bathing, eating, massages, and exercise. The baths, therefore, had all of these things in abundance. Since some citizens would be bathing multiple times a week, Roman society was surprisingly clean.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When asked by a foreigner why he bathed once a day, a Roman emperor is said to have replied "Because I do not have the time to bathe twice a day."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emperors often built baths to gain favour for themselves and to create a lasting monument of their generosity. If a rich Roman wished to gain the favour of the people, he might arrange for a free admission day in his name. For example, a senator hoping to become a <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a> might pay all admission fees at a particular bath on his birthday to become well known to the people of the area.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Location">Location</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyark_Weissenburg_Reconstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Cyark_Weissenburg_Reconstruction.jpg/220px-Cyark_Weissenburg_Reconstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Cyark_Weissenburg_Reconstruction.jpg/330px-Cyark_Weissenburg_Reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Cyark_Weissenburg_Reconstruction.jpg/440px-Cyark_Weissenburg_Reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1277" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>Virtual historical reconstruction of the Roman Baths in Weißenburg, Germany, using data from <a href="/wiki/3D_scanner" class="mw-redirect" title="3D scanner">laser scan</a> technology</figcaption></figure> <p>Baths sprang up all over the empire. Where natural <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a> existed (as in <a href="/wiki/Bath,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Bath, England">Bath, England</a>; <a href="/wiki/B%C4%83ile_Herculane" title="Băile Herculane">Băile Herculane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aquae_Calidae,_Bulgaria" title="Aquae Calidae, Bulgaria">Aquae Calidae</a> near <a href="/wiki/Burgas" title="Burgas">Burgas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serdica" class="mw-redirect" title="Serdica">Serdica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>) <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">thermae</i></span> were built around them. Alternatively, a system of <i><a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">hypocausta</a></i> (from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hypo</i></span> 'below' and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">kaio</i></span> 'to burn') were utilised to heat the piped water from a furnace (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">praefurnium</i></span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remains_of_Roman_public_baths">Remains of Roman public baths</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Remains of Roman public baths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_remains_of_Roman_public_baths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of remains of Roman public baths">List of remains of Roman public baths</a></div> <p>A number of Roman public baths survive, either as ruins or in varying degrees of conservation. Among the more notable are the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Baths_(Bath)" title="Roman Baths (Bath)">Roman baths of Bath</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ravenglass_Roman_Bath_House" title="Ravenglass Roman Bath House">Ravenglass Roman Bath House</a> in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">of Diocletian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Titus" title="Baths of Titus">of Titus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Trajan" title="Baths of Trajan">of Trajan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and the baths of <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serdica" class="mw-redirect" title="Serdica">Serdica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Probably the most complete are various public and private baths in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and nearby sites. The <a href="/wiki/Hammam_Essalihine" title="Hammam Essalihine">Hammam Essalihine</a> is still in use today. </p><p>In 1910, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Station_(1910%E2%80%931963)" title="Pennsylvania Station (1910–1963)">Pennsylvania Station</a> was opened in New York City, with a Main Waiting Room that borrowed heavily from the frigidarium of the Baths of Diocletian, especially with the use of repeated <a href="/wiki/Groin_vault" title="Groin vault">groin vaults</a> in the ceiling. The success of the design of Pennsylvania Station in turn was copied in other railroad stations around the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Ancient Roman bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocletian_window" title="Diocletian window">Diocletian window</a> (thermal window)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Baths" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Baths">Greek baths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sanitation" class="mw-redirect" title="History of sanitation">History of sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman architecture">Roman architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman culture">Roman culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">Roman engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spa_town" title="Spa town">Spa town</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thermae_Romae" title="Thermae Romae">Thermae Romae</a></i> (<i>manga</i> and film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Turkish_baths" title="Victorian Turkish baths">Victorian Turkish baths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Baths_of_Alauna" title="Ancient Baths of Alauna">Ancient Baths of Alauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bliesbruck_Baths" title="Bliesbruck Baths">Bliesbruck Baths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_site_of_Sanxay" title="Gallo-Roman site of Sanxay">Gallo-Roman site of Sanxay</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarry_B._Evans1997" class="citation book cs1">Harry B. Evans (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hYIVlENKMD4C"><i>Water Distribution in Ancient Rome: The Evidence of Frontinus</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. pp. 9, 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-08446-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-08446-1"><bdi>0-472-08446-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180507184337/https://books.google.com/books?id=hYIVlENKMD4C">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-05-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+Distribution+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+The+Evidence+of+Frontinus&rft.pages=9%2C+10&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-472-08446-1&rft.au=Harry+B.+Evans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhYIVlENKMD4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/924682988"><i>Daily life in ancient Rome : a sourcebook</i></a>. Brian K. Harvey. Indianapolis. 2016. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58510-795-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58510-795-7"><bdi>978-1-58510-795-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/924682988">924682988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+life+in+ancient+Rome+%3A+a+sourcebook&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F924682988&rft.isbn=978-1-58510-795-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F924682988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">More literally, "It is a healthful thing to have bathed."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=balanei=on"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">βαλανεῖον</span></span></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a>, De Ling. Lat. ix. 68, ed. Müller (cited by Rich, 183)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>Ad Atticum</i> ii. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, Ad Fam. xiv. 20 (cited by Rich, 183).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ep. 86 (cited by Rich, 183)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ad Q. Frat. iii. 1. § 1 (cited by Rich, 183)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Ling. Lat. viii. 25, ix. 41, ed. Müller (cited by Rich, 183)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ep. ii. 17. (cited by Rich, 184)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=qe/rmh"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Θέρμαι</span></span></a> in <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juv. Sat. vii. 233 (cited by Rich, 184)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sylv. i. 5. 13 (cited by Rich, 184)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">vi. 42 (cited by Rich, 184)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ix. 76 (cited by Rich, 184)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The following is adapted from the 1898 <i><a href="/wiki/Harpers_Dictionary_of_Classical_Antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities">Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062%3Aid%3Dbalneae">entry</a> edited by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Thurston_Peck" title="Harry Thurston Peck">Harry Thurston Peck</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pro Cael. 26 (cited by Peck)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dig. xlvii. 17 (cited by Peck)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suet. Aug. 82 (cited by Peck)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galen. x. 49 (cited by Peck)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plin. H. N.xxxiii. 152 (cited by Peck)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dio Cass. liii. 27 (cited by Peck)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pallad. i. 40; v. 8 (cited by Peck)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrett_G._Fagan2002" class="citation book cs1">Garrett G. Fagan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R6tz_TzSVkAC&pg=PR9"><i>Bathing in Public in the Roman World</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-08865-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-08865-3"><bdi>0-472-08865-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180507184336/https://books.google.com/books?id=R6tz_TzSVkAC&pg=PR9">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-05-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bathing+in+Public+in+the+Roman+World&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-472-08865-3&rft.au=Garrett+G.+Fagan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR6tz_TzSVkAC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDix1994" class="citation journal cs1">Dix, Keith (1994). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Public Libraries' in Ancient Rome: Ideology and Reality". <i>Libraries & Culture</i>. <b>29</b> (3): 288.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Libraries+%26+Culture&rft.atitle=%27Public+Libraries%27+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+Ideology+and+Reality&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=288&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Dix&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrews, Cath. "Ancient Roman Baths: Cleanliness and Godliness under one roof". Explore Italian Culture. Web. 4/22/12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/lostempires/roman/day.html">"NOVA Online | Secrets of Lost Empires | Roman Bath | A Day at the Baths"</a>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121113234550/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/lostempires/roman/day.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-11-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NOVA+Online+%26%23124%3B+Secrets+of+Lost+Empires+%26%23124%3B+Roman+Bath+%26%23124%3B+A+Day+at+the+Baths&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Flostempires%2Froman%2Fday.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShephard2014" class="citation book cs1">Shephard, Roy J. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sI6eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA227"><i>An Illustrated History of Health and Fitness, from Pre-History to our Post-Modern World</i></a>. Springer. p. 227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319116716" title="Special:BookSources/9783319116716"><bdi>9783319116716</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Illustrated+History+of+Health+and+Fitness%2C+from+Pre-History+to+our+Post-Modern+World&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9783319116716&rft.aulast=Shephard&rft.aufirst=Roy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsI6eBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20080510210220/http://www.ancient-bulgaria.com/2008/05/09/the-roman-thermae-in-varna/">"Welcome to nginx"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancient-bulgaria.com/2008/05/09/the-roman-thermae-in-varna/">the original</a> on 2008-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welcome+to+nginx&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancient-bulgaria.com%2F2008%2F05%2F09%2Fthe-roman-thermae-in-varna%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1890" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Smith, William</a>, ed. (1890). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities/Balneae"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Antiquities/Balneae">"Balneae" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities">Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</a></i> (3rd ed.). London: John Murray. p. 183 et seq.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Balneae&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Antiquities&rft.place=London&rft.pages=183+et+seq.&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeck1898" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Thurston_Peck" title="Harry Thurston Peck">Peck, Harry Thurston</a>, ed. (1898). "Balneae". <i><a href="/wiki/Harpers_Dictionary_of_Classical_Antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities">Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities</a></i>. New York: Harper & Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Balneae&rft.btitle=Harpers+Dictionary+of+Classical+Antiquities&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaland1998" class="citation web cs1">Aaland, Mikkel (May 15, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160626010826/http://www.cyberbohemia.com/Pages/massbathing.htm">"Mass Bathing: The Roman Balnea and Thermae"</a>. <i>Cyber-Bohemia</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cyberbohemia.com/Pages/massbathing.htm">the original</a> on June 26, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 2,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cyber-Bohemia&rft.atitle=Mass+Bathing%3A+The+Roman+Balnea+and+Thermae&rft.date=1998-05-15&rft.aulast=Aaland&rft.aufirst=Mikkel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cyberbohemia.com%2FPages%2Fmassbathing.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bruun, Christer. 1991. <i>The water supply of ancient Rome: A study of Roman imperial administration.</i> Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_DeLaine" title="Janet DeLaine">DeLaine, Janet</a>. 1997. <i>The Baths of Caracalla: A Study In the Design, Construction, and Economics of Large-Scale Building Projects In Imperial Rome.</i> Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.</li> <li>DeLaine, Janet, and David E Johnston. 1999. <i>Roman Baths and Bathing: Proceedings of the First International Conference On Roman Baths Held At Bath, England, 30 March-4 April 1992.</i> Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.</li> <li>Fagan, Garrett G. 2001. "The genesis of the Roman public bath: Recent approaches and future directions". <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 105, no. 3: 403–26.</li> <li>Manderscheid, Hubertus. 2004. <i>Ancient Baths and Bathing: A Bibliography for the Years 1988-2001.</i> Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.</li> <li>Marvin, M. 1983. "Freestanding sculptures from the Baths of Caracalla". <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 87: 347–84.</li> <li>Nielsen, Inge. 1993. <i>Thermae Et Balnea: The Architecture and Cultural History of Roman Public Baths.</i> 2nd ed. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press.</li> <li>Ring, James W. 1996. "Windows, baths and solar energy in the Roman Empire". <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 100: 717–24.</li> <li>Rotherham, Ian D. 2012. <i>Roman Baths In Britain.</i> Stroud: Amberley.</li> <li>Roupas, N. 2012. "Roman bath tiles". <i>Archaeology</i> 65, no. 2: 12.</li> <li>Yegül, Fikret K. 1992. <i>Baths and bathing in classical antiquity.</i> New York: Architectural History Foundation.</li> <li>--. 2010. <i>Bathing In the Roman World.</i> New York: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermae&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_thermae" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Roman thermae">Ancient Roman thermae</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>William Smith <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Balneae.html">Roman Baths (Balneae)</a> from "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities", pub. John Murray, London, 1875.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thermenmuseum.nl/default.asp?taal=eng">ThermeMuseum (Museum of the Thermae) in Heerlen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080316050602/http://www.thermenmuseum.nl/default.asp?taal=eng">Archived</a> 2008-03-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://traianus.rediris.es/">Traianus</a> – Technical investigation of Roman public works</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/lostempires/roman/day.html">Roman Bath: a day at the baths</a> An interactive site using the Baths of Caracalla as an example</li> <li>Barbara F. McManus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/baths.html">Roman baths and bathing</a></li> <li>3d reconstruction of a Roman baths <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.limes.co.at/index_en.php?sub=vindobona2_inhalt_en">Limes in Austria</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110531204902/http://www.limes.co.at/index_en.php?sub=vindobona2_inhalt_en">Archived</a> 2011-05-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.cyark.org/roman-baths-intro">Roman Baths of Weissenburg Digital Media Archive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111202001326/http://archive.cyark.org/roman-baths-intro">Archived</a> 2011-12-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Creative_commons" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative commons">creative commons</a>-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas) with data from a City of Weissenburg/<a href="/wiki/CyArk" title="CyArk">CyArk</a> research partnership</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianturkishbath.org">Victorian Turkish bath</a> Information regarding a 19th-century version of the Roman or "Turkish" bath</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://solarhousehistory.com/blog/2014/1/19/the-roman-baths-and-solar-heating">"The Roman Baths and Solar Heating"</a>. solarhousehistory.com. 20 January 2014.</cite><span 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control 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