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The heartland of [[Islam]] is the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], the [[Horn of Africa]], [[Balkans]], and [[West Africa]], [[Iran]], [[Central Asia]], and [[South Asia]]. Due to Islam being a multi-ethnic religion, the musical expression of its adherents is vastly diverse. Indigenous traditions of various part have influenced the musical styles popular among Muslims today. The word "music" in Arabic, the language of Islam, (''mūsīqā'' {{lang|ar|موسيقى }}) is defined more narrowly than in English or some other languages, and "its concept" was at least originally "reserved for secular art music; separate names and concepts belonged to folk songs and to religious chants".<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |last1=Landau |first1=Jacob M. |title=Islamic Arts. Music |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-arts/Music |access-date=4 January 2022 |website=Britannica}}</ref> At least one scholar (Jacob M. Landau) makes the generalization about Islamic music that it "is characterized by a highly subtle organization of melody and rhythm", that "the vocal component predominates over the instrumental", and that the individual musician "is permitted, and indeed encouraged, to improvise".<ref name="Britannica"/> Historically, the question of whether music is permitted in [[Islamic jurisprudence]] is disputed.<ref name=Al-Shawkani-8/> Regardless, Islamic art and music flourished during the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-u2DQAAQBAJ&dq=music+flourish+islamic+golden+age&pg=PA173|title=Mapping out the Rushdie Republic: Some Recent Surveys|first1=Prasanta|last1=Bhattacharyya|first2=Tapan Kumar|last2=Ghosh|date=December 14, 2016|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-5562-4 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sr3UaHYtfh8C&dq=music+flourished+islamic+golden+age&pg=PA13|title=Revival and Reconciliation: Sacred Music in the Making of European Modernity|first1=Philip V. |last1=Bohlman |first2= Mary |last2=Werkman|date=June 7, 2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Chicago|isbn=978-0-8108-8269-0 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7ibDwAAQBAJ&dq=music+flourished+islamic+golden+age&pg=PT11|title=LIFE Aladdin |date=May 24, 2019|publisher=Time Home Entertainment|isbn=978-1-5478-4903-1 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Islamic music is also credited with influencing European and Western music; for example, French musicologist [[Baron Rodolphe d'Erlanger]] in his assessment of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in Islamic history credits [[Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi]]'s ''Kitabu l'musiqi al-kabir'' ("The Great Book of Music") with this influence.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sr3UaHYtfh8C&dq=music+flourished+islamic+golden+age&pg=PA13|title=Revival and Reconciliation: Sacred Music in the Making of European Modernity|first1=Philip V. |last1=Bohlman |first2= Mary |last2=Werkman|date=June 7, 2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Chicago|isbn=978-0-8108-8269-0 |via=Google Books}}</ref> ==Secular and folk musical styles== ===Classical Islamic music=== According to scholar Jacob M. Landau, "a fusion of musical styles" was able to develop between "pre-Islamic Arabian music" and the music of Persians, Byzantines, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Turks, Moors, because of "strong affinities between Arabic music and the music of the nations occupied by the expanding Arabic peoples".<ref name="Britannica"/> The core area where this "new art" of classical Islamic music succeeded stretched "from the Nile valley to Persia". However, many parts of the Muslim world did not adopt the "new art" of classical Islamic music, or adopted it but also kept native music forms which were "alien" to classical Islamic music.<ref name="Britannica"/> In general, the farther from the area between the Nile and Persia one travels, "the less one finds undiluted Islamic music."<ref name="Britannica"/> ===Middle East=== * [[Arabic music]] * [[Egyptian music]] * [[Music of Iran|Iranian music]] * [[Kurdish music]] * [[Music of Turkey#Classical music|Turkish classical music]] * [[Yemeni music]] All of these regions were connected by trade long before the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, and it is likely that musical styles travelled the same routes as trade goods. However, lacking recordings, we can only speculate as to the pre-Islamic music of these areas. Islam must have had a great influence on music, as it united vast areas under the first caliphs, and facilitated trade between distant lands. Certainly, the [[Sufi]]s, brotherhoods of Muslim [[mysticism|mystics]], spread their music far and wide. [[Khaliji music]] has roots going back more than 1,000 years, to the [[Islamic]] period, under the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]] and Abbasids.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://afropop.org/articles/feature-africans-in-the-arabian-persian-gulf | title=Afropop Worldwide &#124; Feature: Africans in the Arabian (Persian) Gulf }}</ref> ===North Africa=== The [[Berber language|Berber]] and Arabic speaking countries of Central and Western North Africa, such as Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia, share some musical traditions with Egypt and the Arabic-speaking countries of the Middle East. Popular modern styles of music such as [[Raï]] and [[Chaabi (music)|Chaabi]] originated in Berber countries. In addition, West African influences can be heard in the popular music of [[Gnawa]]. * [[Music of Algeria]] * [[Music of Morocco]] ===Horn of Africa=== [[File:Oudplyrsomhd3.png|thumb|200px|right|[[Somali people|Somali]] [[oud]] player Nuruddin Ali Amaan]] Most [[Music of Somalia|Somali music]] is based on the [[pentatonic scale]]. That is, the songs only use five [[Pitch (music)|pitches]] per [[octave]] in contrast to a [[Heptatonic scale|heptatonic]] (seven note) scale such as the [[major scale]]. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as [[Ethiopia]], [[Sudan]] or [[Eritrea]], but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between [[lyricist]]s (''midho''), [[songwriter]]s (''lahan''), and [[Singing|singers]] ('''odka'' or "voice").<ref>Abdullahi, pp.170–171</ref> Instruments prominently featured in Somali music include the ''kaban'' ([[oud]]). ===West Africa=== {{Main article|West African music|African music}} Islam is the largest and oldest organized religion in this region, although indigenous [[Sahelian]] and [[Sahara]]n styles and genres are more prominent than those influenced by Middle-Eastern theory. West African musical genres are more varied, and tend to incorporate both native and [[Berber music|Berber]] influences, rather than those of [[Arabic music|Arab]] origin. A long history of court [[griot]] music based on historical accounts and praise-singing exists in the region. Wind and string instruments, such as the [[Kora (instrument)|Kora]] harp, [[xalam]] lute, or [[Tambin]] flute (similar to the [[ney]]) are generally preferred to [[percussion]], although percussion instruments such as the [[talking drum]] and [[djembe]] are also widely played among Muslim populations ===Central Asia=== Many of the countries in Central Asia such as [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] have been heavily influenced by Turkic and Persian culture. Bowed instruments are common, as is bardic singing. * [[Music of Central Asia]] ===South Asia=== {{see also|Qawwali}} [[File:Qawwal Qutbi Brothers.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Qawwali]] in [[India]]]] The music of the Muslim countries of South Asia ([[Afghanistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Maldives]] and [[Pakistan]]) as well as countries with sizeable Muslim minorities ([[India]], [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]]) merged Middle Eastern genres with indigenous [[Indian classical music|classical music]]al modes, and is generally distinct in style and orchestration, yet due to the strong links encountered between the Middle-East, Central Asia, and South Asia, it is closer to Middle-Eastern styles than those of the periphery of the Islamic world, which tend to be purely indigenous. *[[Music of Afghanistan]] *[[Music of Bangladesh]] *[[Music of Maldives]] *[[Music of Pakistan]] ===Southeast Asia=== [[File:Al-Usysyaaq Gambus Orchestra, Jakarta.jpg|thumb|right|250px|"Al-Ushyaaq" [[Arab-Indonesian]] ''Gambus'' musical ensemble in [[Jakarta]], 1949]] {{Main article|Gamelan|Kulintang}} Muslim-majority [[Indonesia]] has been significantly less influenced by Middle Eastern traditions than [[South Asia]]. As a result, many local musical styles predate the coming of Islam, although exceptions include [[Malay people|Malay]] [[Zapin]] and ''Joget'', and the [[Indonesia]]n ''Gambus'' (derived from [[Qanbus]]), all of which show strong Middle Eastern influence. There are also local music genres in Muslim-majority regions in Southeast Asia that are influenced by Arabian traditions, such as the ''tagonian'' of the [[Sundanese people]] and ''glipang'' of the people of [[Probolinggo]] The music of South East Asia's Muslim-majority regions is more closely related to the musical genres of [[Southeast Asia|South East]] and [[East Asia]]. [[Gong chime]] ensembles such as [[Gamelan]] and [[Kulintang]] existed in the region before the arrival of Islam, and musical theory and method owe more to heavy [[Chinese music|Chinese]] influence, as well as [[Hindu]]–[[Buddhist]] principles, than to Arabic musical philosophy. Variations of one of two main scales prevail in the region among different ensembles: ''[[slendro]]'' and ''[[pelog]]'' (both of which originated in [[Java]]). In Java, use of the gamelan for Islamic devotional music was encouraged by the Muslim saint [[Sunan Kalijaga|Sunan Kalijogo]]. ==Types of Muslim devotional recitation and music== ===Nasheed=== {{Main article|Nasheed}} Nasheeds are moral, religious recitations recited in various melodies by some Muslims of today without any musical instruments. However, some nasheed groups use percussion instruments, such as the [[daf]]f. Singing moral songs of this type without instrumentation is considered permissible ([[halal]]) by many Muslims.{{Main|Sufi music}} {{See|Qawwali|Kafi|Sufi rock}}  [[Sufi]] worship services are often called [[dhikr]] or zikr. See that article for further elaboration. The dhikr of South Asian Muslims is "quietist". The Sufi services best known in the West are the chanting and rhythmic dancing of the [[whirling dervishes]] or [[Mevlevi]] Sufis of Turkey. However, Sufis may also perform devotional songs in public, for the enjoyment and edification of listeners. The mood is religious, but the gathering is not a worship service. In Turkey, once the seat of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate, concerts of sacred song are called "''Mehfil-e-Sama<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' " (or "gathering of ''Sama<nowiki>'</nowiki>''"). Song forms include ilahi and nefe. In South Asia, especially Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, a widely known style of [[Sufi music]] is [[qawwali]]. A traditional qawwali programme would include: * A [[hamd]]—a song in praise of Allah * A [[na`at]]—a song in praise of Muhammad * [[Manqabat]]s—songs in praise of the illustrious teachers of the Sufi brotherhood to which the musicians belong * [[Ghazal]]s—songs of intoxication and yearning, which use the language of romantic love to express the soul's longing for union with the divine. [[Shi'a]] qawwali performances typically follow the naat with a manqabat in praise of Ali, and sometimes a [[marsiya]], a lamentation over the death of much of Ali's family at the [[Battle of Karbala]]. The most well-known qawwali singer in modern times is [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]. Another traditional South Asian genre of Sufi music is the [[Kafi]], which is more meditative and involves solo singing as opposed to the ensemble form seen in qawwali. The most widely known exponent of the Kafi is the Pakistani singer [[Abida Parveen]]. Sufi music has developed with the times. A Pakistani [[Sufi rock]] band, [[Junoon (band)|Junoon]], was formed in the 1990s to bring a modern twist to suit the new younger generation. The band achieved wide popularity, in Pakistan as well as in the West. ===Music for public religious celebrations=== * [[Ta'zieh]] music—Ta'zieh is a passion play, part musical drama, part religious drama, rarely performed outside Iran. It depicts the martyrdom of [[Imam]] [[Hussein]], venerated by [[Shia]] Muslims. * [[Ashurah]] music—performed during the [[Muharram]] mourning period, commemorating the deaths of Imam Hussein and his followers. (Shia) * Thikiri (from the Arabic word "Dhikr") which means remembrance of God—performed by the Qadiriyya Sufi orders of [[waYao]] or [[Yao (ethnic group in Africa)|Yao]] people in East and Southern Africa (Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa). * [[Manzuma]]—moral songs performed in Ethiopia. * [[Madih nabawi]]—Arabic hymns praising Muhammad. ==Modes== * [[Arabic Maqam]] * [[Dastgah]] * [[Turkish makam]] According to scholar Jacob M. Landau, in Islamic music, "melodies are organized in terms of ''maqāmāt'' (singular ''maqām''), or "modes," characteristic melodic patterns with prescribed scales, preferential notes, typical melodic and rhythmic formulas, variety of intonations, and other conventional devices."<ref name="Britannica"/> rhythmic modes are known as ''īqāʿāt'' (singular ''īqāʿ''), and they have a "cyclical patterns of strong and weak beats".<ref name="Britannica"/> ==Instruments== {{Expand section|date=May 2008}} Although there are a wide variety of opinions on the permissibility of musical instruments, those who produce Islamic music with instruments often feature the following instruments: Traditional: * [[Drums]] ([[daf]], bendir, [[Tonbak|zarb]], [[rebana]], etc.) * [[Gong]]s ==Differences of opinion over prohibition== {{main|Islam and music}} {{Blockquote|text=Strictly speaking, the words 'Islamic religious music' present a contradiction in terms. The practice of orthodox Sunni and Shi'a Islam does not involve any activity recognized within Muslim cultures as 'music'. The melodious recitation of the Holy Qur'an and the call to prayer are central to Islam, but generic terms for music have never been applied to them. Instead, specialist designations have been used. However, a wide variety of religious and spiritual genres that use musical instruments exists, usually performed at various public and private assemblies outside the orthodox sphere.|author=Eckhard Neubauer, Veronica Doubleday|title=Islamic religious music|source=''New Grove Dictionary of Music online''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Islamic religious music|url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000052787|access-date=2021-04-12|website=Grove Music Online|year=2001|language=en|doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787|last1=Neubauer|first1=Eckhard|last2=Doubleday|first2=Veronica|isbn=978-1-56159-263-0}}</ref>}} The question of permissibility of music in [[Islamic jurisprudence]] is historically disputed,<ref name="Al-Shawkani-8">{{Cite book|last=Al-Shawkani|first=Muhammed|title=Nayl Al-Awtaar|volume=8}}</ref> and with the advent of a whole new generation of Muslim musicians who try to blend their work and faith, the issue "has taken on extra significance".<ref name="IT-21-7-2006">{{cite news |title=Scholars and musicians hotly debate whether music is permissible or not |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/scholars-and-musicians-hotly-debate-whether-music-is-permissible-or-not-1.1262467 |access-date=27 August 2021 |agency=Irish Times |date=21 July 2006}}</ref> Islamic art and music flourished during the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/> ==Contemporary Islamic music== {{columns-list| Notable nasheed artists include: * [[Atif Aslam]] – Pakistan * [[Ahmad Hussain]] – United Kingdom * [[Ahmed Bukhatir]] – United Arab Emirates * [[Ahmet Özhan]] – Turkey * [[Akagündüz Kutbay]] – Turkey * [[Abu Ratib]] – Syria * [[Al-Andalus Ensemble]] – Spain * [[Dawud Wharnsby]] – Canada * [[Haddad Alwi]] – Indonesia *[[:id:Syech bin Abdul Qodir Assegaf|Syech bin Abdul Qodir Assegaf]] – Indonesia * [[Hamza Namira]] – Egypt * [[Hamza Robertson]] – United Kingdom * [[Imad Rami]] – Syria * [[Junaid Jamshed]] – Pakistan * [[Maher Zain]] – Sweden * [[Mecca2Medina]] – United Kingdom * [[Mesut Kurtis]] – United Kingdom * [[Muslim Belal]] – United Kingdom * [[Native Deen]] – United States * [[Nazeel Azami]] – United Kingdom * [[Raef (singer)|Raef]] – United States * [[Raihan]] – Malaysia * [[Sami Yusuf]] – United Kingdom * [[Yahya Hawwa]] – Syria * [[Yusuf Islam]] – United Kingdom * [[Zain Bhikha]] – South Africa Notable Sufi singers include: * [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] – Pakistan * [[Abida Parveen]] – Pakistan * [[Sabri Brothers]] – Pakistan * [[Munshi Raziuddin]] – India * [[Fareed Ayaz]] – Pakistan * [[Alam Lohar]] – Pakistan Noted composers: * [[A. R. Rahman]] – India * [[Resul Pookutty]] – India * [[Rohail Hyatt]] – Pakistan }} ==See also== {{columns-list|colwidth=20em| * [[Afghanistan National Institute of Music]] * [[Durood]] * [[Hamd]] * [[Islamic poetry]] * [[Mawlid]] * [[Mehfil]] * [[Na'at]] * [[Nasheed]] * [[Religious music in Iran]] * [[Sufi poetry]] * [[Sufism]] * [[Sufi music]] }} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== {{commons category|Islamic music}} {{wikiquote}} *{{Cite news|last1=Neubauer|first1=Eckhardt|last2=Doubleday|first2=Veronica|date=2001|title=Islamic religious music|work=Grove Music online|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787|isbn=978-1-56159-263-0|url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000052787|access-date=2021-04-12}} *Jenkins, Jean and Olsen, Poul Rovsing (1976). ''Music and Musical Instruments in the World of Islam''. World of Islam Festival. {{ISBN|0-905035-11-9}}. * [[Habib Hassan Touma]] (1996). ''The Music of the Arabs'', trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. {{ISBN|0-931340-88-8}}. * Shiloah, Amnon (1995). "Music in the World of Islam: A Socio-cultural study." Wayne State University Press. 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