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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Formality</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formality-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formality subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Underdetermination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underdetermination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Underdetermination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underdetermination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intertheoretic_reduction_and_elimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intertheoretic_reduction_and_elimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Intertheoretic reduction and elimination</span> 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Scientific</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scientific subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definitions_from_scientific_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions_from_scientific_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Definitions from scientific organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions_from_scientific_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Philosophical views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>In physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regarding_the_term_"theoretical"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regarding_the_term_"theoretical""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Regarding the term "theoretical"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regarding_the_term_"theoretical"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mathematical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Philosophical</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophical subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metatheory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metatheory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Metatheory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metatheory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Political</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurisprudential" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurisprudential"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Jurisprudential</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurisprudential-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Theory</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 93 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-93" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">93 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie" title="Teorie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Teorie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie" title="Theorie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Theorie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%85%E1%88%8D%E1%8B%AE%E1%89%B5" title="ኅልዮት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኅልዮት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="نظرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa" title="Teoría – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Teoría" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa" title="Teoría – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Teoría" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C9%99z%C9%99riyy%C9%99" title="Nəzəriyyə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nəzəriyyə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="তত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AD-l%C5%ABn" title="Lí-lūn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lí-lūn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Теория – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Теория" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Тэорыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тэорыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Тэорыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Тэорыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="थियरी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="थियरी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Теория – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Теория" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija" title="Teorija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Teorija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria" title="Teoria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teoria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Теори – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Теори" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie" title="Teorie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Teorie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorokodzwa" title="Gorokodzwa – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Gorokodzwa" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori" title="Teori – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Teori" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B6%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="نضرية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="نضرية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie" title="Theorie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Theorie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teooria" title="Teooria – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teooria" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Θεωρία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θεωρία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa" title="Teoría – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teoría" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorio" title="Teorio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Teorio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria" title="Teoria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Teoria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="نظریه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نظریه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie" title="Théorie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théorie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoiric" title="Teoiric – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teoiric" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%A1%A0" title="이론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տեսություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տեսություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4_(%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80)" title="सिद्धांत (थिअरी) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सिद्धांत (थिअरी)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija" title="Teorija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Teorija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorio" title="Teorio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Teorio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori" title="Teori – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teori" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoria" title="Theoria – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Theoria" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umchaciso" title="Umchaciso – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umchaciso" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria" title="Teoria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Teoria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="תאוריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תאוריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4" title="ಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="თეორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თეორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Теория – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Теория" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadharia" title="Nadharia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Nadharia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyori" title="Teyori – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Teyori" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%AE" title="Teorî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Teorî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Теория – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Теория" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoria" title="Theoria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Theoria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija" title="Teorija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Teorija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija" title="Teorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Teorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie" title="Theorie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Theorie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elm%C3%A9let" title="Elmélet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Elmélet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Теорија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Теорија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rijan-kevitra" title="Rijan-kevitra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rijan-kevitra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori" title="Teori – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Teori" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Онол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Онол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AE%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE" title="သီအိုရီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သီအိုရီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie" title="Theorie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Theorie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="理論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="理論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori" title="Teori – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Teori" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori" title="Teori – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Teori" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazariya" title="Nazariya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nazariya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਥਿਊਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਥਿਊਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="نظریه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نظریه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria" title="Teoria – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Teoria" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria" title="Teoria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teoria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie" title="Teorie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Teorie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91asa" title="Ñasa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ñasa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Теорія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Теорія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Теория – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Теория" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria" title="Teoria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Teoria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiur%C3%ACa" title="Tiurìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Tiurìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%88" title="نظريو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نظريو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C3%B3ria" title="Teória – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Teória" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija" title="Teorija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Teorija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="تیۆری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تیۆری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija" title="Teorija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Teorija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija" title="Teorija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Teorija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria" title="Teoria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Teoria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori" title="Teori – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Teori" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorya" title="Teorya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Teorya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="கொள்கை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கொள்கை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="సిద్ధాంతం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సిద్ధాంతం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%8E%E0%B8%B5" title="ทฤษฎี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทฤษฎี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori" title="Teori – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Teori" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Теорія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Теорія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81" title="نظریہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نظریہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BD_thuy%E1%BA%BFt" title="Lý thuyết – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lý thuyết" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyorya" title="Teyorya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Teyorya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="理论 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="理论" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="טעאריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="טעאריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="理論 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="理論" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="理論 – 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Supposition or system of ideas intended to explain something</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For theories in science, see <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Theory_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Theory (disambiguation)">Theory (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p> A <b>theory</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">rational</a> type of <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstract thinking</a> about a <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a>, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as <a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">observational study</a> or research. Theories may be <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a>, belong to a non-scientific discipline, or no discipline at all. Depending on the context, a theory's assertions might, for example, include generalized explanations of how <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a> works. The word has its roots in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a>, but in modern use it has taken on several related meanings. </p><p>In modern science, the term "theory" refers to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theories</a>, a well-confirmed type of explanation of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, made in a way <a href="/wiki/Consistency" title="Consistency">consistent</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, and fulfilling the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory#Characteristics_of_theories" title="Scientific theory">criteria</a> required by <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>. Such theories are described in such a way that scientific tests should be able to provide <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical</a> support for it, or <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical</a> contradiction ("<a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsify</a>") of it. Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in contrast to more common uses of the word "theory" that imply that something is unproven or speculative (which in formal terms is better characterized by the word <i><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific theories are distinguished from hypotheses, which are individual empirically <a href="/wiki/Testable" class="mw-redirect" title="Testable">testable</a> <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjectures</a>, and from <a href="/wiki/Scientific_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific laws">scientific laws</a>, which are descriptive accounts of the way nature behaves under certain conditions. </p><p>Theories guide the enterprise of finding facts rather than of reaching goals, and are neutral concerning alternatives among values.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 131">: 131 </span></sup> A theory can be a <a href="/wiki/Body_of_knowledge" title="Body of knowledge">body of knowledge</a>, which may or may not be associated with particular explanatory <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">models</a>. To theorize is to develop this body of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 46">: 46 </span></sup> </p><p>The word theory or "in theory" is sometimes used outside of science to refer to something which the speaker did not experience or test before.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In science, this same concept is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a>, and the word "hypothetically" is used both inside and outside of science. In its usage outside of science, the word "theory" is very often contrasted to "<a href="/wiki/Praxis_(process)" title="Praxis (process)">practice</a>" (from Greek <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/praxis" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:praxis">praxis</a></i>, πρᾶξις) a Greek term for <i>doing</i>, which is opposed to theory.<sup id="cite_ref-mediumthelaw_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mediumthelaw-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A "classical example" of the distinction between "theoretical" and "practical" uses the discipline of medicine: <a href="/wiki/Medical_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical theory">medical theory</a> involves trying to understand the <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causes</a> and nature of health and sickness, while the practical side of medicine is trying to make people healthy. These two things are related but can be independent, because it is possible to research health and sickness without curing specific patients, and it is possible to cure a patient without knowing how the cure worked.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_usage">Ancient usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The English word <i>theory</i> derives from a technical term in philosophy in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Ancient Greek</a>. As an everyday word, <i><a href="/wiki/Theoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoria">theoria</a></i>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">θεωρία</span></span>, meant "looking at, viewing, beholding", but in more technical contexts it came to refer to <a href="/wiki/Contemplation" title="Contemplation">contemplative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Speculative_reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculative reason">speculative</a> understandings of <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">natural things</a>, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural philosopher">natural philosophers</a>, as opposed to more practical ways of knowing things, like that of skilled orators or artisans.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English-speakers have used the word <i>theory</i> since at least the late 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern uses of the word <i>theory</i> derive from the original definition, but have taken on new shades of meaning, still based on the idea of a theory as a thoughtful and <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">rational</a> explanation of the general <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a> of things. </p><p>Although it has more mundane meanings in Greek, the word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">θεωρία</span></span> apparently developed special uses early in the recorded history of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a>. In the book <i>From Religion to Philosophy</i>, <a href="/wiki/F._M._Cornford" title="F. M. Cornford">Francis Cornford</a> suggests that the <a href="/wiki/Orphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Orphics">Orphics</a> used the word <i>theoria</i> to mean "passionate sympathetic contemplation".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> changed the word to mean "the passionless contemplation of rational, unchanging truth" of mathematical knowledge, because he considered this intellectual pursuit the way to reach the highest plane of existence.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pythagoras emphasized subduing emotions and bodily desires to help the intellect function at the higher plane of theory. Thus, it was Pythagoras who gave the word <i>theory</i> the specific meaning that led to the classical and modern concept of a distinction between theory (as uninvolved, neutral thinking) and practice.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotle's terminology, as already mentioned, contrasts theory with <i>praxis</i> or practice, and this contrast exists till today. For Aristotle, both practice and theory involve thinking, but the aims are different. Theoretical contemplation considers things humans do not move or change, such as <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a>, so it has no human aim apart from itself and the knowledge it helps create. On the other hand, <i>praxis</i> involves thinking, but always with an aim to desired actions, whereby humans cause change or movement themselves for their own ends. Any human movement that involves no conscious choice and thinking could not be an example of <i>praxis</i> or doing.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formality">Formality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_(mathematical_logic)" title="Theory (mathematical logic)">Theory (mathematical logic)</a></div> <p>Theories are <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analytical</a> tools for <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explaining</a>, and making <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predictions</a> about a given subject matter. There are theories in many and varied fields of study, including the arts and sciences. A formal theory is <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">syntactic</a> in nature and is only meaningful when given a <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> component by applying it to some content (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">facts</a> and relationships of the actual historical world as it is unfolding). Theories in various fields of study are often expressed in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a>, but can be constructed in such a way that their general form is identical to a theory as it is expressed in the <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>. Theories may be expressed mathematically, symbolically, or in common language, but are generally expected to follow principles of <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">rational thought</a> or <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>. </p><p>Theory is constructed of a set of <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a> that are thought to be true statements about the subject under consideration. However, the truth of any one of these statements is always relative to the whole theory. Therefore, the same statement may be true with respect to one theory, and not true with respect to another. This is, in ordinary language, where statements such as "He is a terrible person" cannot be judged as true or false without reference to some <a href="/wiki/Interpretation_(logic)" title="Interpretation (logic)">interpretation</a> of who "He" is and for that matter what a "terrible person" is under the theory.<sup id="cite_ref-curry_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curry-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sometimes two theories have exactly the same <a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">explanatory power</a> because they make the same predictions. A pair of such theories is called indistinguishable or <a href="/wiki/Observational_equivalence" title="Observational equivalence">observationally equivalent</a>, and the choice between them reduces to convenience or philosophical preference.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Metatheory" title="Metatheory">form of theories</a> is studied formally in mathematical logic, especially in <a href="/wiki/Model_theory" title="Model theory">model theory</a>. When theories are studied in mathematics, they are usually expressed in some formal language and their statements are <a href="/wiki/Closure_(mathematics)" title="Closure (mathematics)">closed</a> under application of certain procedures called <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_inference" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of inference">rules of inference</a>. A special case of this, an axiomatic theory, consists of <a href="/wiki/Axioms" class="mw-redirect" title="Axioms">axioms</a> (or axiom schemata) and rules of inference. A <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorem</a> is a statement that can be derived from those axioms by application of these rules of inference. Theories used in applications are <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstractions</a> of observed phenomena and the resulting theorems provide solutions to real-world problems. Obvious examples include <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> (abstracting concepts of number), <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> (concepts of space), and <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> (concepts of randomness and likelihood). </p><p><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Gödel's incompleteness theorem">Gödel's incompleteness theorem</a> shows that no consistent, <a href="/wiki/Recursively_enumerable" class="mw-redirect" title="Recursively enumerable">recursively enumerable</a> theory (that is, one whose theorems form a recursively enumerable set) in which the concept of <a href="/wiki/Natural_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural numbers">natural numbers</a> can be expressed, can include all <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">true</a> statements about them. As a result, some domains of knowledge cannot be formalized, accurately and completely, as mathematical theories. (Here, formalizing accurately and completely means that all true propositions—and only true propositions—are derivable within the mathematical system.) This limitation, however, in no way precludes the construction of mathematical theories that formalize large bodies of scientific knowledge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Underdetermination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></div> <p>A theory is <i>underdetermined</i> (also called <i>indeterminacy of data to theory</i>) if a rival, inconsistent theory is at least as consistent with the evidence. Underdetermination is an <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> issue about the relation of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> to conclusions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A theory that lacks supporting evidence is generally, more properly, referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intertheoretic_reduction_and_elimination">Intertheoretic reduction and elimination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Intertheoretic reduction and elimination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></div> <p>If a new theory better explains and predicts a phenomenon than an old theory (i.e., it has more <a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">explanatory power</a>), we are <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">justified</a> in believing that the newer theory describes reality more correctly. This is called an <i>intertheoretic reduction</i> because the terms of the old theory can be reduced to the terms of the new one. For instance, our historical understanding about <i>sound</i>, <i>light</i> and <i>heat</i> have been reduced to <i>wave compressions and rarefactions</i>, <i>electromagnetic waves</i>, and <i>molecular kinetic energy</i>, respectively. These terms, which are identified with each other, are called <i>intertheoretic identities.</i> When an old and new theory are parallel in this way, we can conclude that the new one describes the same reality, only more completely. </p><p>When a new theory uses new terms that do not reduce to terms of an older theory, but rather replace them because they misrepresent reality, it is called an <i>intertheoretic elimination.</i> For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Superseded_scientific_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded scientific theories">obsolete scientific theory</a> that put forward an understanding of heat transfer in terms of the movement of <a href="/wiki/Caloric_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Caloric fluid">caloric fluid</a> was eliminated when a theory of heat as energy replaced it. Also, the theory that <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlogiston">phlogiston</a> is a substance released from burning and rusting material was eliminated with the new understanding of the reactivity of oxygen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Versus_theorems">Versus theorems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Versus theorems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theories are distinct from <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a>. A <i>theorem</i> is <a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">derived</a> deductively from <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> (basic assumptions) according to a <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal system</a> of rules, sometimes as an end in itself and sometimes as a first step toward being tested or applied in a concrete situation; theorems are said to be true in the sense that the conclusions of a theorem are logical consequences of the axioms. <i>Theories</i> are abstract and conceptual, and are supported or challenged by observations in the world. They are '<a href="/wiki/Rigor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigor">rigorously</a> tentative', meaning that they are proposed as true and expected to satisfy careful examination to account for the possibility of faulty inference or incorrect observation. Sometimes theories are incorrect, meaning that an explicit set of observations contradicts some fundamental objection or application of the theory, but more often theories are corrected to conform to new observations, by restricting the class of phenomena the theory applies to or changing the assertions made. An example of the former is the restriction of classical mechanics to phenomena involving macroscopic length scales and particle speeds much lower than the speed of light. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory–practice_relationship"><span id="Theory.E2.80.93practice_relationship"></span>Theory–practice relationship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Theory–practice relationship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Praxis_(process)" title="Praxis (process)">Praxis (process)</a></div> <p>Theory is often distinguished from practice or praxis. The question of whether theoretical models of work are relevant to work itself is of interest to scholars of professions such as medicine, engineering, law, and management.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 802">: 802 </span></sup> </p><p>The gap between theory and practice has been framed as a <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">knowledge transfer</a> where there is a task of translating research knowledge to be application in practice, and ensuring that practitioners are made aware of it. Academics have been criticized for not attempting to transfer the knowledge they produce to practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 804">: 804 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another framing supposes that theory and knowledge seek to understand different problems and model the world in different words (using different <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontologies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologies</a>). Another framing says that research does not produce theory that is relevant to practice.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 803">: 803 </span></sup> </p><p>In the context of management, Van de Van and Johnson propose a form of <a href="/wiki/Engaged_scholarship" title="Engaged scholarship">engaged scholarship</a> where scholars examine problems that occur in practice, in an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> fashion, producing results that create both new practical results as well as new theoretical models, but targeting theoretical results shared in an academic fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 815">: 815 </span></sup> They use a metaphor of "arbitrage" of ideas between disciplines, distinguishing it from collaboration.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 803">: 803 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific">Scientific</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Scientific"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Scientific theory</a></div> <p>In science, the term "theory" refers to "a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">repeatedly confirmed</a> through <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and experiment."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AAAS_Evolution_Resources_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAAS_Evolution_Resources-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theories must also meet further requirements, such as the ability to make <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiable</a> predictions with consistent accuracy across a broad area of scientific inquiry, and production of strong evidence in favor of the theory from multiple independent sources (<a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">consilience</a>). </p><p>The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain, which is measured by its ability to make <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiable</a> <a href="/wiki/Prediction#Prediction_in_science" title="Prediction">predictions</a> with respect to those phenomena. Theories are improved (or replaced by better theories) as more evidence is gathered, so that accuracy in prediction improves over time; this increased accuracy corresponds to an increase in scientific knowledge. Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge, as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing diseases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definitions_from_scientific_organizations">Definitions from scientific organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Definitions from scientific organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">United States National Academy of Sciences</a> defines scientific theories as follows:</p><blockquote><p>The formal scientific definition of "theory" is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word. It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence. Many scientific theories are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them substantially. For example, no new evidence will demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the sun (heliocentric theory), or that living things are not made of cells (cell theory), that matter is not composed of atoms, or that the surface of the Earth is not divided into solid plates that have moved over geological timescales (the theory of plate tectonics) ... One of the most useful properties of scientific theories is that they can be used to make predictions about natural events or phenomena that have not yet been observed.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories are not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological evolution is more than "just a theory." It is as factual an explanation of the universe as the atomic theory of matter or the germ theory of disease. Our understanding of gravity is still a work in progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact.<sup id="cite_ref-AAAS_Evolution_Resources_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAAS_Evolution_Resources-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The term <i>theory</i> is not appropriate for describing <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">scientific models</a> or untested, but intricate hypotheses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_views">Philosophical views</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Philosophical views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical positivist">logical positivists</a> thought of scientific theories as <i>deductive theories</i>—that a theory's content is based on some <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal system</a> of logic and on basic <a href="/wiki/Axioms" class="mw-redirect" title="Axioms">axioms</a>. In a deductive theory, any sentence which is a <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">logical consequence</a> of one or more of the axioms is also a sentence of that theory.<sup id="cite_ref-curry_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curry-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is called the <a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">received view of theories</a>. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">semantic view of theories</a>, which has largely replaced the received view,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> theories are viewed as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific models">scientific models</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Scientific_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific model">model</a> is a logical framework intended to represent reality (a "model of reality"), similar to the way that a map is a graphical model that represents the territory of a city or country. In this approach, theories are a specific category of models that fulfill the necessary criteria. (See <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory#Theories_as_models" title="Scientific theory">Theories as models</a> for further discussion.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_physics">In physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: In physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> the term <i>theory</i> is generally used for a mathematical framework—derived from a small set of basic <a href="/wiki/Postulates" class="mw-redirect" title="Postulates">postulates</a> (usually symmetries, like equality of locations in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc.)—which is capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. One good example is <a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">classical electromagnetism</a>, which encompasses results derived from <a href="/wiki/Gauge_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge symmetry">gauge symmetry</a> (sometimes called gauge invariance) in a form of a few equations called <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed "laws of electromagnetism", reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them. Within electromagnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypotheses about how electromagnetism applies to specific situations. Many of these hypotheses are already considered adequately tested, with new ones always in the making and perhaps untested. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regarding_the_term_"theoretical""><span id="Regarding_the_term_.22theoretical.22"></span>Regarding the term "theoretical"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Regarding the term "theoretical""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain tests may be infeasible or technically difficult. As a result, theories may make predictions that have not been confirmed or proven incorrect. These predictions may be described informally as "theoretical". They can be tested later, and if they are incorrect, this may lead to revision, invalidation, or rejection of the theory. <sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematical">Mathematical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mathematical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_theories" title="List of mathematical theories">List of mathematical theories</a></div> <p>In mathematics, the term <i>theory</i> is used differently than its use in science ─ necessarily so, since mathematics contains no explanations of natural phenomena <i>per se</i>, even though it may help provide insight into natural systems or be inspired by them. In the general sense, a <i>mathematical theory</i> is a branch of mathematics devoted to some specific topics or methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Group_theory" title="Group theory">group theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory" title="Perturbation theory">perturbation theory</a>, etc., such as might be appropriate for a single textbook. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Theory_(mathematical_logic)" title="Theory (mathematical logic)">theory</a> has a related but different sense: it is the collection of the theorems that can be deduced from a given set of <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a>, given a given set of <a href="/wiki/Inference_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Inference rule">inference rules</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical">Philosophical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philosophical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_theory" title="Philosophical theory">Philosophical theory</a></div> <p>A theory can be either <i>descriptive</i> as in science, or <i>prescriptive</i> (<a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative</a>) as in philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter are those whose subject matter consists not of empirical data, but rather of <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a>. At least some of the elementary theorems of a philosophical theory are statements whose truth cannot necessarily be scientifically tested through <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical observation</a>. </p><p>A field of study is sometimes named a "theory" because its basis is some initial set of assumptions describing the field's approach to the subject. These assumptions are the elementary theorems of the particular theory, and can be thought of as the axioms of that field. Some commonly known examples include <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a>; however <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a> are also of the same form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metatheory">Metatheory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Metatheory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metatheory" title="Metatheory">Metatheory</a></div> <p>One form of philosophical theory is a <i>metatheory</i> or <i>meta-theory</i>. A metatheory is a theory whose subject matter is some other theory or set of theories. In other words, it is a theory about theories. <a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statements</a> made in the metatheory about the theory are called <a href="/wiki/Metatheorem" title="Metatheorem">metatheorems</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political">Political</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Political"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political theory">Political theory</a></div> <p>A political theory is an <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> theory about the law and government. Often the term "political theory" refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, thought about politics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jurisprudential">Jurisprudential</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Jurisprudential"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div> <p>In social science, <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> is the philosophical theory of law. Contemporary philosophy of law addresses problems internal to law and legal systems, and problems of law as a particular social institution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of the following are scientific theories. Some are not, but rather encompass a body of knowledge or art, such as Music theory and Visual Arts Theories. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carneiro%27s_circumscription_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Carneiro's circumscription theory">Carneiro's circumscription theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpher%E2%80%93Bethe%E2%80%93Gamow_paper" title="Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper">Alpher–Bethe–Gamow theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/B2FH_paper" title="B2FH paper">B<sup>2</sup>FH Theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism" title="Copernican heliocentrism">Copernican theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity#Newton's_theory_of_gravitation" title="Gravity">Newton's theory of gravitation</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a> <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Ptolemaic theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemiosmosis#The_chemiosmotic_theory" title="Chemiosmosis">Chemiosmotic theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ theory">Germ theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">Symbiogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecular theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">Kinetic theory of gases</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital_theory" title="Molecular orbital theory">Molecular orbital theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">Valence bond theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_state_theory" title="Transition state theory">Transition state theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RRKM_theory" title="RRKM theory">RRKM theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_graph_theory" title="Chemical graph theory">Chemical graph theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flory%E2%80%93Huggins_solution_theory" title="Flory–Huggins solution theory">Flory–Huggins solution theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_theory" title="Marcus theory">Marcus theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis theory">Lewis theory</a> (successor to <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted%E2%80%93Lowry_acid%E2%80%93base_theory" title="Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory">Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory</a>) —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HSAB_theory" title="HSAB theory">HSAB theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debye%E2%80%93H%C3%BCckel_theory" title="Debye–Hückel theory">Debye–Hückel theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_theory_of_polymer_elasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic theory of polymer elasticity">Thermodynamic theory of polymer elasticity</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptation theory">Reptation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_field_theory" title="Polymer field theory">Polymer field theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B8ller%E2%80%93Plesset_perturbation_theory" title="Møller–Plesset perturbation theory">Møller–Plesset perturbation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_functional_theory" title="Density functional theory">density functional theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_molecular_orbital_theory" title="Frontier molecular orbital theory">Frontier molecular orbital theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyhedral_skeletal_electron_pair_theory" title="Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory">Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baeyer_strain_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Baeyer strain theory">Baeyer strain theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qtaim" class="mw-redirect" title="Qtaim">Quantum theory of atoms in molecules</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collision_theory" title="Collision theory">Collision theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligand_field_theory" title="Ligand field theory">Ligand field theory</a> (successor to <a href="/wiki/Crystal_field_theory" title="Crystal field theory">Crystal field theory</a>) —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variational_transition-state_theory" title="Variational transition-state theory">Variational transition-state theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benson_group_increment_theory" title="Benson group increment theory">Benson group increment theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_ion_interaction_theory" title="Specific ion interaction theory">Specific ion interaction theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change theory</a> (general study of climate changes)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> (ACC)/</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> (AGW) theories (due to human activity)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Science">Computer Science</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queueing_theory" title="Queueing theory">Queueing theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> Theory —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">Cosmic inflation</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">Superstring theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">Supergravity</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersymmetric_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersymmetric theory">Supersymmetric theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiverse_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiverse theory">Multiverse theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_principle" title="Holographic principle">Holographic principle</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroeconomic theory">Macroeconomic theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Microeconomic theory">Microeconomic theory</a> —</li> <li>Law of <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist theory">Constructivist theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical pedagogy theory">Critical pedagogy theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Education theory">Education theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_intelligence_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple intelligence theory">Multiple intelligence theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_education_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive education theory">Progressive education theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit theory">Circuit theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal theory">Signal theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">Film</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">Film theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a> or 'Legal theory': <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a>: see Jurisprudence; also <a href="/wiki/Case_theory_(in_law)" title="Case theory (in law)">Case theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-bar_theory" title="X-bar theory">X-bar theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_and_Binding" class="mw-redirect" title="Government and Binding">Government and Binding</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_and_parameters" title="Principles and parameters">Principles and parameters</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">Universal grammar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Literary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Approximation_theory" title="Approximation theory">Approximation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arakelov_theory" title="Arakelov theory">Arakelov theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymptotic theory">Asymptotic theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bifurcation_theory" title="Bifurcation theory">Bifurcation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_theory" title="Catastrophe theory">Catastrophe theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_theory" title="Category theory">Category theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choquet_theory" title="Choquet theory">Choquet theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coding_theory" title="Coding theory">Coding theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_game_theory" title="Combinatorial game theory">Combinatorial game theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Deformation theory">Deformation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimension_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimension theory">Dimension theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergodic_theory" title="Ergodic theory">Ergodic theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_theory_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Field theory (mathematics)">Field theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galois_theory" title="Galois theory">Galois theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory_(mathematics)" title="Gauge theory (mathematics)">Gauge theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">Graph theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_theory" title="Group theory">Group theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodge_theory" title="Hodge theory">Hodge theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Homology theory">Homology theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homotopy_theory" title="Homotopy theory">Homotopy theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_theory" title="Ideal theory">Ideal theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersection_theory" title="Intersection theory">Intersection theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invariant_theory" title="Invariant theory">Invariant theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwasawa_theory" title="Iwasawa theory">Iwasawa theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-theory" title="K-theory">K-theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/KK-theory" title="KK-theory">KK-theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knot_theory" title="Knot theory">Knot theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-theory" title="L-theory">L-theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_theory" title="Lie theory">Lie theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littlewood%E2%80%93Paley_theory" title="Littlewood–Paley theory">Littlewood–Paley theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">Matrix theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measure_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Measure theory">Measure theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_theory" title="Model theory">Model theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Module_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Module theory">Module theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_theory" title="Morse theory">Morse theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevanlinna_theory" title="Nevanlinna theory">Nevanlinna theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">Number theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstruction_theory" title="Obstruction theory">Obstruction theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operator_theory" title="Operator theory">Operator theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_theory" title="Order theory">Order theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/PCF_theory" title="PCF theory">PCF theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory" title="Perturbation theory">Perturbation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_theory" title="Potential theory">Potential theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">Probability theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_theory" title="Ramsey theory">Ramsey theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representation_theory" title="Representation theory">Representation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_theory" title="Ring theory">Ring theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_theory_(mathematics)" title="Shape theory (mathematics)">Shape theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_cancellation_theory" title="Small cancellation theory">Small cancellation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_theory" title="Spectral theory">Spectral theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stability_theory" title="Stability theory">Stability theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_theory" title="Stable theory">Stable theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sturm%E2%80%93Liouville_theory" title="Sturm–Liouville theory">Sturm–Liouville theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgery_theory" title="Surgery theory">Surgery theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twistor_theory" title="Twistor theory">Twistor theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="Yang–Mills theory">Yang–Mills theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">Music theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proof_theory" title="Proof theory">Proof theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculative reason">Speculative reason</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Theory of truth</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtue theory">Virtue theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_theory" title="Acoustic theory">Acoustic theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna theory">Antenna theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">Atomic theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">BCS theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformal_field_theory" title="Conformal field theory">Conformal field theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirac_hole_theory" title="Dirac hole theory">Dirac hole theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamo_theory" title="Dynamo theory">Dynamo theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landau_theory" title="Landau theory">Landau theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)">Perturbation theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Theory of relativity</a> (successor to <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>) —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">Gauge theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scattering_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Scattering theory">Scattering theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum information theory">Quantum information theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">Theory of mind</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive dissonance theory">Cognitive dissonance theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_permanence" title="Object permanence">Object permanence</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_of_stimulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty of stimulus">Poverty of stimulus</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Attribution theory">Attribution theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">Self-fulfilling prophecy</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome" title="Stockholm syndrome">Stockholm syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Budgeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Budgeting">Public Budgeting</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incrementalism" title="Incrementalism">Incrementalism</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-based_budgeting" title="Zero-based budgeting">Zero-based budgeting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Administration">Public Administration</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a>: <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intertheoricity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intertheoricity (page does not exist)">Intertheoricity</a> –</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/hssr.2015.4.issue-2/hssr-2015-0014/hssr-2015-0014.xml">Transferogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory_(Frankfurt_School)" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical theory (Frankfurt School)">Critical theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_theory" title="Engaged theory">Engaged theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Sociological theory</a> –</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">Social capital</a> theory</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_value_theory" title="Extreme value theory">Extreme value theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre#Theories" title="Theatre">Theatre</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual Arts">Visual Arts</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_teaching" class="mw-redirect" title="Art teaching">Art educational theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">Composition</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_theory" title="Color theory">Color theory</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)" title="Perspective (graphical)">Perspective</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">Geometry</a> —</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifold" title="Manifold">Manifolds</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obsolete_scientific_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Obsolete scientific theories">Obsolete scientific theories</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothesis testing">Hypothesis testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">Physical law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_power" title="Predictive power">Predictive power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_definition" title="Theoretical definition">Theoretical definition</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0251:text=Praec.:section=1&highlight=medical%2Ctheory">Praeceptiones, Part 1</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140912175614/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0251:text=Praec.:section=1&highlight=medical%2Ctheory">Archived</a> 12 September 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The word <i>theoria</i> occurs in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>, for example, that of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>. It is a statement of how and why particular facts are related. It is related to words for <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">θεωρός</span></span> "spectator", <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">θέα</span></span> <i>thea</i> "a view" + <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὁρᾶν</span></span> <i>horan</i> "to see", literally "looking at a show". See for example dictionary entries at Perseus website.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">LSJ</a> cites two passages of Aristotle as examples, both from the <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> and involving the definition of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0052%3Abook%3D11%3Asection%3D1064a">11.1064a17</a>, "it is clear that natural science (φυσικὴν ἐπιστήμην) must be neither practical (πρακτικὴν) nor productive (ποιητικὴν), but speculative (θεωρητικὴν)" and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0052%3Abook%3D6%3Asection%3D1025b">6.1025b25</a>, "Thus if every intellectual activity [διάνοια] is either practical or productive or speculative (θεωρητική), physics (φυσικὴ) will be a speculative [θεωρητική] science." So Aristotle actually made a three way distinction between practical, theoretical and productive or technical—or between doing, contemplating or making. All three types involve thinking, but are distinguished by what causes the objects of thought to move or change.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSchafersman" class="citation web cs1">Schafersman, Steven D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo.sunysb.edu/esp/files/scientific-method.html">"An Introduction to Science"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Science&rft.aulast=Schafersman&rft.aufirst=Steven+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geo.sunysb.edu%2Fesp%2Ffiles%2Fscientific-method.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Academy_of_Sciences,_Institute_of_Medicine2008" class="citation book cs1">National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866/page/11"><i>Science, evolution, and creationism</i></a></span>. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866/page/11">11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0309105866" title="Special:BookSources/978-0309105866"><bdi>978-0309105866</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+evolution%2C+and+creationism&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0309105866&rft.au=National+Academy+of+Sciences%2C+Institute+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780309105866%2Fpage%2F11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMurray1955" class="citation journal cs1">McMurray, Foster (July 1955). "Preface to an Autonomous Discipline of Education". <i>Educational Theory</i>. <b>5</b> (3): 129–140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1741-5446.1955.tb01131.x">10.1111/j.1741-5446.1955.tb01131.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educational+Theory&rft.atitle=Preface+to+an+Autonomous+Discipline+of+Education&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=129-140&rft.date=1955-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1741-5446.1955.tb01131.x&rft.aulast=McMurray&rft.aufirst=Foster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2007" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Gary (2007). <i>Education and theory : strangers in paradigms</i>. Maidenhead: Open Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780335211791" title="Special:BookSources/9780335211791"><bdi>9780335211791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+and+theory+%3A+strangers+in+paradigms&rft.place=Maidenhead&rft.pub=Open+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780335211791&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/evolution-today/what-is-a-theory">What is a Theory?</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">American Museum of Natural History</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mediumthelaw-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mediumthelaw_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David J Pfeiffer. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/science-journal/scientific-theory-vs-scientific-law-5624633a8f1b">Scientific Theory vs Law</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science Journal</a> (on medium.com). 30 January 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=theory">"theory"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=theory&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dtheory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornford1991" class="citation book cs1">Cornford, Francis Macdonald (8 November 1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromreligiontoph0000corn"><i>From religion to philosophy: a study in the origins of western speculation</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02076-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02076-1"><bdi>978-0-691-02076-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+religion+to+philosophy%3A+a+study+in+the+origins+of+western+speculation&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991-11-08&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02076-1&rft.aulast=Cornford&rft.aufirst=Francis+Macdonald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromreligiontoph0000corn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornford1991" class="citation book cs1">Cornford, Francis M. (1991). <i>From Religion to Philosophy: a study in the origins of western speculation</i>. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02076-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02076-0"><bdi>0-691-02076-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Religion+to+Philosophy%3A+a+study+in+the+origins+of+western+speculation&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-691-02076-0&rft.aulast=Cornford&rft.aufirst=Francis+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1945" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (1945). <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_Philosophy_(Russell)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Western Philosophy (Russell)"><i>History of Western Philosophy</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-curry-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-curry_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-curry_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Curry, Haskell, <i>Foundations of Mathematical Logic</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/difference-between-hypothesis-and-theory-usage">"This is the Difference Between a Hypothesis and a Theory"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amr.2006.22527385">"Knowledge for Theory and Practice"</a>. <i>Academy of Management Review</i>. <b>31</b> (4): 802–821. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5465%2Famr.2006.22527385">10.5465/amr.2006.22527385</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0363-7425">0363-7425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academy+of+Management+Review&rft.atitle=Knowledge+for+Theory+and+Practice&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=802-821&rft.date=2006-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5465%2Famr.2006.22527385&rft.issn=0363-7425&rft.aulast=Van+De+Ven&rft.aufirst=Andrew+H.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Paul+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.aom.org%2Fdoi%2F10.5465%2Famr.2006.22527385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeer2001" class="citation journal cs1">Beer, Michael (1 March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catchword.com/cgi-bin/cgi?body=linker&ini=xref&reqdoi=10.1162/152417301570383">"Why Management Research Findings Are Unimplementable: An Action Science Perspective"</a>. <i>Reflections: The SoL Journal</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 58–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F152417301570383">10.1162/152417301570383</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reflections%3A+The+SoL+Journal&rft.atitle=Why+Management+Research+Findings+Are+Unimplementable%3A+An+Action+Science+Perspective&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=58-65&rft.date=2001-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F152417301570383&rft.aulast=Beer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catchword.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcgi%3Fbody%3Dlinker%26ini%3Dxref%26reqdoi%3D10.1162%2F152417301570383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6024&page=2">National Academy of Sciences</a>, 1999</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAAS_Evolution_Resources-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_Evolution_Resources_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_Evolution_Resources_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaas.org/news/press_room/evolution/qanda.shtml">"AAAS Evolution Resources"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AAAS+Evolution+Resources&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaas.org%2Fnews%2Fpress_room%2Fevolution%2Fqanda.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11876&page=11"><i>Science, Evolution, and Creationism</i></a>. National Academy of Sciences. 2008. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F11876">10.17226/11876</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6"><bdi>978-0-309-10586-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Creationism&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F11876&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10586-6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D11876%26page%3D11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuppe1998" class="citation journal cs1">Suppe, Frederick (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.princeton.edu/~hhalvors/teaching/phi520_f2012/Suppe_2000.pdf">"Understanding Scientific Theories: An Assessment of Developments, 1969–1998"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>67</b>: S102–S115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F392812">10.1086/392812</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37361274">37361274</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Understanding+Scientific+Theories%3A+An+Assessment+of+Developments%2C+1969%E2%80%931998&rft.volume=67&rft.pages=S102-S115&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F392812&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37361274%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Suppe&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~hhalvors%2Fteaching%2Fphi520_f2012%2FSuppe_2000.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalvorson2012" class="citation journal cs1">Halvorson, Hans (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.princeton.edu/~hhalvors/teaching/phi520_f2012/halvorson2012.pdf">"What Scientific Theories Could Not Be"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>79</b> (2): 183–206. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.692.8455">10.1.1.692.8455</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F664745">10.1086/664745</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37897853">37897853</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=What+Scientific+Theories+Could+Not+Be&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=183-206&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.692.8455%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37897853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F664745&rft.aulast=Halvorson&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~hhalvors%2Fteaching%2Fphi520_f2012%2Fhalvorson2012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradford2015" class="citation news cs1">Bradford, Alina (25 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/21457-what-is-a-law-in-science-definition-of-scientific-law.html">"What Is a Law in Science?"</a>. <i>Live Science</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Law+in+Science%3F&rft.date=2015-03-25&rft.aulast=Bradford&rft.aufirst=Alina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F21457-what-is-a-law-in-science-definition-of-scientific-law.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKneller1964" class="citation book cs1">Kneller, George Frederick (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8OQhAAAAMAAJ&q=editions:UOM39015026974538"><i>Introduction to the philosophy of education</i></a>. New York: J. Wiley. p. 93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+philosophy+of+education&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=J.+Wiley&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Kneller&rft.aufirst=George+Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8OQhAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Deditions%3AUOM39015026974538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Davidson Reynolds, Paul (1971). <i>A primer in theory construction</i>. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.</li> <li>Guillaume, Astrid (2015). « Intertheoricity: Plasticity, Elasticity and Hybridity of Theories. Part II: Semiotics of Transferogenesis », in <i>Human and Social studies</i>, Vol.4, N°2 (2015), éd.Walter de Gruyter, Boston, Berlin, pp. 59–77.</li> <li>Guillaume, Astrid (2015). « The Intertheoricity : Plasticity, Elasticity and Hybridity of Theories », in <i>Human and Social studies</i>, Vol.4, N°1 (2015), éd.Walter de Gruyter, Boston, Berlin, pp. 13–29.</li> <li>Hawking, Stephen (1996). <i>A Brief History of Time</i> (Updated and expanded ed.). New York: Bantam Books, p. 15.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1642214"><i>Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In</i></a>. London, England: Sage Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Globalism%2C+Nationalism%2C+Tribalism%3A+Bringing+Theory+Back+In&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1642214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatson" class="citation cs2">Matson, Ronald Allen, "Comparing scientific laws and theories", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.kennesaw.edu/~rmatson/3380theory.html"><i>Biology</i></a>, Kennesaw State University</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Comparing+scientific+laws+and+theories&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.pub=Kennesaw+State+University&rft.aulast=Matson&rft.aufirst=Ronald+Allen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.kennesaw.edu%2F~rmatson%2F3380theory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheory" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper, Karl</a> (1963), <i>Conjectures and Refutations</i>, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, UK, pp. 33–39. Reprinted in <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Schick" title="Theodore Schick">Theodore Schick</a> (ed., 2000), <i>Readings in the Philosophy of Science</i>, Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, California, USA, pp. 9–13.</li> <li>Zima, Peter V. (2007). "What is theory? Cultural theory as discourse and dialogue". London: Continuum (translated from: Was ist Theorie? Theoriebegriff und Dialogische Theorie in der Kultur- und Sozialwissenschaften. Tübingen: A. Franke Verlag, 2004).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Eisenhardt, K. M., & Graebner, M. E. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. Academy of management journal, 50(1), 25-32.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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