CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Ligature (writing) - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"53fe0304-8b64-49ae-950a-65aa6a5ddeee","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Ligature_(writing)","wgTitle":"Ligature (writing)","wgCurRevisionId":1261692704,"wgRevisionId":1261692704,"wgArticleId": 400582,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Ligature_(writing)","wgRelevantArticleId":400582,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFMode":"stable","wgMFAmc":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachActive":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachUserEligible":false,"wgMFLazyLoadImages":true,"wgMFEditNoticesFeatureConflict":false,"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgMFIsSupportedEditRequest":true,"wgMFScriptPath":"", "wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgSectionTranslationMissingLanguages":[{"lang":"ace","autonym":"Acèh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ady","autonym":"адыгабзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"alt","autonym":"алтай тил","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"am","autonym":"አማርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ami","autonym":"Pangcah","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"an","autonym":"aragonés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ang","autonym":"Ænglisc","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ann","autonym":"Obolo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"anp","autonym":"अंगिका","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ary","autonym":"الدارجة","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"arz","autonym":"مصرى","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"as","autonym":"অসমীয়া","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ast","autonym":"asturianu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"av","autonym":"авар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"avk","autonym":"Kotava","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"awa","autonym":"अवधी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ay", "autonym":"Aymar aru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"azb","autonym":"تۆرکجه","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ba","autonym":"башҡортса","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ban","autonym":"Basa Bali","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bar","autonym":"Boarisch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bbc","autonym":"Batak Toba","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bcl","autonym":"Bikol Central","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bdr","autonym":"Bajau Sama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bew","autonym":"Betawi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bho","autonym":"भोजपुरी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bi","autonym":"Bislama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bjn","autonym":"Banjar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"blk","autonym":"ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bm","autonym":"bamanankan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bo","autonym":"བོད་ཡིག","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bpy","autonym":"বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"br","autonym":"brezhoneg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bs","autonym":"bosanski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"btm","autonym" :"Batak Mandailing","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bug","autonym":"Basa Ugi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cdo","autonym":"閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ce","autonym":"нохчийн","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ceb","autonym":"Cebuano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ch","autonym":"Chamoru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"chr","autonym":"ᏣᎳᎩ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ckb","autonym":"کوردی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"co","autonym":"corsu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cr","autonym":"Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"crh","autonym":"qırımtatarca","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cu","autonym":"словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dag","autonym":"dagbanli","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dga","autonym":"Dagaare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"din","autonym":"Thuɔŋjäŋ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"diq","autonym":"Zazaki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dsb","autonym":"dolnoserbski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dtp","autonym":"Kadazandusun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dv","autonym": "ދިވެހިބަސް","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"dz","autonym":"ཇོང་ཁ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ee","autonym":"eʋegbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"eml","autonym":"emiliàn e rumagnòl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"eu","autonym":"euskara","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fat","autonym":"mfantse","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ff","autonym":"Fulfulde","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fj","autonym":"Na Vosa Vakaviti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fo","autonym":"føroyskt","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fon","autonym":"fɔ̀ngbè","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frp","autonym":"arpetan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frr","autonym":"Nordfriisk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fur","autonym":"furlan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gag","autonym":"Gagauz","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gan","autonym":"贛語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gcr","autonym":"kriyòl gwiyannen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"glk","autonym":"گیلکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"gn","autonym":"Avañe'ẽ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gom","autonym":"गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gor","autonym": "Bahasa Hulontalo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gpe","autonym":"Ghanaian Pidgin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gu","autonym":"ગુજરાતી","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guc","autonym":"wayuunaiki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gur","autonym":"farefare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guw","autonym":"gungbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gv","autonym":"Gaelg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ha","autonym":"Hausa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hak","autonym":"客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"haw","autonym":"Hawaiʻi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hi","autonym":"हिन्दी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hif","autonym":"Fiji Hindi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hr","autonym":"hrvatski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hsb","autonym":"hornjoserbsce","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ht","autonym":"Kreyòl ayisyen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hyw","autonym":"Արեւմտահայերէն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ia","autonym":"interlingua","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iba","autonym":"Jaku Iban","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ie","autonym":"Interlingue","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ig","autonym":"Igbo", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"igl","autonym":"Igala","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ilo","autonym":"Ilokano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iu","autonym":"ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jam","autonym":"Patois","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jv","autonym":"Jawa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kaa","autonym":"Qaraqalpaqsha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kab","autonym":"Taqbaylit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbd","autonym":"адыгэбзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbp","autonym":"Kabɩyɛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kcg","autonym":"Tyap","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kg","autonym":"Kongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kge","autonym":"Kumoring","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ki","autonym":"Gĩkũyũ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kl","autonym":"kalaallisut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"km","autonym":"ភាសាខ្មែរ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kn","autonym":"ಕನ್ನಡ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"koi","autonym":"перем коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"krc","autonym":"къарачай-малкъар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ks","autonym": "कॉशुर / کٲشُر","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ku","autonym":"kurdî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kus","autonym":"Kʋsaal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kv","autonym":"коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kw","autonym":"kernowek","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ky","autonym":"кыргызча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lad","autonym":"Ladino","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lb","autonym":"Lëtzebuergesch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lez","autonym":"лезги","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lg","autonym":"Luganda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"li","autonym":"Limburgs","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lij","autonym":"Ligure","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lld","autonym":"Ladin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lmo","autonym":"lombard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ln","autonym":"lingála","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lo","autonym":"ລາວ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ltg","autonym":"latgaļu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mad","autonym":"Madhurâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mai","autonym":"मैथिली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"map-bms","autonym":"Basa Banyumasan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mdf","autonym": "мокшень","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mg","autonym":"Malagasy","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mhr","autonym":"олык марий","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mi","autonym":"Māori","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"min","autonym":"Minangkabau","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mk","autonym":"македонски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mn","autonym":"монгол","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mni","autonym":"ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mnw","autonym":"ဘာသာမန်","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mos","autonym":"moore","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mr","autonym":"मराठी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mrj","autonym":"кырык мары","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ms","autonym":"Bahasa Melayu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mt","autonym":"Malti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mwl","autonym":"Mirandés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"my","autonym":"မြန်မာဘာသာ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"myv","autonym":"эрзянь","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mzn","autonym":"مازِرونی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nah","autonym":"Nāhuatl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang" :"nan","autonym":"閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nap","autonym":"Napulitano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nb","autonym":"norsk bokmål","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds","autonym":"Plattdüütsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds-nl","autonym":"Nedersaksies","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ne","autonym":"नेपाली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"new","autonym":"नेपाल भाषा","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nia","autonym":"Li Niha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nqo","autonym":"ߒߞߏ","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nr","autonym":"isiNdebele seSewula","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nso","autonym":"Sesotho sa Leboa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ny","autonym":"Chi-Chewa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"oc","autonym":"occitan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"om","autonym":"Oromoo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"or","autonym":"ଓଡ଼ିଆ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"os","autonym":"ирон","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pa","autonym":"ਪੰਜਾਬੀ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pag","autonym":"Pangasinan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pam","autonym":"Kapampangan","dir":"ltr"},{ "lang":"pap","autonym":"Papiamentu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcd","autonym":"Picard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcm","autonym":"Naijá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pdc","autonym":"Deitsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pms","autonym":"Piemontèis","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ps","autonym":"پښتو","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"pwn","autonym":"pinayuanan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"qu","autonym":"Runa Simi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rm","autonym":"rumantsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rn","autonym":"ikirundi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rsk","autonym":"руски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rue","autonym":"русиньскый","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rup","autonym":"armãneashti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rw","autonym":"Ikinyarwanda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sa","autonym":"संस्कृतम्","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sah","autonym":"саха тыла","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sat","autonym":"ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sc","autonym":"sardu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"scn","autonym":"sicilianu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sco","autonym":"Scots" ,"dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sd","autonym":"سنڌي","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"se","autonym":"davvisámegiella","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sg","autonym":"Sängö","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sgs","autonym":"žemaitėška","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sh","autonym":"srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shi","autonym":"Taclḥit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shn","autonym":"ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"si","autonym":"සිංහල","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"skr","autonym":"سرائیکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"sl","autonym":"slovenščina","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sm","autonym":"Gagana Samoa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"smn","autonym":"anarâškielâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sn","autonym":"chiShona","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"so","autonym":"Soomaaliga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sq","autonym":"shqip","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"srn","autonym":"Sranantongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ss","autonym":"SiSwati","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"st","autonym":"Sesotho","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"stq","autonym":"Seeltersk", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"su","autonym":"Sunda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sw","autonym":"Kiswahili","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"szl","autonym":"ślůnski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ta","autonym":"தமிழ்","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tay","autonym":"Tayal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tcy","autonym":"ತುಳು","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tdd","autonym":"ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"te","autonym":"తెలుగు","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tet","autonym":"tetun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tg","autonym":"тоҷикӣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ti","autonym":"ትግርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tk","autonym":"Türkmençe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tl","autonym":"Tagalog","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tly","autonym":"tolışi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tn","autonym":"Setswana","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"to","autonym":"lea faka-Tonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tpi","autonym":"Tok Pisin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"trv","autonym":"Seediq","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ts","autonym":"Xitsonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tt","autonym": "татарча / tatarça","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tum","autonym":"chiTumbuka","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tw","autonym":"Twi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ty","autonym":"reo tahiti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tyv","autonym":"тыва дыл","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"udm","autonym":"удмурт","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"uz","autonym":"oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ve","autonym":"Tshivenda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vec","autonym":"vèneto","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vep","autonym":"vepsän kel’","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vls","autonym":"West-Vlams","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vo","autonym":"Volapük","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vro","autonym":"võro","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wa","autonym":"walon","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"war","autonym":"Winaray","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wo","autonym":"Wolof","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wuu","autonym":"吴语","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xal","autonym":"хальмг","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xh","autonym":"isiXhosa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xmf","autonym":"მარგალური","dir":"ltr"},{"lang" :"yi","autonym":"ייִדיש","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"yo","autonym":"Yorùbá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yue","autonym":"粵語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"za","autonym":"Vahcuengh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zgh","autonym":"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zu","autonym":"isiZulu","dir":"ltr"}],"wgSectionTranslationTargetLanguages":["ace","ady","alt","am","ami","an","ang","ann","anp","ar","ary","arz","as","ast","av","avk","awa","ay","az","azb","ba","ban","bar","bbc","bcl","bdr","be","bew","bg","bho","bi","bjn","blk","bm","bn","bo","bpy","br","bs","btm","bug","ca","cdo","ce","ceb","ch","chr","ckb","co","cr","crh","cs","cu","cy","da","dag","de","dga","din","diq","dsb","dtp","dv","dz","ee","el","eml","eo","es","et","eu","fa","fat","ff","fi","fj","fo","fon","fr","frp","frr","fur","fy","gag","gan","gcr","gl","glk","gn","gom","gor","gpe","gu","guc","gur","guw","gv","ha","hak","haw","he","hi","hif","hr","hsb","ht","hu","hy","hyw","ia","iba","ie","ig","igl","ilo","io", "is","it","iu","ja","jam","jv","ka","kaa","kab","kbd","kbp","kcg","kg","kge","ki","kk","kl","km","kn","ko","koi","krc","ks","ku","kus","kv","kw","ky","lad","lb","lez","lg","li","lij","lld","lmo","ln","lo","lt","ltg","lv","mad","mai","map-bms","mdf","mg","mhr","mi","min","mk","ml","mn","mni","mnw","mos","mr","mrj","ms","mt","mwl","my","myv","mzn","nah","nan","nap","nb","nds","nds-nl","ne","new","nia","nl","nn","nqo","nr","nso","ny","oc","om","or","os","pa","pag","pam","pap","pcd","pcm","pdc","pl","pms","pnb","ps","pt","pwn","qu","rm","rn","ro","rsk","rue","rup","rw","sa","sah","sat","sc","scn","sco","sd","se","sg","sgs","sh","shi","shn","si","sk","skr","sl","sm","smn","sn","so","sq","sr","srn","ss","st","stq","su","sv","sw","szl","ta","tay","tcy","tdd","te","tet","tg","th","ti","tk","tl","tly","tn","to","tpi","tr","trv","ts","tt","tum","tw","ty","tyv","udm","ur","uz","ve","vec","vep","vi","vls","vo","vro","wa","war","wo","wuu","xal","xh","xmf","yi","yo","yue","za","zgh","zh","zu"], "isLanguageSearcherCXEntrypointEnabled":true,"mintEntrypointLanguages":["ace","ast","azb","bcl","bjn","bh","crh","ff","fon","ig","is","ki","ks","lmo","min","sat","ss","tn","vec"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q188725","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false,"wgMinervaPermissions":{"watchable":true,"watch":false},"wgMinervaFeatures":{"beta":false,"donate":true,"mobileOptionsLink":true,"categories":false,"pageIssues":true,"talkAtTop":true,"historyInPageActions":false,"overflowSubmenu":false,"tabsOnSpecials":true,"personalMenu":false,"mainMenuExpanded":false,"echo":true,"nightMode":true},"wgMinervaDownloadNamespaces":[0]};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready", "ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.content.styles.images":"ready","mediawiki.hlist":"ready","skins.minerva.codex.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.icons":"ready","jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.amc.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","mobile.init.styles":"ready","ext.relatedArticles.styles":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","skins.minerva.scripts","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups","mobile.init","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.relatedArticles.readMore.bootstrap","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns", "ext.cx.entrypoints.mffrequentlanguages","ext.cx.entrypoints.languagesearcher.init","mw.externalguidance.init","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.relatedArticles.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cmediawiki.hlist%7Cmobile.init.styles%7Cskins.minerva.amc.styles%7Cskins.minerva.codex.styles%7Cskins.minerva.content.styles.images%7Cskins.minerva.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=minerva"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.6"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#eaecf0"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Typographic_ligature_st.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1375"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Typographic_ligature_st.png/800px-Typographic_ligature_st.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="917"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Typographic_ligature_st.png/640px-Typographic_ligature_st.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="734"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes, minimum-scale=0.25, maximum-scale=5.0"> <meta property="og:title" content="Ligature (writing) - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="manifest" href="/w/api.php?action=webapp-manifest"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligature_(writing)"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Ligature_writing rootpage-Ligature_writing stable issues-group-B skin-minerva action-view skin--responsive mw-mf-amc-disabled mw-mf"><div id="mw-mf-viewport"> <div id="mw-mf-page-center"> <a class="mw-mf-page-center__mask" href="#"></a> <header class="header-container header-chrome"> <div class="minerva-header"> <nav class="navigation-drawer toggle-list view-border-box"> <input type="checkbox" id="main-menu-input" class="toggle-list__checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-labelledby="mw-mf-main-menu-button"> <label role="button" for="main-menu-input" id="mw-mf-main-menu-button" aria-hidden="true" data-event-name="ui.mainmenu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet toggle-list__toggle"> </label> <div id="mw-mf-page-left" class="menu view-border-box"> <ul id="p-navigation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--home" href="/wiki/Main_Page" data-mw="interface"> Home </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--random" href="/wiki/Special:Random" data-mw="interface"> Random </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--nearby" href="/wiki/Special:Nearby" data-event-name="menu.nearby" data-mw="interface"> Nearby </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-personal" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--login" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Ligature+%28writing%29" data-event-name="menu.login" data-mw="interface"> Log in </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="pt-preferences" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--settings" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:MobileOptions&returnto=Ligature+%28writing%29" data-event-name="menu.settings" data-mw="interface"> Settings </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-donation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--donate" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en&wmf_key=minerva" data-event-name="menu.donate" data-mw="interface"> Donate </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="hlist"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--about" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" data-mw="interface"> About Wikipedia </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--disclaimers" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" data-mw="interface"> Disclaimers </a> </li> </ul> </div> <label class="main-menu-mask" for="main-menu-input"></label> </nav> <div class="branding-box"> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </a> </div> <form action="/w/index.php" method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ligature (writing)</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Ligature_(writing)" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Ligature_(writing)" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Ligature+%28writing%29" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> In <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">typography</a>, a ligature occurs where two or more <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a> or letters are joined to form a single <a href="/wiki/Glyph" title="Glyph">glyph</a>. Examples are the characters ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%86" title="Æ">æ</a>⟩ and ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C5%92" title="Œ">œ</a>⟩ used in English and French, in which the letters ⟨a⟩ and ⟨e⟩ are joined for the first ligature and the letters ⟨o⟩ and ⟨e⟩ are joined for the second ligature. For stylistic and legibility reasons, ⟨f⟩ and ⟨i⟩ are often merged to create ⟨ﬁ⟩ (where the <a href="/wiki/Tittle" title="Tittle">tittle</a> on the ⟨i⟩ merges with the hood of the ⟨f⟩); the same is true of ⟨s⟩ and ⟨t⟩ to create ⟨ﬆ⟩. The common <a href="/wiki/Ampersand" title="Ampersand">ampersand</a>, ⟨&⟩, developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters ⟨e⟩ and ⟨t⟩ (spelling et, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for 'and') were combined.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Typographic_ligature_st.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Typographic_ligature_st.png/220px-Typographic_ligature_st.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Typographic_ligature_st.png/330px-Typographic_ligature_st.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Typographic_ligature_st.png/440px-Typographic_ligature_st.png 2x" data-file-width="1156" data-file-height="1325"></a><figcaption>The letters ⟨s⟩ and ⟨t⟩ combined to create the ligature ⟨ﬆ⟩</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holzlettern_mit_Ligaturen-8895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Holzlettern_mit_Ligaturen-8895.jpg/220px-Holzlettern_mit_Ligaturen-8895.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Holzlettern_mit_Ligaturen-8895.jpg/330px-Holzlettern_mit_Ligaturen-8895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Holzlettern_mit_Ligaturen-8895.jpg/440px-Holzlettern_mit_Ligaturen-8895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4707" data-file-height="2648"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wood_type" title="Wood type">Wood type</a> <a href="/wiki/Sort_(typesetting)" title="Sort (typesetting)">sorts</a> with ligatures of (from left to right) ⟨fl⟩, ⟨ft⟩, ⟨ff⟩, ⟨fi⟩; in 20 <a href="/wiki/Cicero_(typography)" title="Cicero (typography)">Cicero</a> = 240 <a href="/wiki/Point_(typography)#Didot" title="Point (typography)">Didot points</a> ≈ 90.2328 mm (typeface <a href="/wiki/Futura_(typeface)" title="Futura (typeface)">Futura</a> bold condensed)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">special characters</a>. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This page uses notation for orthographic or other linguistic analysis. For the meaning of how <code>⟨ ⟩</code>, <code>| |</code>, <code>/ /</code>, and <code>[ ]</code> are used here, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">this page</a>.</div></div> </div> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Latin_alphabet">2 Latin alphabet</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Stylistic_ligatures">2.1 Stylistic ligatures</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#German_%C3%9F">2.2 German ß</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Massachusett_%EA%9D%8F">2.3 Massachusett ꝏ</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Letter_W">2.4 Letter W</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#%C3%86_and_%C5%92">2.5 Æ and Œ</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Umlaut">2.6 Umlaut</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Middle_English">2.7 Middle English</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Ring">2.8 Ring</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Tilde_and_circumflex">2.9 Tilde and circumflex</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Hwair">2.10 Hwair</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Byzantine_%C8%A2">2.11 Byzantine Ȣ</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Gha_(OI)">2.12 Gha (OI)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#International_Phonetic_Alphabet">2.13 International Phonetic Alphabet</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Initial_Teaching_Alphabet">2.14 Initial Teaching Alphabet</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Rare_ligatures">2.15 Rare ligatures</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Symbols_originating_as_ligatures">2.16 Symbols originating as ligatures</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Digraphs">2.17 Digraphs</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Dutch_IJ">2.18 Dutch IJ</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Non-Latin_alphabets">3 Non-Latin alphabets</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Chinese_ligatures">3.1 Chinese ligatures</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Japanese_ligatures">3.2 Japanese ligatures</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Computer_typesetting">4 Computer typesetting</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#TeX">4.1 TeX</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#CSS">4.2 CSS</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Ligatures_in_Unicode_(Latin_alphabets)">4.3 Ligatures in Unicode (Latin alphabets)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Ligatures_used_only_in_phonetic_transcription">4.3.1 Ligatures used only in phonetic transcription</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Contemporary_art">5 Contemporary art</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Notes">7 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#References">8 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bind_rune" title="Bind rune">Bind rune</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">scribal abbreviation</a></div> The earliest known script <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerian cuneiform">Sumerian cuneiform</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> both include many cases of character combinations that gradually evolve from ligatures into separately recognizable characters. Other notable ligatures, such as the <a href="/wiki/Brahmic_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic family">Brahmic</a> <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugidas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Germanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Bind_rune" title="Bind rune">bind rune</a>, figure prominently throughout ancient manuscripts. These new glyphs emerge alongside the proliferation of writing with a stylus, whether on <a href="/wiki/History_of_paper" title="History of paper">paper</a> or <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay</a>, and often for a practical reason: faster <a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">handwriting</a>. Merchants especially needed a way to speed up the process of written communication and found that conjoining letters and abbreviating words for lay use was more convenient for record keeping and transaction than the bulky long forms.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Broken_l.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Broken_l.svg/220px-Broken_l.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="57" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="166" data-file-height="43"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 57px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Broken_l.svg/220px-Broken_l.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="57" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Broken_l.svg/330px-Broken_l.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Broken_l.svg/440px-Broken_l.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Doubles (<a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">Geminated consonants</a>) during the Roman Republic era were written as a <a href="/wiki/Sicilicus" title="Sicilicus">sicilicus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> During the medieval era several conventions existed (mostly <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic marks</a>). However, in Nordic texts a particular type of ligature appeared for ll and tt, referred to as "broken l" and "broken t".<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> Around the 9th and 10th centuries, monasteries became a fountainhead for these type of script modifications. Medieval scribes who wrote in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> increased their writing speed by combining characters and by introducing <a href="/wiki/Notational_abbreviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Notational abbreviation">notational abbreviations</a>. Others conjoined letters for aesthetic purposes. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">blackletter</a>, letters with right-facing bowls (⟨b⟩, ⟨o⟩, and ⟨p⟩) and those with left-facing bowls (⟨c⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨g⟩ and ⟨q⟩) were written with the facing edges of the bowls superimposed. In many script forms, characters such as ⟨h⟩, ⟨m⟩, and ⟨n⟩ had their vertical strokes superimposed.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Scribes also used notational abbreviations to avoid having to write a whole character in one stroke. Manuscripts in the fourteenth century employed hundreds of such abbreviations.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Th_Taumfel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Th_Taumfel.jpg/220px-Th_Taumfel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="224"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 131px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Th_Taumfel.jpg/220px-Th_Taumfel.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="131" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Th_Taumfel.jpg/330px-Th_Taumfel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Th_Taumfel.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A widely used Th ligature in a handwriting-style typeface</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">handwriting</a>, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in an atypical fashion by merging their parts, or by writing one above or inside the other. In printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, so the characters do not have to be joined. For example, in some cases the ⟨fi⟩ ligature prints the letters ⟨f⟩ and ⟨i⟩ with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing with movable type</a> was invented around 1450,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, as they were based on handwriting. Ligatures made printing with movable type easier because one <a href="/wiki/Sort_(typesetting)" title="Sort (typesetting)">sort</a> would replace frequent combinations of letters and also allowed more complex and interesting character designs which would otherwise collide with one another.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Because of their complexity, ligatures began to fall out of use in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for body text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include <a href="/wiki/Gill_Sans" title="Gill Sans">Gill Sans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Futura_(typeface)" title="Futura (typeface)">Futura</a>. Inexpensive <a href="/wiki/Phototypesetting" title="Phototypesetting">phototypesetting</a> machines in the 1970s (which did not require <a href="/wiki/Journeyman" title="Journeyman">journeyman</a> knowledge or training to operate) also generally avoid them. A few, however, became characters in their own right, see below the sections about <a href="#German_%C3%9F">German ß</a>, <a href="#Letters_and_diacritics_originating_as_ligatures">various Latin accented letters</a>, <a href="#Symbols_originating_as_ligatures">& et al.</a> The trend against digraph use was further strengthened by the <a href="/wiki/Desktop_publishing" title="Desktop publishing">desktop publishing</a> revolution. Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution (the automatic use of ligatures where appropriate), while most new digital typefaces did not include ligatures. As most of the early PC development was designed for the English language (which already treated ligatures as optional at best) dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital. Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand <a href="/wiki/Compositor_(typesetting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compositor (typesetting)">compositors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hot_metal_typesetting" title="Hot metal typesetting">hot metal typesetting</a> machine operators dropped because of the mass production of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in 1961. A designer active in the period commented: "some of the world's greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world's worst fonts."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Ligatures have grown in popularity in the 21st century because of an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts. One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting (and later laser printers) was <a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/TeX" title="TeX">TeX</a> program. Now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, its default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets; these include <a href="/wiki/FF_Scala" title="FF Scala">FF Scala</a>, Seria and others by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Majoor" title="Martin Majoor">Martin Majoor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hoefler_Text" title="Hoefler Text">Hoefler Text</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hoefler" title="Jonathan Hoefler">Jonathan Hoefler</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mrs_Eaves" title="Mrs Eaves">Mrs Eaves</a> by <a href="/wiki/Zuzana_Licko" title="Zuzana Licko">Zuzana Licko</a> contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity. A parallel use of ligatures is seen in the creation of script fonts that join letterforms to simulate handwriting effectively. This trend is caused in part by the increased support for other languages and alphabets in modern computing, many of which use ligatures somewhat extensively. This has caused the development of new digital typesetting techniques such as <a href="/wiki/OpenType" title="OpenType">OpenType</a>, and the incorporation of ligature support into the text display systems of <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a>, and applications like <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Office" title="Microsoft Office">Microsoft Office</a>. An increasing modern trend is to use a "Th" ligature which reduces spacing between these letters to make it easier to read, a trait infrequent in metal type.<a href="#cite_note-Shaw-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hunt_Roman-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Kerning_Game-8">[8]</a> Today, modern font programming divides ligatures into three groups, which can be activated separately: standard, contextual and historical. Standard ligatures are needed to allow the font to display without errors such as character collision. Designers sometimes find contextual and historic ligatures desirable for creating effects or to evoke an old-fashioned print look.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Latin_alphabet">Latin alphabet</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Latin alphabet" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_letters" title="List of Latin-script letters">List of Latin-script letters</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stylistic_ligatures">Stylistic ligatures</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Stylistic ligatures" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ligature_drawing.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ligature_drawing.svg/220px-Ligature_drawing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="149" data-file-height="117"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 173px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ligature_drawing.svg/220px-Ligature_drawing.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="173" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ligature_drawing.svg/330px-Ligature_drawing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ligature_drawing.svg/440px-Ligature_drawing.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Two common ligatures: fi and fl</figcaption></figure> Many ligatures combine ⟨f⟩ with the following letter. A particularly prominent example is ⟨ﬁ⟩ (or ⟨f‌i⟩, rendered with two normal letters). The <a href="/wiki/Tittle" title="Tittle">tittle</a> of the ⟨i⟩ in many typefaces collides with the hood of the ⟨f⟩ when placed beside each other in a word, and are combined into a single glyph with the tittle absorbed into the ⟨f⟩. Other ligatures with the letter f include ⟨fj⟩,<a href="#cite_note-9">[a]</a> ⟨f‌l⟩ (ﬂ), ⟨f‌f⟩ (ﬀ), ⟨f‌f‌i⟩ (ﬃ), and ⟨f‌f‌l⟩ (ﬄ). Ligatures for ⟨fa⟩, ⟨fe⟩, ⟨fo⟩, ⟨fr⟩, ⟨fs⟩, ⟨ft⟩, ⟨fb⟩, ⟨fh⟩, ⟨fu⟩, ⟨fy⟩, and for ⟨f⟩ followed by a <a href="/wiki/Full_stop" title="Full stop">full stop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comma" title="Comma">comma</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hyphen" title="Hyphen">hyphen</a> are also used, as well as the equivalent set for the doubled ⟨ff⟩.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] These arose because with the usual type <a href="/wiki/Sort_(typesetting)" title="Sort (typesetting)">sort</a> for <a href="/wiki/Lowercase" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowercase">lowercase</a> ⟨f⟩, the end of its hood is on a <a href="/wiki/Kerning" title="Kerning">kern</a>, which would be damaged by collision with raised parts of the next letter.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Ligatures crossing the <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> boundary of a composite word are sometimes considered incorrect, especially in official <a href="/wiki/German_orthography" title="German orthography">German orthography</a> as outlined in the <a href="/wiki/Duden" title="Duden">Duden</a>. An English example of this would be ⟨ff⟩ in shelf‌ful; a German example would be Schiff‌fahrt ("boat trip").<a href="#cite_note-10">[b]</a> Some computer programs (such as <a href="/wiki/TeX" title="TeX">TeX</a>) provide a setting to disable ligatures for German, while some users have also written macros to identify which ligatures to disable.<a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg/220px-The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="294"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 125px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg/220px-The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="125" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg/330px-The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg/440px-The_Wheel_Taumfel.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ligatures "Th" and "Wh" illustration</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">Turkish</a> distinguishes <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0" title="İ">dotted</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dotless_I" title="Dotless I">dotless "I"</a>. If a ligature with f were to be used in words such as fırın [oven] and fikir [idea], this contrast would be obscured. The ⟨fi⟩ ligature is therefore not used in Turkish typography.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg/220px-Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="76" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1183" data-file-height="409"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 76px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg/220px-Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="76" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg/330px-Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg/440px-Berliner_Strassenschilder.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>"ß" in the form of a "ſʒ" ligature on a street sign in Berlin (Petersburger Straße). The sign on the right (Bersarinplatz) ends with a "tʒ" ligature ("ꜩ").</figcaption></figure> Remnants of the ligatures ⟨ſʒ⟩ /⟨ſz⟩ ("sharp s", eszett) and ⟨tʒ⟩/⟨tz⟩ ("sharp t", tezett) from <a href="/wiki/Fraktur_(typeface_sub-classification)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fraktur (typeface sub-classification)">Fraktur</a>, a family of German <a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">blackletter</a> typefaces, originally mandatory in Fraktur but now employed only stylistically, can be seen to this day on street signs for city squares whose name contains Platz or ends in -platz. Instead, the "sz" ligature has merged into a single character, the <a href="#German_%C3%9F">German ß</a> – see below.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Sometimes, ligatures for ⟨st⟩ (ﬆ), ⟨ſt⟩ (ﬅ), ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ck⟩, ⟨ct⟩, ⟨Qu⟩ and ⟨Th⟩ are used (e.g. in the typeface <a href="/wiki/Linux_Libertine" title="Linux Libertine">Linux Libertine</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Besides conventional ligatures, in the metal type era some newspapers commissioned custom condensed single sorts for the names of common long names that might appear in news headings, such as "<a href="/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain" title="Neville Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a>", and others. In these cases the characters did not appear combined, just more tightly spaced than if printed conventionally.<a href="#cite_note-Nytimes_Eisenhower-13">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_ß">German ß</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: German ß" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C3%9F" title="ß">ß</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> letter ⟨ß⟩ (Eszett, also called the scharfes S, meaning sharp s) is an official letter of the alphabet in Germany and Austria. There is no general consensus about its history. Its name Es-zett (meaning S-Z) suggests a connection of "long s and z" (ſʒ) but the Latin script also knows a ligature of "long s over round s" (ſs). The latter is used as the design principle for the character in most of today's typefaces. Since German was mostly set in blackletter typefaces until the 1940s, and those typefaces were rarely set in uppercase, a capital version of the Eszett never came into common use, even though its creation has been discussed since the end of the 19th century. Therefore, the common replacement in uppercase typesetting was originally SZ (Maße "measure" → MAS‌ZE, different from Mas‌se "mass" → MAS‌SE) and later SS (Maße → MAS‌SE). Until 2017, the SS replacement was the only valid spelling according to the official orthography in Germany and Austria. In Switzerland, the ß is omitted altogether in favour of ss. The <a href="/wiki/Capital_%E1%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital ẞ">capital version (ẞ)</a> of the Eszett character was occasionally used since 1905/06, has been part of Unicode since 2008, and has appeared in more and more typefaces. Since the end of 2010, the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Committee_on_Geographical_Names_(Germany)" title="Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (Germany)">Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN)</a> has suggested the new upper case character for "ß" rather than replacing it with "SS" or "SZ" for geographical names.<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> A new standardized German keyboard layout (DIN 2137-T2) has included the capital ß since 2012. The new character entered the official orthographic rules in June 2017.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massachusett_ꝏ">Massachusett ꝏ</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Massachusett ꝏ" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A prominent feature of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusett_writing_systems" title="Massachusett writing systems">colonial orthography</a> created by <a href="/wiki/John_Eliot_(missionary)" title="John Eliot (missionary)">John Eliot</a> (later used in the first Bible printed in the Americas, the <a href="/wiki/Massachusett_language" title="Massachusett language">Massachusett-language</a> <a href="/wiki/Eliot_Indian_Bible" title="Eliot Indian Bible">Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God</a>, published in 1663) was the use of the double-o ligature ⟨ꝏ⟩ to represent the /<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ of food as opposed to the /<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>/ of hook (although Eliot himself used ⟨oo⟩ and ⟨ꝏ⟩ interchangeably).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] In the orthography in use since 2000 in the <a href="/wiki/Wampanoag" title="Wampanoag">Wampanoag</a> communities participating in the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project (WLRP), the ligature was replaced with the numeral ⟨8⟩, partly because of its ease in typesetting and display as well as its similarity to the o-u ligature ⟨Ȣ⟩ used in <a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki</a>. For example, compare the colonial-era spelling seepꝏash<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> with the modern WLRP spelling seep8ash.<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg/220px-Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2225" data-file-height="2139"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 211px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg/220px-Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="211" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg/330px-Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg/440px-Ligature_Capilla_de_San_Jose_Sevilla.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Capilla de San José, Sevilla. Several ligatures.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg/220px-Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="410"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg/220px-Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg/330px-Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg/440px-Caslon_Pro_Ligatures.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The ligatures of <a href="/wiki/Caslon" title="Caslon">Adobe Caslon Pro</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letter_W">Letter W</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Letter W" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> As the letter ⟨<a href="/wiki/W" title="W">W</a>⟩ is an addition to the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> that originated in the seventh century, the phoneme it represents was formerly written in various ways. In <a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a>, the runic letter <a href="/wiki/Wynn" title="Wynn">wynn</a> ⟨Ƿ⟩) was used, but <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> influence forced wynn out of use. By the 14th century, the "new" letter ⟨W⟩, originated as two ⟨<a href="/wiki/V" title="V">V</a>⟩ glyphs or ⟨<a href="/wiki/U" title="U">U</a>⟩ glyphs joined, developed into a legitimate letter with its own position in the alphabet. Because of its relative youth compared to other letters of the alphabet, only a few European languages (English, Dutch, German, Polish, Welsh, Maltese, and Walloon) use the letter in native words.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Æ_and_Œ">Æ and Œ</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Æ and Œ" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The character ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%86" title="Æ">Æ</a>⟩ (lower case ⟨æ⟩; in ancient times named <a href="/wiki/%C3%86sc" class="mw-redirect" title="Æsc">æsc</a>) when used in <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a> is not a typographic ligature. It is a distinct <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letter</a> — a <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> — and when collated, may be given a different place in the <a href="/wiki/Collation" title="Collation">alphabetical order</a> than Ae.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In modern <a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a>, ⟨Æ⟩ is not considered an independent letter but a spelling variant, for example: "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/encyclop%C3%A6dia" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:encyclopædia">encyclopædia</a>" versus "encyclopaedia" or "encyclopedia". In this use, ⟨Æ⟩ comes from <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a>, where it was an optional ligature in some specific words that had been transliterated and borrowed from Ancient Greek, for example, "Æneas". It is still found as a variant in English and French words descended or borrowed from Medieval Latin, but the trend has recently been towards printing the ⟨A⟩ and ⟨E⟩ separately.<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> Similarly, ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C5%92" title="Œ">Œ</a>⟩ and ⟨œ⟩, while normally printed as ligatures in French, are replaced by component letters if technical restrictions require it.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umlaut">Umlaut</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Umlaut" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In <a href="/wiki/German_orthography" title="German orthography">German orthography</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Umlaut_(diacritic)" title="Umlaut (diacritic)">umlauted</a> vowels ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%84" title="Ä">ä</a>⟩, ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%96" title="Ö">ö</a>⟩, and ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%9C" title="Ü">ü</a>⟩ historically arose from ⟨ae⟩, ⟨oe⟩, ⟨ue⟩ ligatures (strictly, from these vowels with a small letter ⟨e⟩ written as a <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic</a>, for example ⟨aͤ⟩, ⟨oͤ⟩, ⟨uͤ⟩). It is common practice to replace them with ⟨ae⟩, ⟨oe⟩, ⟨ue⟩ digraphs when the diacritics are unavailable, for example in electronic conversation. Phone books treat umlauted vowels as equivalent to the relevant digraph (so that a name Müller will appear at the same place as if it were spelled Mueller; German surnames have a strongly fixed orthography, either a name is spelled with ⟨ü⟩ or with ⟨ue⟩); however, the alphabetic order used in other books treats them as equivalent to the simple letters ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩ and ⟨u⟩. The convention in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian languages">Scandinavian languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finnish_orthography" title="Finnish orthography">Finnish</a> is different: there the umlaut vowels are treated as independent letters with positions at the end of the alphabet.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_English">Middle English</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Middle English" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe,_Chapter_18_(clip).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe%2C_Chapter_18_%28clip%29.png/220px-The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe%2C_Chapter_18_%28clip%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="36" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="56"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 36px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe%2C_Chapter_18_%28clip%29.png/220px-The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe%2C_Chapter_18_%28clip%29.png" data-width="220" data-height="36" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe%2C_Chapter_18_%28clip%29.png/330px-The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe%2C_Chapter_18_%28clip%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe%2C_Chapter_18_%28clip%29.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>"... by the grace that god put in..." (Extract from <a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Margery_Kempe" title="The Book of Margery Kempe">The Book of Margery Kempe</a>)</figcaption></figure> In Middle English, the word the (written þe) was frequently abbreviated as a ⟨þ⟩ (<a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)" title="Thorn (letter)">thorn</a>) with a small ⟨e⟩ written as a diacritic. Similarly, the word that was abbreviated to ⟨þ⟩ with a small ⟨t⟩ written as a diacritic. During the latter Middle English and <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> periods, the thorn in its common script, or <a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">cursive</a>, form came to resemble a ⟨y⟩ shape. With the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> printing, the substitution of ⟨y⟩ for ⟨Þ⟩ became ubiquitous, leading to the common "ye", as in '<a href="/wiki/Ye_Olde" class="mw-redirect" title="Ye Olde">Ye Olde</a> Curiositie Shoppe'. One major reason for this was that ⟨y⟩ existed in the printer's <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">types</a> that <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">William Caxton</a> and his contemporaries imported from Belgium and the Netherlands, while ⟨Þ⟩ did not.<a href="#cite_note-Hill-18">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ring">Ring</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ring" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Ring_(diacritic)" title="Ring (diacritic)">ring</a> <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic</a> used in vowels such as ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%85" title="Å">å</a>⟩ likewise originated as an ⟨o⟩ -ligature.<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> Before the replacement of the older "aa" with "å" became a de facto practice, an "a" with another "a" on top (aͣ) could sometimes be used, for example in <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bureus" title="Johannes Bureus">Johannes Bureus</a>'s, Runa: ABC-Boken (1611).<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> The ⟨uo⟩ ligature <a href="/wiki/%C5%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="Ů">ů</a> in particular saw use in <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern High German">Early Modern High German</a>, but it merged in later Germanic languages with ⟨u⟩ (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">MHG</a> fuosz, <a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">ENHG</a> fuͦß, <a href="/wiki/Modern_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern German">Modern German</a> Fuß "foot"). It survives in <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>, where it is called <a href="/wiki/Ring_(diacritic)#Overring" title="Ring (diacritic)">kroužek</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tilde_and_circumflex">Tilde and circumflex</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tilde and circumflex" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a> diacritic, used in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> as part of the letter ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%91" title="Ñ">ñ</a>⟩, representing the <a href="/wiki/Palatal_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal nasal">palatal nasal</a> consonant, and in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> for <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalization</a> of a vowel, originated in ligatures where ⟨n⟩ followed the base letter: Espanna → España.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Circumflex" title="Circumflex">circumflex</a> in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> spelling stems from the ligature of a silent ⟨s⟩.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hwair">Hwair</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Hwair" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The letter <a href="/wiki/Hwair" title="Hwair">hwair</a> (ƕ), used only in <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic language</a>, resembles a ⟨hw⟩ ligature. It was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philologists</a> around 1900 to replace the <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a> ⟨hv⟩ formerly used to express the phoneme in question, e.g. by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Paul_Migne" title="Jacques Paul Migne">Migne</a> in the 1860s (<a href="/wiki/Patrologia_Latina" title="Patrologia Latina">Patrologia Latina</a> vol. 18). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_Ȣ">Byzantine Ȣ</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Byzantine Ȣ" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantines</a> had a unique <a href="/wiki/Ou_(ligature)" title="Ou (ligature)">o-u ligature</a> ⟨Ȣ⟩ that, while originally based on the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>'s ο-υ, carried over into Latin alphabets as well. This ligature is still seen today on icon artwork in Greek Orthodox churches, and sometimes in graffiti or other forms of informal or decorative writing.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gha_(OI)">Gha (OI)</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gha (OI)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Gha" title="Gha">Gha</a> ⟨ƣ⟩, a rarely used letter based on Q and G, was misconstrued by the <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> to be an OI ligature because of its appearance, and is thus known (to the ISO and, in turn, <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>) as "Oi". Historically, it was used in many Latin-based orthographies of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>) and other <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Asian Languages">central Asian</a> languages.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Phonetic_Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: International Phonetic Alphabet" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> formerly used ligatures to represent <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate consonants</a>, of which six are encoded in Unicode: ʣ, ʤ, ʥ, ʦ, ʧ and ʨ. One <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricative consonant</a> is still represented with a ligature: ɮ, and the <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_IPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Extensions to the IPA">extensions to the IPA</a> contain three more: ʩ, ʪ and ʫ.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_Teaching_Alphabet">Initial Teaching Alphabet</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Initial Teaching Alphabet" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Initial_Teaching_Alphabet" title="Initial Teaching Alphabet">Initial Teaching Alphabet</a>, a short-lived alphabet intended for young children, used a number of ligatures to represent long vowels: ⟨ꜷ⟩, ⟨æ⟩, ⟨œ⟩, ⟨ᵫ⟩, ⟨ꭡ⟩, and ligatures for ⟨ee⟩, ⟨ou⟩ and ⟨oi⟩ that are not encoded in Unicode. Ligatures for consonants also existed, including ligatures of ⟨ʃh⟩, ⟨ʈh⟩, ⟨wh⟩, ⟨ʗh⟩, ⟨ng⟩ and a reversed ⟨t⟩ with ⟨h⟩ (neither the reversed t nor any of the consonant ligatures are in Unicode).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rare_ligatures">Rare ligatures</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Rare ligatures" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Rarer ligatures also exist, including ⟨ꜳ⟩; ⟨ꜵ⟩; ⟨ꜷ⟩; ⟨ꜹ⟩; ⟨ꜻ⟩ (barred ⟨av⟩); ⟨ꜽ⟩; ⟨ꝏ⟩, which is used in medieval <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Nordic</a> languages for /<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>/ (a long <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">close-mid back rounded vowel</a>),<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> as well as in some orthographies of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusett_language" title="Massachusett language">Massachusett language</a> to represent <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a> (a long <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">close back rounded vowel</a>); ᵺ; ỻ, which was used in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Welsh">Medieval Welsh</a> to represent <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless lateral fricative">voiceless lateral fricative</a>);<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> ꜩ; ᴂ; ᴔ; and ꭣ have <a href="/wiki/Unicode_codepoint" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicode codepoint">Unicode codepoints</a> (in code block <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended-E" title="Latin Extended-E">Latin Extended-E</a> for characters used in German dialectology (<a href="/wiki/Teuthonista" title="Teuthonista">Teuthonista</a>),<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Anthropos_(journal)" title="Anthropos (journal)">Anthropos</a> alphabet, <a href="/wiki/Yakut_scripts" title="Yakut scripts">Sakha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">Americanist</a> usage).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbols_originating_as_ligatures">Symbols originating as ligatures</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Symbols originating as ligatures" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etlig.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Etlig.svg/220px-Etlig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="150"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Etlig.svg/220px-Etlig.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Etlig.svg/330px-Etlig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Etlig.svg/440px-Etlig.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An et ligature in a <a href="/wiki/Humanist_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanist script">humanist script</a></figcaption></figure> The most common ligature in modern usage is the <a href="/wiki/Ampersand" title="Ampersand">ampersand</a> ⟨&⟩ . This was originally a ligature of ⟨E⟩ and ⟨t⟩ , forming the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word "et", meaning "and". It has exactly the same use in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>. The ampersand comes in many different forms. Because of its ubiquity, it is generally no longer considered a ligature, but a <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logogram</a>. Like many other ligatures, it has at times been considered a letter (e.g., in early Modern English); in English it is pronounced "and", not "et", except in the case of &c, pronounced "<a href="/wiki/Et_cetera" title="Et cetera">et cetera</a>". In most typefaces, it does not immediately resemble the two letters used to form it, although certain typefaces use designs in the form of a ligature (examples include the original versions of <a href="/wiki/Futura_(typeface)" title="Futura (typeface)">Futura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Univers" title="Univers">Univers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet_MS" title="Trebuchet MS">Trebuchet MS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Civilit%C3%A9" title="Civilité">Civilité</a>, known in modern times as the italic of <a href="/wiki/Garamond" title="Garamond">Garamond</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Number_sign" title="Number sign">number sign</a> ⟨#⟩ originated as a stylized abbreviation of the Roman term <a href="/wiki/Roman_pound" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman pound">libra pondo</a>, written as ℔.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> Over time, the number sign was simplified to how it is seen today, with two horizontal strokes across two slash-like strokes.<a href="#cite_note-NewYorker-26">[24]</a> Now a logogram, the symbol is used mainly to denote (in the US) numbers, and weight in pounds.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> It has also been used popularly on <a href="/wiki/Push-button_telephone" title="Push-button telephone">push-button telephones</a> and as the <a href="/wiki/Hashtag" title="Hashtag">hashtag</a> indicator.<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> The <a href="/wiki/At_sign" title="At sign">at sign</a> ⟨@⟩ is potentially a ligature, but there are many different theories about the origin. One theory says that the French word à (meaning at), was simplified by scribes who, instead of lifting the pen to write the grave accent, drew an arc around the "a". Another states that it is short for the Latin word for "toward", "ad", with the ⟨d⟩ being represented by the arc. Another says it is short for an abbreviation of the term each at, with the ⟨e⟩ encasing the ⟨a⟩.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> Around the 18th century, it started being used in commerce to indicate price per unit, as "15 units @ $1".<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> After the popularization of <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">Email</a>, this fairly unpopular character became widely known, used to tag specific users.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> Lately, it has been used to de-gender nouns in Spanish with no agreed pronunciation. The <a href="/wiki/Dollar_sign" title="Dollar sign">dollar sign</a> ⟨$⟩ possibly originated as a ligature (for "pesos", although there are other theories as well) but is now a logogram.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> At least once, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">United States dollar</a> used a symbol resembling an overlapping U-S ligature, with the right vertical bar of the U intersecting through the middle of the S ( US ) to resemble the modern dollar sign.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_peseta" title="Spanish peseta">Spanish peseta</a> was sometimes symbolized by a ligature ⟨₧⟩ (from Pts), and the <a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">French franc</a> was often symbolized by the ligature ⟨₣⟩ (from Fr).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saturn_symbol_(late_classical_and_medieval_mss).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Saturn_symbol_%28late_classical_and_medieval_mss%29.png/220px-Saturn_symbol_%28late_classical_and_medieval_mss%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="91"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 85px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Saturn_symbol_%28late_classical_and_medieval_mss%29.png/220px-Saturn_symbol_%28late_classical_and_medieval_mss%29.png" data-width="220" data-height="85" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Saturn_symbol_%28late_classical_and_medieval_mss%29.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The symbol for Saturn in late Classical (4th & 5th c.) and medieval Byzantine (11th c.) manuscripts, derives from ⟨<a href="/wiki/%CE%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="Κ">κ</a><a href="/wiki/%CE%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Ρ">ρ</a>⟩ (kappa-rho).<a href="#cite_note-jones-1999-34">[32]</a></figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_symbol" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary symbol">planetary symbol</a> for Mercury (☿) may be a ligature of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a> and a cross (which was added in the 16th century to Christianize the pagan symbol),<a href="#cite_note-jones-1999-34">[32]</a> though other sources disagree;<a href="#cite_note-stearn1962-35">[33]</a> the symbol for Venus ♀ may be a ligature of the Greek letters ⟨ϕ⟩ (phi) and ⟨κ⟩ (kappa).<a href="#cite_note-stearn1962-35">[33]</a> The symbol for Jupiter (♃) descends from a Greek <a href="/wiki/Zeta" title="Zeta">zeta</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation#Forms" title="Scribal abbreviation">horizontal stroke</a>, ⟨Ƶ⟩, as an abbreviation for Zeus.<a href="#cite_note-jones-1999-34">[32]</a> <a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> Saturn's <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_symbol" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical symbol">astronomical symbol</a> (♄) has been traced back to the Greek <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_Papyri" title="Oxyrhynchus Papyri">Oxyrhynchus Papyri</a>, where it can be seen to be a Greek <a href="/wiki/Kappa" title="Kappa">kappa</a>-<a href="/wiki/Rho" title="Rho">rho</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation#Forms" title="Scribal abbreviation">horizontal stroke</a>, as an abbreviation for Κρονος (<a href="/wiki/Cronus" title="Cronus">Cronus</a>), the Greek name for the planet.<a href="#cite_note-jones-1999-34">[32]</a> It later came to look like a lower-case Greek <a href="/wiki/Eta" title="Eta">eta</a>, with the cross added at the top in the 16th century to Christianize it. The dwarf planet <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a> is symbolized by a PL ligature, ♇. A different PL ligature, ⅊, represents the <a href="/wiki/Property_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Property line">property line</a> in surveying. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In engineering diagrams, a CL ligature, ℄, represents the center line of an object.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Interrobang" title="Interrobang">interrobang</a> ⟨‽⟩ is an unconventional punctuation meant to combine the interrogation point (or the <a href="/wiki/Question_mark" title="Question mark">question mark</a>) and the bang (printer's slang for <a href="/wiki/Exclamation_mark" title="Exclamation mark">exclamation mark</a>) into one symbol, used to denote a sentence which is both a question and is exclaimed. For example, the sentence "Are you really coming over to my house on Friday‽" shows that the speaker is surprised while asking their question.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a> used <a href="/wiki/Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">a set of mostly standardized symbols</a>, many of which were ligatures: 🜇 (AR, for <a href="/wiki/Aqua_regia" title="Aqua regia">aqua regia</a>); 🜈 (S inside a V, for <a href="/wiki/Aqua_vitae" title="Aqua vitae">aqua vitae</a>); 🝫 (MB, for balneum Mariae [Mary's bath], a <a href="/wiki/Double_boiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Double boiler">double boiler</a>); 🝬 (VB, for balneum vaporis, a steam bath); and 🝛 (aaa with <a href="/wiki/Overline" title="Overline">overline</a>, for <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">amalgam</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digraphs">Digraphs</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Digraphs" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg/110px-%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="330"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 110px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg/110px-%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg.png" data-width="110" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg/165px-%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg/220px-%C4%B2_uppercase_ligature.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Uppercase <a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">IJ</a> glyph appearing as the distinctive "broken-U" ligature in <a href="/wiki/Helvetica" title="Helvetica">Helvetica</a> rendered by <a href="/wiki/Omega_(TeX)" title="Omega (TeX)">Omega TeX</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IJ_(letter).svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IJ_%28letter%29.svg/220px-IJ_%28letter%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IJ_%28letter%29.svg/220px-IJ_%28letter%29.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IJ_%28letter%29.svg/330px-IJ_%28letter%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IJ_%28letter%29.svg/440px-IJ_%28letter%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Comparison of ĳ and y in various forms</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">Digraphs</a>, such as ⟨<a href="/wiki/Ll" title="Ll">ll</a>⟩ in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> or <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, are not ligatures in the general case as the two letters are displayed as separate glyphs: although written together, when they are joined in handwriting or <a href="/wiki/Italic_type" title="Italic type">italic</a> fonts the base form of the letters is not changed and the individual glyphs remain separate. Like some ligatures discussed above, these digraphs may or may not be considered individual letters in their respective languages. Until the 1994 spelling reform, the digraphs ⟨<a href="/wiki/Ch_(digraph)" title="Ch (digraph)">ch</a>⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ were considered separate letters in Spanish for <a href="/wiki/Collation" title="Collation">collation</a> purposes. Catalan makes a difference between "Spanish ll" or palatalized l, written ll as in llei (law), and "French ll" or geminated l, written l·l as in col·lega (colleague).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The difference can be illustrated with the French digraph <a href="/wiki/%C5%92u_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Œu (digraph)">œu</a>, which is composed of the ligature <a href="/wiki/%C5%92" title="Œ">œ</a> and the simplex letter u.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dutch_IJ">Dutch IJ</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Dutch IJ" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, ⟨<a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">ĳ</a>⟩ can be considered a digraph, a ligature, or a letter in itself, depending on the standard used. Its uppercase and <a href="/wiki/Lowercase" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowercase">lowercase</a> forms are often available as a single glyph with a distinctive ligature in several professional typefaces (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Zapfino" title="Zapfino">Zapfino</a>). <a href="/wiki/Sans_serif" class="mw-redirect" title="Sans serif">Sans serif</a> uppercase ⟨Ĳ⟩ glyphs, popular in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, typically use a ligature resembling a ⟨U⟩ with a broken left-hand stroke. Adding to the confusion, Dutch handwriting can render ⟨y⟩ (which is not found in native Dutch words, but occurs in words borrowed from other languages) as a ⟨ĳ⟩-glyph without the dots in its lowercase form and the ⟨Ĳ⟩ in its uppercase form looking virtually identical (only slightly bigger). When written as two separate letters, both should be capitalized – or both not – to form a correctly spelled word, like IJs or ijs (<a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Non-Latin_alphabets">Non-Latin alphabets</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Non-Latin alphabets" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Complex_text_layout" title="Complex text layout">Complex text layout</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_ligatures" title="Greek ligatures">Greek ligatures</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg/220px-JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="212"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 159px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg/220px-JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="159" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg/330px-JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg/440px-JanaSanskritSans_ddhrya.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> ddhrya-ligature (द् + ध् + र् + य = द्ध्र्य) of JanaSanskritSans<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg/220px-Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1114" data-file-height="1428"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 282px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg/220px-Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="282" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg/330px-Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg/440px-Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e6_135-0.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Hebrew text: the letter in the upper left is <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style>ﭏ‎, a ligature of <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">aleph</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">א‎) and <a href="/wiki/Lamed" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamed">lamed</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ל‎).</figcaption></figure> Ligatures are not limited to Latin script: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian alphabet</a> has the following ligatures: և (ե+ւ), ﬔ (մ+ե), ﬕ (մ+ի), ﬓ (մ+ն), ﬗ (մ+խ), ﬖ (վ+ն)</li> <li>Most <a href="/wiki/Brahmic_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic family">Brahmic</a> <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugidas</a> make frequent use of ligatures in consonant clusters. The number of ligatures employed is language-dependent; thus many more ligatures are conventionally used in <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> when writing <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> than when writing <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>. Having 37 consonants in total, the total number of ligatures that can be formed in Devanagari using only two letters is 1369, though few fonts are able to render all of them. In particular, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mangal_(font)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mangal (font) (page does not exist)">Mangal</a>, which is included with <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>' Indic support, does not correctly handle ligatures with consonants attached to the right of the characters द, ट, ठ, ड, and ढ, leaving the <a href="/wiki/Virama" title="Virama">virama</a> attached to them and displaying the following consonant in its standard form.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Georgian_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian script">Georgian script</a> includes <a href="/wiki/%E1%83%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="უ">უ</a> (uni), which is a combination of <a href="/wiki/%E1%83%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="ო">ო</a> (oni) and the former letter <a href="/wiki/%E1%83%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="ჳ">ჳ</a> (vie).</li> <li>A number of ligatures have been employed in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, in particular a combination of omicron (Ο) and upsilon (Υ), which later gave rise to a letter of the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a>—see <a href="/wiki/Ou_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ou (letter)">Ou (letter)</a>. Among the ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">acrophonic numerals</a>, ligatures were common (in fact, the ligature of a short-legged capital <a href="/wiki/Pi_(letter)" title="Pi (letter)">pi</a> was a key feature of the acrophonic numeral system).</li> <li>Cyrillic ligatures: <a href="/wiki/Tshe" title="Tshe">Ћ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dje" title="Dje">Ђ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lje" title="Lje">Љ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nje" title="Nje">Њ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yery" title="Yery">Ы</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ot_(Cyrillic)" title="Ot (Cyrillic)">Ѿ</a>. <a href="/wiki/Iotated" class="mw-redirect" title="Iotated">Iotated</a> Cyrillic letters are ligatures of the early Cyrillic <a href="/wiki/Decimal_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Decimal I">decimal I</a> and another vowel: <a href="/wiki/Iotated_A" title="Iotated A">Ꙗ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iotated_E" title="Iotated E">Ѥ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iotated_little_yus" class="mw-redirect" title="Iotated little yus">Ѩ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iotated_big_yus" class="mw-redirect" title="Iotated big yus">Ѭ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yu_(Cyrillic)" title="Yu (Cyrillic)">Ю</a> (sometimes also spelled ЮУ). In <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Serbian Cyrillic alphabet">Serbian Cyrillic alphabet</a>, the letters <a href="/wiki/Tshe" title="Tshe">tshe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dje" title="Dje">dje</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lje" title="Lje">lje</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nje" title="Nje">nje</a> (ћ, ђ, љ, њ), were developed as ligatures of Cyrillic used in <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian Language</a>, being <a href="/wiki/El_(Cyrillic)" title="El (Cyrillic)">El</a> and <a href="/wiki/En_(Cyrillic)" title="En (Cyrillic)">En</a> (л, н) with the <a href="/wiki/Soft_sign" title="Soft sign">soft sign</a> (ь) <a href="/wiki/Je_(Cyrillic)" title="Je (Cyrillic)">J</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Te_(Cyrillic)" title="Te (Cyrillic)">Te</a> with <a href="/wiki/H" title="H">H</a> and <a href="/wiki/Je_(Cyrillic)" title="Je (Cyrillic)">J</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Yae_(Cyrillic)" title="Yae (Cyrillic)">Yae</a>, a ligature of ya (Я) and e also exists: Ԙԙ, as do <a href="/wiki/Dzze" title="Dzze">Dzze</a> (Ꚉꚉ ← Д + З) and <a href="/wiki/Zhwe" title="Zhwe">Zhwe</a> (Ꚅꚅ ← З + Ж).</li> <li>Some forms of the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Glagolitic">Glagolitic</a> script, used from Middle Ages to the 19th century to write some Slavic languages, have a box-like shape that lends itself to more frequent use of ligatures.</li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>, the letters <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">aleph</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">א‎) and <a href="/wiki/Lamed" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamed">lamed</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ל‎) can form a ligature, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ﭏ‎. The ligature appears in some pre-modern texts (mainly religious), or in <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a> texts, where that combination is very frequent, since [ʔ] [a]l- (written <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">aleph</a> plus <a href="/wiki/Lamed" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamed">lamed</a>, in the Hebrew script) is the definite article in Arabic. For example, the word <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">אַללַּהּ‎) can be written with this ligature: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ﭏלה‎.</li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>, historically a <a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">cursive</a> derived from the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean alphabet">Nabataean alphabet</a>, most letters' shapes depend on whether they are followed (word-initial), preceded (word-final) or both (medial) by other letters. For example, Arabic <a href="/wiki/%D9%85" class="mw-redirect" title="م">mīm</a>, isolated م, tripled (mmm, rendering as initial, medial and final): ممم. Notable are the shapes taken by <a href="/wiki/L%C4%81m_%2B_%CA%BCalif" class="mw-redirect" title="Lām + ʼalif">lām + ʼalif</a> isolated: ﻻ, and lām + ʼalif medial or final: ﻼ. Besides the obligatory lām + ʼalif ligature, Arabic script grammar requires numerous stylistic ligatures.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a>, a semitic alphabet derived from the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a>, has three different scripts that all use ligatures. Like <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, some letters change their form depending on their position in relation to other letters, and this can also change how ligatures look. A popular ligature all three scripts use is <a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">Lamadh</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1009732421">.mw-parser-output .script-Syre{font-family:"Estrangelo Antioch","Estrangelo Edessa","Estrangelo Midyat","Estrangelo Nisibin","Estrangelo Quenneshrin","Estrangelo Talada","Estrangelo TurAbdin","Noto Sans Syriac","Noto Sans Syriac Estrangela","Segoe UI Historic"}.mw-parser-output .script-Syrj{font-family:"Serto Batnan","Serto Jerusalem","Serto Kharput","Serto Malankara","Serto Mardin","Serto Urhoy","Noto Sans Syriac","Noto Sans Syriac Western"}.mw-parser-output .script-Syrn{font-family:"East Syriac Adiabene","East Syriac Ctesiphon","Noto Sans Syriac","Noto Sans Syriac Eastern",FreeSans,Code2000}.mw-parser-output .script-Syrc{font-family:"Noto Sans Syriac","Noto Sans Syriac Eastern","Noto Sans Syriac Estrangela","Noto Sans Syriac Western","FreeSans","Estrangelo Antioch","Estrangelo Edessa","Estrangelo Midyat","Estrangelo Nisibin","Estrangelo Quenneshrin","Estrangelo Talada","Estrangelo TurAbdin","East Syriac Adiabene","East Syriac Ctesiphon","Segoe UI Historic","Serto Batnan","Serto Jerusalem","Serto Kharput","Serto Malankara","Serto Mardin","Serto Urhoy",Code2000}</style>ܠ‎/<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܠ‎ + <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">Alap</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܐ‎/<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܐ‎ isolated and final: (Serto) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܠܐ‎, (Madnhaya) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܠܐ‎. Another popular one is <a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">Taw</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܬ‎/<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܬ‎ + <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">Alap</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܐ‎/<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܐ‎, resulting in (<a href="/wiki/Serto" class="mw-redirect" title="Serto">Serto</a>) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ܬܐ‎, (<a href="/wiki/Madnhaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Madnhaya">Madhnhaya</a>) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009732421">ـܬܐ‎. All three scripts use ligatures, but not in an equal spread or always with the same letters. <a href="/wiki/Serto" class="mw-redirect" title="Serto">Serto</a>, being a flexible script, especially has many ligatures. For a wider, but not complete, list of Syriac ligatures, see <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Contextual_forms_of_letters" title="Syriac alphabet">Contextual forms of letters</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a> (one of the main languages of South Asia), which uses a calligraphic version of the Arabic-based <a href="/wiki/Nasta%CA%BFl%C4%ABq_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Nastaʿlīq script">Nastaʿlīq script</a>, requires a great number of ligatures in digital typography. <a href="/wiki/InPage" title="InPage">InPage</a>, a widely used <a href="/wiki/Desktop_publishing" title="Desktop publishing">desktop publishing</a> tool for Urdu, uses <a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a> fonts with over 20,000 ligatures.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> a ligature of the <a href="/wiki/American_manual_alphabet" title="American manual alphabet">American manual alphabet</a> is used to sign "I love you", from the English <a href="/wiki/Initialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Initialism">initialism</a> ILY. It consists of the little finger of the letter I plus the thumb and forefinger of the letter L. The letter Y (little finger and thumb) overlaps with the other two letters.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese language</a> has a number of obsolete <a href="/wiki/Kana_ligature" title="Kana ligature">kana ligatures</a>. Of these, only two are widely available ones on computers: one for <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yori_(kana)" title="Yori (kana)">ゟ</a>, which is a vertical writing ligature of the characters <a href="/wiki/Yo_(kana)" title="Yo (kana)">よ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ri_(kana)" title="Ri (kana)">り</a>; and one for <a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koto_(kana)" title="Koto (kana)">ヿ</a>, which is a vertical writing ligature of the characters <a href="/wiki/Ko_(kana)" title="Ko (kana)">コ</a> and <a href="/wiki/To_(kana)" title="To (kana)">ト</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a> uses three ligatures, all comprising the letter ຫ (h). As a tonal language, most consonant sounds in Lao are represented by two consonants, which will govern the tone of the syllable. Five consonant sounds are only represented by a single consonant letter (ງ (ŋ), ນ (m), ມ (n), ລ (l), ວ (w)), meaning that one cannot render all the tones for words beginning with these sounds. A silent ຫ indicates that the syllable should be read with the tone rules for ຫ, rather than those of the following consonant. Three consonants can form ligatures with the letter ຫ. ຫ+ນ=ໜ (n), ຫ+ມ=ໝ (m) and ຫ+ລ=ຫຼ (l). ງ (ŋ) and ວ (w) just form clusters: ຫງ (ŋ) and ຫວ (w). ລ (l) can also be used written in a cluster rather than as a ligature: ຫລ (l).</li> <li>In many <a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">runic</a> texts ligatures are common. Such ligatures are known as <a href="/wiki/Bind-rune" class="mw-redirect" title="Bind-rune">bind-runes</a> and were optional.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_ligatures">Chinese ligatures</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Chinese ligatures" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg/170px-Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="157" data-file-height="207"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 224px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg/170px-Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg.png" data-width="170" data-height="224" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg/255px-Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg/340px-Hxkm_zhongwen_kanji.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Chinese <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A9ngy%C7%94" class="mw-redirect" title="Chéngyǔ">chéngyǔ</a> (expression) written as a ligature. It reads Kǒng Mèng hàoxué <big>(孔孟好學)</big> and means "to be as studious as <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>." All four characters contain 子 as a component – left, top, right and bottom respectively – and share it at the center of the composition.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Polysyllabic_Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysyllabic Chinese character">Polysyllabic Chinese character</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a> has a long history of creating new characters by merging parts or wholes of other <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese characters</a>. However, a few of these combinations do not represent <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> but retain the original multi-character (multiple morpheme) reading and are therefore not considered true characters themselves. In Chinese, these ligatures are called héwén (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%88%E6%96%87#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:合文">合文</a>) or héshū (合書); see <a href="/wiki/Polysyllabic_Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysyllabic Chinese character">polysyllabic Chinese characters</a> for more. One popular ligature used on <a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%ABnti%C4%93" class="mw-redirect" title="Chūntiē">chūntiē</a> decorations used for <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Lunar_New_Year" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Lunar New Year">Chinese Lunar New Year</a> is a combination of the four characters for zhāocái jìnbǎo (招財進寶), meaning "ushering in wealth and fortune" and used as a popular New Year's greeting. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color:#E6FFFB"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:228px;max-width:228px;background-color:#E6FFFB"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Chinese ligatures</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:#E6FFFB;width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Kǒng Mènghàoxué (孔孟好學)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg/110px-Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="105" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 110px;height: 105px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg/110px-Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg.png" data-alt="Kǒng Mènghàoxué (孔孟好學)" data-width="110" data-height="105" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg/165px-Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg/220px-Chinese_Character_zhao1_cai2_jin4_bao3.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A Chinese ligature for zhāocái jìnbǎo <big>(招財進寶)</big>, a popular New Year's greeting</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:#E6FFFB;width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Caonima_word-150x150.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Cǎonímǎ (草泥马)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Caonima_word-150x150.jpg/110px-Caonima_word-150x150.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="150"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 110px;height: 110px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Caonima_word-150x150.jpg/110px-Caonima_word-150x150.jpg" data-alt="Cǎonímǎ (草泥马)" data-width="110" data-height="110" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Caonima_word-150x150.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/C%C7%8Eon%C3%ADm%C7%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="Cǎonímǎ">Cǎonímǎ</a> <big>(草泥马)</big> ligature combining the three constituent characters</div></div></div></div></div> In 1924, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Du_Dingyou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Du Dingyou (page does not exist)">Du Dingyou</a> (杜定友; 1898–1967) created the ligature 圕 from two of the three characters 圖書館 (túshūguǎn), meaning "library".<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> Although it does have an assigned pronunciation of tuān and appears in many dictionaries, it is not a <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> and cannot be used as such in Chinese. Instead, it is usually considered a graphic representation of túshūguǎn. In recent years, a Chinese <a href="/wiki/Internet_meme" title="Internet meme">internet meme</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grass_Mud_Horse" title="Grass Mud Horse">Grass Mud Horse</a>, has had such a ligature associated with it combining the three relevant Chinese characters 草, 泥, and 马 (Cǎonímǎ). Similar to the ligatures were several "two-syllable Chinese characters" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E9%9F%B3%E7%AF%80%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:雙音節漢字">雙音節漢字</a>) created in the 19th century as <a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units#Chinese_and_Japanese" title="International System of Units">Chinese characters</a> for <a href="/wiki/SI_units" class="mw-redirect" title="SI units">SI units</a>. In Chinese these units are disyllabic and standardly written with two characters, as 厘米 límǐ "centimeter" (厘 centi-, 米 meter) or 千瓦 qiānwǎ "kilowatt". However, in the 19th century these were often written via compound characters, pronounced disyllabically, such as 瓩 for 千瓦 or 糎 for 厘米 – some of these characters were also used in Japan, where they were pronounced with borrowed European readings instead. These have now fallen out of general use, but are occasionally seen.<a href="#cite_note-vmair-40">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_ligatures">Japanese ligatures</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Japanese ligatures" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/CJK_Compatibility" title="CJK Compatibility">CJK Compatibility</a> <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> block features characters that have been combined into one square character in legacy character set so that it matches Japanese text. For example, the Japanese equivalent of "stock company", 株式会社 (kabushiki gaisha) can be represented in 1 Unicode character ⟨㍿⟩. Its romanized abbreviation K.K. can also be 1 character ⟨㏍⟩. There are other Latin abbreviations such as kg for "<a href="/wiki/Kilogram" title="Kilogram">kilogram</a>" that can be ligated into 1 square character ⟨㎏⟩. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Computer_typesetting">Computer typesetting</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Computer typesetting" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ligatures.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ligatures.svg/220px-Ligatures.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="514"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 204px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ligatures.svg/220px-Ligatures.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="204" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ligatures.svg/330px-Ligatures.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ligatures.svg/440px-Ligatures.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Some example ligatures in Latin script</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/OpenType" title="OpenType">OpenType</a> font format includes features for associating multiple <a href="/wiki/Glyph" title="Glyph">glyphs</a> to a single character, used for ligature substitution. Typesetting software may or may not implement this feature, even if it is explicitly present in the font's metadata. <a href="/wiki/XeTeX" title="XeTeX">XeTeX</a> is a TeX typesetting engine designed to make the most of such advanced features. This type of substitution used to be needed mainly for typesetting Arabic texts, but ligature lookups and substitutions are being put into all kinds of Western Latin OpenType fonts. In OpenType, there are standard <code>liga</code>, historical <code>hlig</code>, contextual <code>clig</code>, discretionary <code>dlig</code> and required <code>rlig</code> ligatures. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="TeX">TeX</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: TeX" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Opinion is divided over whether it is the job of writers or typesetters to decide where to use ligatures. <a href="/wiki/TeX" title="TeX">TeX</a> is an example of a computer typesetting system that makes use of ligatures automatically. The <a href="/wiki/Computer_Modern" title="Computer Modern">Computer Modern</a> Roman typeface provided with TeX includes the five common ligatures ⟨ff⟩ , ⟨fi⟩ , ⟨fl⟩ , ⟨ffi⟩ , and ⟨ffl⟩ . When TeX finds these combinations in a text, it substitutes the appropriate ligature, unless overridden by the typesetter. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CSS">CSS</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: CSS" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/CSS3" class="mw-redirect" title="CSS3">CSS3</a> provides control over these properties using <code>font-feature-settings</code>,<a href="#cite_note-msdnFontFeature-41">[39]</a> though the CSS Fonts Module Level 4 draft standard indicates that authors should prefer several other properties.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> Those include <code>font-variant-ligatures</code>, <code>common-ligatures</code>, <code>discretionary-ligatures</code>, <code>historical-ligatures</code>, and <code>contextual</code>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ligatures_in_Unicode_(Latin_alphabets)">Ligatures in Unicode (Latin alphabets)</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ligatures in Unicode (Latin alphabets)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> This table below shows discrete letter pairs on the left, the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> ligature in the middle column, and the Unicode code point on the right. Provided you are using an <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">browser</a> that can handle Unicode, and have the correct Unicode <a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">fonts</a> installed, some or all of these will display correctly. See also the provided graphic. <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> maintains that ligaturing is a presentation issue rather than a character definition issue, and that, for example, "if a modern font is asked to display 'h' followed by 'r', and the font has an 'hr' ligature in it, it can display the ligature." Accordingly, the use of the special Unicode ligature characters is "discouraged", and "no more will be encoded in any circumstances".<a href="#cite_note-UniFAQ-44">[42]</a> (Unicode has continued to add ligatures, but only in such cases that the ligatures were used as distinct letters in a language or could be interpreted as standalone <a href="/wiki/Unicode_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicode symbols">symbols</a>. For example, ligatures such as æ and œ are not used to replace arbitrary "ae" or "oe" sequences; it is generally considered incorrect to write "does" as "dœs".) <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff/lossless-page1-220px-Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="651"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff/lossless-page1-220px-Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff.png" data-width="220" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff/lossless-page1-330px-Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff/lossless-page1-440px-Word_default_no_ligatures.tiff.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Word" title="Microsoft Word">Microsoft Word</a> does not enable ligatures automatically. Here, with <a href="/wiki/Gill_Sans" title="Gill Sans">Gill Sans</a> Light, the 'f' and 'i' appear superimposed when default settings are used.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Word" title="Microsoft Word">Microsoft Word</a> disables ligature substitution by default, largely for <a href="/wiki/Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">backward compatibility</a> when editing documents created in earlier versions of Word. Users can enable automatic ligature substitution on the Advanced tab of the Font dialog box. <a href="/wiki/LibreOffice_Writer" title="LibreOffice Writer">LibreOffice Writer</a> enables standard ligature substitution by default for OpenType fonts, user can enable or disable any ligature substitution on the Features dialog box, which is accessible via the Features button of the Character dialog box, or alternatively, input a syntax with font name and feature into the Font Name input box, for example: Noto Sans:liga=0. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Non-ligature </th> <th>Ligature<a href="#cite_note-UniFAQ-44">[42]</a> </th> <th data-sort-type="number">Unicode </th> <th class="unsortable">HTML </th></tr> <tr> <td>AA, aa </td> <td>Ꜳ, ꜳ<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="42802">U+A732, U+A733 </td> <td>&#xA732; &#xA733; </td></tr> <tr> <td>AE, ae </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C3%86" title="Æ">Æ</a>, æ </td> <td data-sort-value="198">U+00C6, U+00E6 </td> <td>&AElig; &aelig; </td></tr> <tr> <td>AO, ao </td> <td>Ꜵ, ꜵ<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="42804">U+A734, U+A735 </td> <td>&#xA734; &#xA735; </td></tr> <tr> <td>AU, au </td> <td>Ꜷ, ꜷ<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="42806">U+A736, U+A737 </td> <td>&#xA736; &#xA737; </td></tr> <tr> <td>AV, av </td> <td>Ꜹ, ꜹ<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="42808">U+A738, U+A739 </td> <td>&#xA738; &#xA739; </td></tr> <tr> <td>AV, av (with bar) </td> <td>Ꜻ, ꜻ<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="42810">U+A73A, U+A73B </td> <td>&#xA73A; &#xA73B; </td></tr> <tr> <td>AY, ay </td> <td>Ꜽ, ꜽ<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="42812">U+A73C, U+A73D </td> <td>&#xA73C; &#xA73D; </td></tr> <tr> <td>et </td> <td>🙰 </td> <td data-sort-value="128624">U+1F670 </td> <td>&#x1F670; </td></tr> <tr> <td>f‌f </td> <td>ﬀ </td> <td data-sort-value="64256">U+FB00 </td> <td>&#xFB00; </td></tr> <tr> <td>f‌f‌i </td> <td>ﬃ </td> <td data-sort-value="64259">U+FB03 </td> <td>&#xFB03; </td></tr> <tr> <td>f‌f‌l </td> <td>ﬄ </td> <td data-sort-value="64260">U+FB04 </td> <td>&#xFB04; </td></tr> <tr> <td>f‌i </td> <td>ﬁ </td> <td data-sort-value="64257">U+FB01 </td> <td>&#xFB01; </td></tr> <tr> <td>f‌l </td> <td>ﬂ </td> <td data-sort-value="64258">U+FB02 </td> <td>&#xFB02; </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hv, hv </td> <td>Ƕ, ƕ </td> <td>U+01F6, U+0195 </td> <td>&#502; &#405; </td></tr> <tr> <td>lb </td> <td>℔ </td> <td>U+2114 </td> <td>&#8468; &#x2114; </td></tr> <tr> <td>lL, <a href="/wiki/Ll" title="Ll">ll</a> </td> <td>Ỻ, ỻ </td> <td>U+1EFA, U+1EFB </td> <td>&#7930; &#7931; </td></tr> <tr> <td>OE, oe </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%92" title="Œ">Œ</a>, œ </td> <td data-sort-value="338">U+0152, U+0153 </td> <td>&OElig; &oelig; </td></tr> <tr> <td>OO, oo </td> <td>Ꝏ, ꝏ<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="42830">U+A74E, U+A74F </td> <td>&#xA74E; &#xA74F; </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɔe </td> <td>ꭢ </td> <td>U+AB62 </td> <td>&#43874; </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="ss">ſs, ſz </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="ẞ">ẞ</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%9F" title="ß">ß</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="223">U+1E9E, U+00DF </td> <td>&szlig; </td></tr> <tr> <td>st </td> <td>ﬆ </td> <td data-sort-value="64262">U+FB06 </td> <td>&#xFB06; </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="st">ſt </td> <td>ﬅ </td> <td data-sort-value="64261">U+FB05 </td> <td>&#xFB05; </td></tr> <tr> <td>TZ, tz </td> <td>Ꜩ, ꜩ </td> <td data-sort-value="42792">U+A728, U+A729 </td> <td>&#xA728; &#xA729; </td></tr> <tr> <td>ue </td> <td>ᵫ </td> <td data-sort-value="7531">U+1D6B </td> <td>&#x1D6B; </td></tr> <tr> <td>uo </td> <td>ꭣ<a href="#cite_note-unicode.org-45">[43]</a> </td> <td>U+AB63 </td> <td>&#43875; </td></tr> <tr> <td>VV, vv </td> <td>W, w </td> <td>U+0057, U+0077 </td> <td>&#87; &#119; </td></tr> <tr> <td>VY, vy </td> <td>Ꝡ, ꝡ<a href="#cite_note-L206027-23">[21]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="42848">U+A760, U+A761 </td> <td>&#xA760; &#xA761; </td></tr> <tr> <td>ſs </td> <td>Ꟗ ꟗ </td> <td>U+A7D6, U+A7D7 </td> <td>&#xA7D7; &#xA7D7; </td></tr> <tr> <td>ƿƿ </td> <td>ꟕ </td> <td>U+A7D5 </td> <td>&#xA7D5; &#xA7D5; </td></tr> <tr> <td>þþ </td> <td>ꟓ </td> <td>U+A7D3 </td> <td>&#xA7D3; &#xA7D3; </td></tr></tbody></table> There are separate <a href="/wiki/Code_point" title="Code point">code points</a> for the digraph <a href="/wiki/Dz_(digraph)" title="Dz (digraph)">DZ</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> digraph <a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">IJ</a>, and for the <a href="/wiki/Gaj%27s_Latin_Alphabet#Digraphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaj's Latin Alphabet">Serbo-Croatian digraphs</a> DŽ, LJ, and NJ. Although similar, these are <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a>, not ligatures. See <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)#In_Unicode" title="Digraph (orthography)">Digraphs in Unicode</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ligatures_used_only_in_phonetic_transcription">Ligatures used only in <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcription</a></h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Ligatures used only in phonetic transcription" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Ligature<a href="#cite_note-UniFAQ-44">[42]</a> </th> <th data-sort-type="number">Unicode </th> <th class="unsortable">HTML </th></tr> <tr> <td>superscript small capital AA </td> <td>𐞀<a href="#cite_note-L220116-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-L221021-47">[45]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="67456">U+10780 </td> <td>&#x10780; </td></tr> <tr> <td>superscript ae </td> <td>𐞃<a href="#cite_note-L220252-48">[46]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="67459">U+10783 </td> <td>&#x10783; </td></tr> <tr> <td>aə </td> <td>ꬱ<a href="#cite_note-unicode.org-45">[43]</a> </td> <td>U+AB31 </td> <td>&#43825; </td></tr> <tr> <td>əø </td> <td>ꭁ </td> <td>U+AB41 </td> <td>&#43841; </td></tr> <tr> <td>db<a href="#cite_note-qp-49">[c]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C8%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="ȸ">ȸ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="568">U+0238 </td> <td>&#x238; </td></tr> <tr> <td>dz </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="ʣ">ʣ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="675">U+02A3 </td> <td>&#x2A3; </td></tr> <tr> <td>dʐ </td> <td>ꭦ<a href="#cite_note-L217299-50">[47]</a> </td> <td>U+AB66 </td> <td>&#43878; </td></tr> <tr> <td>dʑ (or dz curl) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="ʥ">ʥ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="677">U+02A5 </td> <td>&#x2A5; </td></tr> <tr> <td>dʒ (or dezh) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="ʤ">ʤ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="676">U+02A4 </td> <td>&#x2A4; </td></tr> <tr> <td>dʒ with palatal hook </td> <td>𝼒<a href="#cite_note-L220125-51">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-L221021-47">[45]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="122642">U+1DF12 </td> <td>&#x1DF12; </td></tr> <tr> <td>dʒ with retroflex hook </td> <td>𝼙<a href="#cite_note-L221004-52">[49]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="122649">U+1DF19 </td> <td>&#x1DF19; </td></tr> <tr> <td>fŋ (or feng) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="ʩ">ʩ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="681">U+02A9 </td> <td>&#x2A9; </td></tr> <tr> <td>Superscript fŋ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%90" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞐">𐞐</a><a href="#cite_note-L220116-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-L221021-47">[45]</a> </td> <td>U+10790 </td> <td>&#67472; </td></tr> <tr> <td>fŋ with trill </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%9D%BC%80" class="mw-redirect" title="𝼀">𝼀</a><a href="#cite_note-L220116-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-L221021-47">[45]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="122624">U+1DF00 </td> <td>&#x1DF00; </td></tr> <tr> <td>ls (or less) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="ʪ">ʪ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="682">U+02AA </td> <td>&#x2AA; </td></tr> <tr> <td>superscript ls </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%99" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞙">𐞙</a><a href="#cite_note-L220116-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-L221021-47">[45]</a> </td> <td>U+10799 </td> <td>&#67481; </td></tr> <tr> <td>lz </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="ʫ">ʫ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="683">U+02AB </td> <td>&#x2AB; </td></tr> <tr> <td>superscript lz </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞚">𐞚</a><a href="#cite_note-L220116-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-L221021-47">[45]</a> </td> <td>U+1079A </td> <td>&#67482; </td></tr> <tr> <td>lʒ (or lezh) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C9%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="ɮ">ɮ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="622">U+026E </td> <td>&#x26E; </td></tr> <tr> <td>superscript lʒ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞞">𐞞</a><a href="#cite_note-L220116-46">[44]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="67486">U+1079E </td> <td>&#x1079E; </td></tr> <tr> <td>lʒ with retroflex hook </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%9D%BC%85" class="mw-redirect" title="𝼅">𝼅</a><a href="#cite_note-L220116-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-L221021-47">[45]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="1DF05">U+1DF05 </td> <td>&#x1DF05; </td></tr> <tr> <td>superscript lʒ with retroflex hook </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞟">𐞟</a><a href="#cite_note-L220116-46">[44]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="67487">U+1079F </td> <td>&#x1079F; </td></tr> <tr> <td>oə </td> <td>ꭀ </td> <td data-sort-value="43840">U+AB40 </td> <td>&#xAB40; </td></tr> <tr> <td>qp<a href="#cite_note-qp-49">[c]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C8%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="ȹ">ȹ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="569">U+0239 </td> <td>&#x239; </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="tc">tɕ (or tc curl) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="ʨ">ʨ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="680">U+02A8 </td> <td>&#x2A8; </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="superscript tc">superscript tɕ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞫">𐞫</a><a href="#cite_note-L220252-48">[46]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="67499">U+107AB </td> <td>&#x107AB; </td></tr> <tr> <td>ts (or tess) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="ʦ">ʦ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="678">U+02A6 </td> <td>&#x2A6; </td></tr> <tr> <td>superscript ts </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞬">𐞬</a><a href="#cite_note-L220252-48">[46]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="67500">U+107AC </td> <td>&#x107AC; </td></tr> <tr> <td>ts with retroflex hook </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%EA%AD%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="ꭧ">ꭧ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="43879">U+AB67 </td> <td>&#xAB67; </td></tr> <tr> <td>superscript ts with retroflex hook </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞭">𐞭</a><a href="#cite_note-L220252-48">[46]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="67501">U+107AD </td> <td>&#x107AD; </td></tr> <tr> <td>tʂ </td> <td>ꭧ<a href="#cite_note-L217299-50">[47]</a> </td> <td>U+AB67 </td> <td>&#43879; </td></tr> <tr> <td>tʃ (or tesh) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%CA%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="ʧ">ʧ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="679">U+02A7 </td> <td>&#x2A7; </td></tr> <tr> <td>superscript tʃ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%F0%90%9E%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="𐞮">𐞮</a><a href="#cite_note-L220252-48">[46]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="67502">U+107AE </td> <td>&#x107AE; </td></tr> <tr> <td>tʃ with retroflex hook </td> <td>𝼜<a href="#cite_note-L221004-52">[49]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="122652">U+1DF1C </td> <td>&#x1DF1C; </td></tr> <tr> <td>tʃ with palatal hook </td> <td>𝼗<a href="#cite_note-L220125-51">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-L221021-47">[45]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="122647">U+1DF17 </td> <td>&#x1DF17; </td></tr> <tr> <td>ui </td> <td>ꭐ<a href="#cite_note-L211202-54">[51]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="43856">U+AB50 </td> <td>&#xAB50; </td></tr> <tr> <td>turned ui </td> <td>ꭑ<a href="#cite_note-L211202-54">[51]</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="43857">U+AB51 </td> <td>&#xAB51; </td></tr> <tr> <td>uu </td> <td>ɯ </td> <td>U+026F </td> <td>&#623; </td></tr></tbody></table> Four "ligature ornaments" are included from U+1F670 to U+1F673 in the <a href="/wiki/Ornamental_Dingbats" title="Ornamental Dingbats">Ornamental Dingbats</a> block: regular and bold variants of ℯT (script e and T) and of ɛT (open E and T). </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Contemporary_art">Contemporary art</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Contemporary art" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EnglishChinaWriting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/EnglishChinaWriting.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="201" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="201"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 201px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/EnglishChinaWriting.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="201" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An example of <a href="/wiki/Xu_Bing" title="Xu Bing">Xu Bing</a>'s 'Square Word' calligraphy, combining Latin characters into forms that resemble Chinese characters. The word pictured is '<a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wiki</a>'.</figcaption></figure> Typographic ligatures are used in a form of <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">contemporary art</a>,<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> as can be illustrated by Chinese artist <a href="/wiki/Xu_Bing" title="Xu Bing">Xu Bing</a>'s work in which he combines Latin letters to form characters that resemble Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> Croatian designer Maja Škripelj also created a ligature that combined <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic letters</a> ⰘⰓ for <a href="/wiki/Croatian_euro_coins" title="Croatian euro coins">euro coins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complex_text_layout" title="Complex text layout">Complex text layout</a> – Neighbour-dependent grapheme positioning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">Digraph (orthography)</a> – Pair of characters used to write one phoneme (the unfused pairing of graphemes)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerning" title="Kerning">Kerning</a> – Process in typography (optimization of spacing between adjacent letters).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_spacing" title="Letter spacing">Letter spacing</a> – Physical spacing of characters in text</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_that_may_be_spelled_with_a_ligature" title="List of English words that may be spelled with a ligature">List of English words that may be spelled with a ligature</a> – Spelling rule in English</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogram" title="Monogram">Monogram</a> – Motif made by overlapping two or more letters</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Scribal abbreviation</a> – Abbreviations used by ancient and medieval scribes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicode_equivalence" title="Unicode equivalence">Unicode equivalence</a> – Aspect of the Unicode standard</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_ligatures" title="Greek ligatures">Greek ligatures</a> – Ligatures used in Greek writing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_shaping" title="Text shaping">Text shaping</a> – Process of converting text to glyph indices and positions</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> The combination ⟨fj⟩ is represented in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> only in "<a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjord</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Fjeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Fjeld">fjeld</a>", but is encountered in languages where ⟨j⟩ represents a vocalic or semi-vocalic sound (<a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, occasionally in <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>) or an affix (<a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>), or where word-compounding results such ligatures (<a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Schiff‌fahrt is written with ff‌f only if the writer follows the <a href="/wiki/German_spelling_reform_of_1996" class="mw-redirect" title="German spelling reform of 1996">spelling reform of 1996</a>. The same standard explicitly allows the spelling Schiff-Fahrt with dash to avoid the tripled f. </li> <li id="cite_note-qp-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-qp_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-qp_49-1">b</a> Unicode calls this a digraph, but it is actually a ligature.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171021032353/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/explore/origin-of-ampersand">"What is the origin of the ampersand (&)?"</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Capelli – Dizionario di abbreviature latine ed italiane </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hit.uib.no/mufi/proposal/PUA-range5-v1.html">Medieval Unicode Font Initiative</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBellis2017" class="citation web cs1">Bellis, Mary (17 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/johannes-gutenberg-and-the-printing-press-1991865">"Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press"</a>. ThoughtCo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThoughtCo.&rft.atitle=Johannes+Gutenberg+and+the+Printing+Press&rft.date=2017-04-17&rft.aulast=Bellis&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fjohannes-gutenberg-and-the-printing-press-1991865&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrere-Jones" class="citation web cs1">Frere-Jones, Tobias. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.typography.com/fonts/hoefler-text/overview/">"Hoefler Text"</a>. Hoefler & Frere-Jones. Retrieved 29 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hoefler+Text&rft.pub=Hoefler+%26+Frere-Jones&rft.aulast=Frere-Jones&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.typography.com%2Ffonts%2Fhoefler-text%2Foverview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2011" class="citation web cs1">Shaw, Paul (12 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.printmag.com/featured/flawed-typefaces/">"Flawed Typefaces"</a>. Print magazine. Retrieved 30 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Print+magazine&rft.atitle=Flawed+Typefaces&rft.date=2011-05-12&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.printmag.com%2Ffeatured%2Fflawed-typefaces%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunt_Roman-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Hunt_Roman_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlrich2012" class="citation web cs1">Ulrich, Ferdinand (22 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://typographica.org/typeface-reviews/hunt-roman/">"Hunt Roman"</a>. Typographica. Retrieved 21 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Typographica&rft.atitle=Hunt+Roman&rft.date=2012-07-22&rft.aulast=Ulrich&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftypographica.org%2Ftypeface-reviews%2Fhunt-roman%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Kerning_Game-8"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Kerning_Game_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2011" class="citation web cs1">Shaw, Paul (31 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.printmag.com/featured/the-kerning-game/">"The Kerning Game"</a>. Print. Retrieved 21 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Print&rft.atitle=The+Kerning+Game&rft.date=2011-10-31&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.printmag.com%2Ffeatured%2Fthe-kerning-game%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelmut_KopkaPatrick_W._Daly1999" class="citation book cs1">Helmut Kopka; Patrick W. Daly (1999). A Guide to <a href="/wiki/LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a>, 3rd Ed. Addison-Wesley. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-39825-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-39825-7"><bdi>0-201-39825-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+LaTeX%2C+3rd+Ed.&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-201-39825-7&rft.au=Helmut+Kopka&rft.au=Patrick+W.+Daly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoretan" class="citation web cs1">Loretan, Mico. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/selnolig">"Selnolig"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CTAN" title="CTAN">CTAN</a>. Retrieved 17 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CTAN&rft.atitle=Selnolig&rft.aulast=Loretan&rft.aufirst=Mico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fctan.org%2Fpkg%2Fselnolig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nytimes_Eisenhower-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Nytimes_Eisenhower_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunlap2016" class="citation news cs1">Dunlap, David (23 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/23/insider/1952-eisenhower-a-true-campaign-logo.html?mcubz=1">"1952 – 'Eisenhower,' a True Campaign Logo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 20 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=1952+%E2%80%93+%27Eisenhower%2C%27+a+True+Campaign+Logo&rft.date=2016-06-23&rft.aulast=Dunlap&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F06%2F23%2Finsider%2F1952-eisenhower-a-true-campaign-logo.html%3Fmcubz%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://141.74.33.52/stagn/Portals/0/101125_TopR5.pdf">Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN) Empfehlungen und Hinweise für die Schreibweise geographischer Namen für Herausgeber von Kartenwerken und anderen Veröffentlichungen für den internationalen Gebrauch Bundesrepublik Deutschland 5. überarbeitete Ausgabe</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Trumbull, J. H. (1903). Natick Dictionary. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). Introduction to the wampanoag grammar. (Master's thesis). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chicagomanualofs00chic">The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th Ed</a>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1993. p. 6.61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226103891" title="Special:BookSources/9780226103891"><bdi>9780226103891</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chicago+Manual+of+Style%2C+14th+Ed&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=6.61&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780226103891&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchicagomanualofs00chic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Hill_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2020" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Will (30 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arro.anglia.ac.uk/id/eprint/703215/1/25HillFinalDV.pdf">"Chapter 25: Typography and the printed English text"</a> (PDF). The Routledge Handbook of the English Writing System. Taylor & Francis. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367581565" title="Special:BookSources/9780367581565"><bdi>9780367581565</bdi></a>. <q>The types used by Caxton and his contemporaries originated in Holland and Belgium, and did not provide for the continuing use of elements of the Old English alphabet such as thorn <þ>, eth <ð>, and yogh <ʒ>. The substitution of visually similar typographic forms has led to some anomalies which persist to this day in the reprinting of archaic texts and the spelling of regional words. The widely misunderstood 'ye' occurs through a habit of printer's usage that originates in Caxton's time, when printers would substitute the <y> (often accompanied by a superscript <e>) in place of the thorn <þ> or the eth <ð>, both of which were used to denote both the voiced and non-voiced sounds, /ð/ and /θ/ (Anderson, D. (1969) The Art of Written Forms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, p 169)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+25%3A+Typography+and+the+printed+English+text&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+the+English+Writing+System&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2020-06-30&rft.isbn=9780367581565&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farro.anglia.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F703215%2F1%2F25HillFinalDV.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runeberg.org/nfcm/0489.html">Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 33. Väderlek – Äänekoski / 905–906</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100124031144/http://www.kb.se/F1700/ABC.htm">"Bureus, J., Runa ABC boken"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kb.se/F1700/ABC.htm">the original</a> on 2010-01-24. Retrieved 2010-02-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bureus%2C+J.%2C+Runa+ABC+boken&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kb.se%2FF1700%2FABC.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aulahispanica.com/origen-de-la-enie.html">Origen de la 'Ñ'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180814121015/http://www.aulahispanica.com/origen-de-la-enie.html">Archived</a> 2018-08-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Aula Hispanica. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Teach Yourself French. Collier's Cyclopedia, 1901. </li> <li id="cite_note-L206027-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L206027_23-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEversonBakerEmilianoGrammel2006" class="citation web cs1">Everson, Michael; Baker, Peter; Emiliano, António; Grammel, Florian; Haugen, Odd Einar; Luft, Diana; Pedro, Susana; Schumacher, Gerd; Stötzner, Andreas (2006-01-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06027-n3027-medieval.pdf">"L2/06-027: Proposal to add Medievalist characters to the UCS"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L2%2F06-027%3A+Proposal+to+add+Medievalist+characters+to+the+UCS&rft.date=2006-01-30&rft.aulast=Everson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Baker%2C+Peter&rft.au=Emiliano%2C+Ant%C3%B3nio&rft.au=Grammel%2C+Florian&rft.au=Haugen%2C+Odd+Einar&rft.au=Luft%2C+Diana&rft.au=Pedro%2C+Susana&rft.au=Schumacher%2C+Gerd&rft.au=St%C3%B6tzner%2C+Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2006%2F06027-n3027-medieval.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEversonDicklbergerPentzlinWandl-Vogt2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Everson" title="Michael Everson">Everson, Michael</a>; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011-06-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2011/11202-n4081-teuthonista.pdf">"Revised proposal to encode "Teuthonista" phonetic characters in the UCS"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Revised+proposal+to+encode+%22Teuthonista%22+phonetic+characters+in+the+UCS&rft.date=2011-06-02&rft.aulast=Everson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Dicklberger%2C+Alois&rft.au=Pentzlin%2C+Karl&rft.au=Wandl-Vogt%2C+Eveline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2011%2F11202-n4081-teuthonista.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith_Gordon_Irwin1967" class="citation book cs1">Keith Gordon Irwin (1967) [1956]. The romance of writing, from Egyptian hieroglyphics to modern letters, numbers, and signs. New York: Viking Press. p. 125. <q>The Italian libbra (from the old Latin word libra, 'balance') represented a weight almost exactly equal to the <a href="/wiki/Avoirdupois" title="Avoirdupois">avoirdupois</a> pound of England. The Italian abbreviation of lb with a line drawn across the letters was used for both weights.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+romance+of+writing%2C+from+Egyptian+hieroglyphics+to+modern+letters%2C+numbers%2C+and+signs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Keith+Gordon+Irwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NewYorker-26"><a href="#cite_ref-NewYorker_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2013" class="citation news cs1">Houston, Keith (2013-09-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/books/2013/09/origins-of-hashtag-manicule-diple-pilcrow-ampersand-explained.html">"The Ancient Roots of Punctuation"</a>. The New Yorker. Retrieved 16 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Ancient+Roots+of+Punctuation&rft.date=2013-09-06&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fonline%2Fblogs%2Fbooks%2F2013%2F09%2Forigins-of-hashtag-manicule-diple-pilcrow-ampersand-explained.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston1917" class="citation book cs1">Thurston, Ernest L. (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/businessarithme02thurgoog/page/n439">Business Arithmetic for Secondary Schools</a>. New York: Macmillan. p. 419. <q># ..... number (written before a figure.)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+Arithmetic+for+Secondary+Schools&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=419&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Ernest+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbusinessarithme02thurgoog%2Fpage%2Fn439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith_Houston2013" class="citation book cs1">Keith Houston (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3fbWAAAAQBAJ&q=%22octothorpe%22&pg=PA41">"The Octothorpe"</a>. Shady Characters: The Secret Life of Punctuation, Symbols, and Other Typographical Marks. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 41–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393064421" title="Special:BookSources/9780393064421"><bdi>9780393064421</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Octothorpe&rft.btitle=Shady+Characters%3A+The+Secret+Life+of+Punctuation%2C+Symbols%2C+and+Other+Typographical+Marks&rft.pages=41-57&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780393064421&rft.au=Keith+Houston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3fbWAAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522octothorpe%2522%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllman" class="citation web cs1">Allman, William F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-accidental-history-of-the-symbol-18054936/">"The Accidental History of the @ Symbol"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 9 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Accidental+History+of+the+%40+Symbol&rft.aulast=Allman&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fscience-nature%2Fthe-accidental-history-of-the-symbol-18054936%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webopedia.com/insights/at-symbol/">"The @ Symbol Meaning And History"</a>. Webopedia. 24 June 2010. Retrieved 9 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Webopedia&rft.atitle=The+%40+Symbol+Meaning+And+History&rft.date=2010-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webopedia.com%2Finsights%2Fat-symbol%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/e/pop-culture/at-sign/">"at sign"</a>. dictionary.com. Retrieved 9 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dictionary.com&rft.atitle=at+sign&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fe%2Fpop-culture%2Fat-sign%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCajori,_Florian1993" class="citation book cs1">Cajori, Florian (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00cajo_0">A History of Mathematical Notations</a>. New York: Dover (reprint). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-67766-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-67766-4"><bdi>0-486-67766-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mathematical+Notations&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+%28reprint%29&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-486-67766-4&rft.au=Cajori%2C+Florian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmathema00cajo_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> – contains section on the history of the dollar sign, with much documentary evidence supporting the theory that $ began as a ligature for "pesos". </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="/wiki/File:US-%241-LT-1869-Fr-18.jpg" title="File:US-$1-LT-1869-Fr-18.jpg">Reverse of $1 United States Note (Greenback), series of 1869</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-jones-1999-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jones-1999_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jones-1999_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jones-1999_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jones-1999_34-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1999" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Alexander (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8MokzymQ43IC">Astronomical papyri from Oxyrhynchus</a>. American Philosophical Society. pp. 62–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871692337" title="Special:BookSources/9780871692337"><bdi>9780871692337</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430052052/https://books.google.com/books?id=8MokzymQ43IC">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomical+papyri+from+Oxyrhynchus&rft.pages=62-63&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780871692337&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8MokzymQ43IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stearn1962-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stearn1962_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stearn1962_35-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearn1962" class="citation journal cs1">Stearn, William T. (May 1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1964/male_fem.pdf">"The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Taxon_(journal)" title="Taxon (journal)">Taxon</a>. 11 (4): 109–113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1217734">10.2307/1217734</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1217734">1217734</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:87030547">87030547</a>. <q>The origin of these symbols has long been a matter of interest to scholars. Probably none now accepts the interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Scaliger" title="Scaliger">Scaliger</a> that ♂ represents the shield and spear of Mars and ♀ Venus's looking-glass. All the evidence favours the conclusion of the French classical scholar Claude de Saumaise (Salmasius, 1588–1653) that these symbols, as also those for Saturn, Mercury and Jupiter, are derived from contractions in Greek script of the Greek names of the planets which are Kronos (Saturn), Zeus (Jupiter), Thouros (Mars), Phosphoros (Venus) and Stilbon (Mercury). As observed by Linnaeus's one-time student Johann Beckmann in his History of Inventions (English transl., 1797), to understand their origin 'we must make ourselves acquainted with the oldest form of these characters which in all probability, like those used in writing, were subjected to many changes before they acquired that form which they have at present'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+the+Male+and+Female+Symbols+of+Biology&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=109-113&rft.date=1962-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A87030547%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1217734%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1217734&rft.aulast=Stearn&rft.aufirst=William+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiapt-taxon.org%2Fhistoric%2FCongress%2FIBC_1964%2Fmale_fem.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaunder1934" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Annie_S._D._Maunder" title="Annie S. D. Maunder">Maunder, A. S. D.</a> (August 1934). "The origin of the symbols of the planets". The Observatory. 57: 238–247. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934Obs....57..238M">1934Obs....57..238M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observatory&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+the+symbols+of+the+planets&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=238-247&rft.date=1934-08&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934Obs....57..238M&rft.aulast=Maunder&rft.aufirst=A.+S.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2014" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Collins (2014). Collins English Dictionary (12th ed.). HarperCollins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Collins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716160603/http://tdil.mit.gov.in/download/janasanskrit.htm">"JanaSanskritSans"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tdil.mit.gov.in/download/janasanskrit.htm">the original</a> on 2011-07-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=JanaSanskritSans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftdil.mit.gov.in%2Fdownload%2Fjanasanskrit.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stnn.cc:82/culture/splend/t20060421_196261.html">'圕'字怎麼念？什麼意思？誰造的？</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111003232054/http://www.stnn.cc:82/culture/splend/t20060421_196261.html">Archived</a> 2011-10-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" <a href="/wiki/Sing_Tao_Daily" title="Sing Tao Daily">Sing Tao Daily</a> online. 21 April 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2011.(in Chinese) </li> <li id="cite_note-vmair-40"><a href="#cite_ref-vmair_40-0">^</a> Victor Mair, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=3330">"Polysyllabic characters in Chinese writing"</a>, Language Log, 2011 August 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-msdnFontFeature-41"><a href="#cite_ref-msdnFontFeature_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ie/hh869409%28v=vs.85%29.aspx">"font-feature-settings property"</a>. MSDN. Retrieved 24 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MSDN&rft.atitle=font-feature-settings+property&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Flibrary%2Fie%2Fhh869409%2528v%3Dvs.85%2529.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drafts.csswg.org/css-fonts/#font-feature-settings-prop">"CSS Font Module Level 4"</a>. CSSWG.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CSSWG&rft.atitle=CSS+Font+Module+Level+4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdrafts.csswg.org%2Fcss-fonts%2F%23font-feature-settings-prop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cssportal.com/css-properties/font-variant-ligatures.php">"CSS font-variant-ligatures Property"</a>. CSS Portal.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CSS+Portal&rft.atitle=CSS+font-variant-ligatures+Property&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cssportal.com%2Fcss-properties%2Ffont-variant-ligatures.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UniFAQ-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UniFAQ_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UniFAQ_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UniFAQ_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unicode.org/faq/ligature_digraph.html">"Unicode FAQ: Ligatures, Digraphs, Presentation Forms vs. Plain Text"</a>. Unicode Consortium. 2015-07-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unicode+FAQ%3A+Ligatures%2C+Digraphs%2C+Presentation+Forms+vs.+Plain+Text&rft.pub=Unicode+Consortium&rft.date=2015-07-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funicode.org%2Ffaq%2Fligature_digraph.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-unicode.org-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-unicode.org_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unicode.org_45-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unicode.org/charts/PDF/UAB30.pdf">"Latin Extended-E"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Unicode_Consortium" title="Unicode Consortium">Unicode Consortium</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Unicode+Consortium&rft.atitle=Latin+Extended-E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funicode.org%2Fcharts%2FPDF%2FUAB30.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-L220116-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L220116_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220116_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220116_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220116_46-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220116_46-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220116_46-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220116_46-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220116_46-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerBall2020" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Kirk; Ball, Martin (2020-07-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf">"L2/20-116R: Expansion of the extIPA and VoQS"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L2%2F20-116R%3A+Expansion+of+the+extIPA+and+VoQS&rft.date=2020-07-11&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Kirk&rft.au=Ball%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2020%2F20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-L221021-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L221021_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L221021_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L221021_47-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L221021_47-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L221021_47-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L221021_47-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L221021_47-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L221021_47-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2020" class="citation web cs1">Anderson, Deborah (2020-12-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2021/21021-consolidated-ipa.pdf">"L2/21-021: Reference doc numbers for L2/20-266R "Consolidated code chart of proposed phonetic characters" and IPA etc. code point and name changes"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L2%2F21-021%3A+Reference+doc+numbers+for+L2%2F20-266R+%22Consolidated+code+chart+of+proposed+phonetic+characters%22+and+IPA+etc.+code+point+and+name+changes&rft.date=2020-12-07&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2021%2F21021-consolidated-ipa.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-L220252-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L220252_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220252_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220252_48-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220252_48-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220252_48-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerAshby2020" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Kirk; Ashby, Michael (2020-11-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf">"L2/20-252R: Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L2%2F20-252R%3A+Unicode+request+for+IPA+modifier-letters+%28a%29%2C+pulmonic&rft.date=2020-11-08&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Kirk&rft.au=Ashby%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2020%2F20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-L217299-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L217299_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L217299_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverson2017" class="citation web cs1">Everson, Michael (2017-08-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17299-n4842-sinological-digraphs.pdf">"L2/17-299 Proposal to add two Sinological Latin letters"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L2%2F17-299+Proposal+to+add+two+Sinological+Latin+letters&rft.date=2017-08-17&rft.aulast=Everson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2017%2F17299-n4842-sinological-digraphs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-L220125-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L220125_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L220125_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2020" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Kirk (2020-07-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20125r-ipa-retroflex.pdf">"L2/20-125R: Unicode request for expected IPA retroflex letters and similar letters with hooks"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L2%2F20-125R%3A+Unicode+request+for+expected+IPA+retroflex+letters+and+similar+letters+with+hooks&rft.date=2020-07-11&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Kirk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2020%2F20125r-ipa-retroflex.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-L221004-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L221004_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L221004_52-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerEverson2021" class="citation cs2">Miller, Kirk; Everson, Michael (2021-01-03), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2021/21004-dezh-retroflex-hook.pdf">L2/21-004: Unicode request for dezh with retroflex hook</a> (PDF)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L2%2F21-004%3A+Unicode+request+for+dezh+with+retroflex+hook&rft.date=2021-01-03&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Kirk&rft.au=Everson%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2021%2F21004-dezh-retroflex-hook.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreytagMcGowan,_RickWhistler,_Ken2006" class="citation web cs1">Freytag, Asmus; McGowan, Rick; Whistler, Ken (2006-05-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/notes/tn27/tn27-1.html">"Known Anomalies in Unicode Character Names"</a>. Unicode Technical Note #27. <a href="/wiki/Unicode_Consortium" title="Unicode Consortium">Unicode Inc</a>. Retrieved 2009-05-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Unicode+Technical+Note+%2327&rft.atitle=Known+Anomalies+in+Unicode+Character+Names&rft.date=2006-05-08&rft.aulast=Freytag&rft.aufirst=Asmus&rft.au=McGowan%2C+Rick&rft.au=Whistler%2C+Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Fnotes%2Ftn27%2Ftn27-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-L211202-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L211202_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L211202_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEversonDicklbergerPentzlinWandl-Vogt2011" class="citation web cs1">Everson, Michael; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011-06-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2011/11202-n4081-teuthonista.pdf">"L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode 'Teuthonista' phonetic characters in the UCS"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L2%2F11-202%3A+Revised+proposal+to+encode+%27Teuthonista%27+phonetic+characters+in+the+UCS&rft.date=2011-06-02&rft.aulast=Everson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Dicklberger%2C+Alois&rft.au=Pentzlin%2C+Karl&rft.au=Wandl-Vogt%2C+Eveline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2011%2F11202-n4081-teuthonista.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129022237/http://www.foundrycomms.co.uk/blog/2014-02-the-art-of-typography-in-the-digital-age-ligatures">"The art of typography in the digital age ligatures"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foundrycomms.co.uk/blog/2014-02-the-art-of-typography-in-the-digital-age-ligatures">the original</a> on November 29, 2014. Retrieved November 14, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+art+of+typography+in+the+digital+age+ligatures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foundrycomms.co.uk%2Fblog%2F2014-02-the-art-of-typography-in-the-digital-age-ligatures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErickson,_Britta2001" class="citation book cs1">Erickson, Britta (2001). The Art of Xu Bing: Words Without Meaning, Meaning Without Words (Asian Art & Culture). Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Ga. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295981437" title="Special:BookSources/9780295981437"><bdi>9780295981437</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Xu+Bing%3A+Words+Without+Meaning%2C+Meaning+Without+Words+%28Asian+Art+%26+Culture%29&rft.pub=Freer+Gallery+of+Art+and+Arthur+M.+Sackler+Ga&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780295981437&rft.au=Erickson%2C+Britta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.croatiaweek.com/designs-of-croatian-national-sides-of-euro-and-cent-coins-presented/">"Designs of Croatian national sides of euro and cent coins presented"</a>. 4 February 2022. Retrieved 10 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Designs+of+Croatian+national+sides+of+euro+and+cent+coins+presented&rft.date=2022-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.croatiaweek.com%2Fdesigns-of-croatian-national-sides-of-euro-and-cent-coins-presented%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALigature+%28writing%29" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/font-variant-ligatures">Examples of CSS ligatures</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&oldid=1261692704">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&oldid=1261692704</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 7 December 2024, at 13:07 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatur_(Typografie)" title="Ligatur (Typografie) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ligatur (Typografie)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="وصلات أبجدية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وصلات أبجدية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liqatura" title="Liqatura – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Liqatura" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%B0" title="যুক্তাক্ষর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যুক্তাক্ষর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D0%B7%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%87%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80)" title="Лігатура (злучэнне літар) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лігатура (злучэнне літар)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Лигатура (типография) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лигатура (типография)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lligadura_(tipografia)" title="Lligadura (tipografia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lligadura (tipografia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatura_(p%C3%ADsmo)" title="Ligatura (písmo) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ligatura (písmo)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clymlythyren" title="Clymlythyren – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Clymlythyren" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatur" title="Ligatur – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ligatur" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatur_(Typografie)" title="Ligatur (Typografie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ligatur (Typografie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatuur_(kiri)" title="Ligatuur (kiri) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ligatuur (kiri)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%BC%CE%B1_(%CF%84%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Σύμπλεγμα (τυπογραφία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύμπλεγμα (τυπογραφία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligadura_(tipograf%C3%ADa)" title="Ligadura (tipografía) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ligadura (tipografía)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligaturo" title="Ligaturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ligaturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%AF%DA%86%D8%B1" title="لیگچر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لیگچر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligature_(%C3%A9criture)" title="Ligature (écriture) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ligature (écriture)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatuer" title="Ligatuer – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ligatuer" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligadura_(tipograf%C3%ADa)" title="Ligadura (tipografía) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ligadura (tipografía)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%A9%EC%9E%90" title="합자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="합자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D6%80" title="Կցագիր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կցագիր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liguro" title="Liguro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Liguro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatur" title="Ligatur – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ligatur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsteypa_(leturfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i)" title="Samsteypa (leturfræði) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Samsteypa (leturfræði)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legatura_(tipografia)" title="Legatura (tipografia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Legatura (tipografia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%92%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%94" title="ליגטורה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ליגטורה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90)" title="ლიგატურა (პოლიგრაფია) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლიგატურა (პოლიგრაფია)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Лигатура (типография) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лигатура (типография)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatura" title="Ligatura – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ligatura" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligat%C5%ABra" title="Ligatūra – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ligatūra" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligat%C5%ABra_(poligrafija)" title="Ligatūra (poligrafija) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ligatūra (poligrafija)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligat%C3%BAra" title="Ligatúra – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ligatúra" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="കൂട്ടക്ഷരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കൂട്ടക്ഷരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatuur_(typografie)" title="Ligatuur (typografie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ligatuur (typografie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%88%E5%AD%97" title="合字 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="合字" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatur_(typografi)" title="Ligatur (typografi) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ligatur (typografi)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatur" title="Ligatur – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ligatur" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7" title="ترسیما – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ترسیما" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatura_(pismo)" title="Ligatura (pismo) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ligatura (pismo)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligadura_tipogr%C3%A1fica" title="Ligadura tipográfica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ligadura tipográfica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatur%C4%83_(tipografie)" title="Ligatură (tipografie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ligatură (tipografie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Лигатура (типографика) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лигатура (типографика)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligature_(writing)" title="Ligature (writing) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ligature (writing)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligat%C3%BAra_(p%C3%ADsmo)" title="Ligatúra (písmo) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ligatúra (písmo)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Лигатура – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Лигатура" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatuuri" title="Ligatuuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ligatuuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligatur" title="Ligatur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ligatur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%94" title="รูปอักขระแฝด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รูปอักขระแฝด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligat%C3%BCr" title="Ligatür – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ligatür" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Лігатура (типографія) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лігатура (типографія)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%81" title="ترسیمہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ترسیمہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_gh%C3%A9p" title="Chữ ghép – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chữ ghép" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%A3%E7%B5%90%E5%AD%97" title="連結字 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="連結字" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%88%E5%AD%97" title="合字 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="合字" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 7 December 2024, at 13:07 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-terms-use"><a href="https://foundation.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a></li> <li id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ligature_(writing)&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.canary-6db5849f4d-c8f8z","wgBackendResponseTime":258,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.278","walltime":"1.577","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17010,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":263405,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":24448,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":10,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":208733,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1312.905 1 -total"," 24.03% 315.544 2 Template:Reflist"," 16.38% 215.111 28 Template:Citation_needed"," 13.99% 183.620 27 Template:Cite_web"," 13.72% 180.109 92 Template:Lang"," 13.36% 175.443 28 Template:Fix"," 8.34% 109.450 1 Template:Latin_script"," 8.11% 106.450 1 Template:Latin_script/main"," 5.68% 74.622 58 Template:Category_handler"," 5.10% 66.945 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.692","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":17438212,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-59b954b7fb-2glhc","timestamp":"20241208011329","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Ligature (writing)","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ligature_(writing)","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q188725","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q188725","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-12-08T16:33:35Z","dateModified":"2024-12-07T13:07:59Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/18\/Typographic_ligature_st.png","headline":"glyph resulting from the orthographic combination or calligraphic ornementation of two or more basic letter forms into a single typographic or handwritten character"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>