CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of tariffs in the United States - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"fafd6445-cfd3-46f1-b06e-facdfb7f7572","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States","wgTitle":"History of tariffs in the United States","wgCurRevisionId":1259672352,"wgRevisionId":1259672352,"wgArticleId":3873491,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Comics articles needing issue citations","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use American English from January 2019","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Use mdy dates from January 2019","Articles needing additional references from November 2024" ,"All articles needing additional references","Articles lacking reliable references from November 2024","All articles lacking reliable references","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2024","History of foreign trade of the United States","History of taxation in the United States","History of international trade","History of the United States by topic"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States","wgRelevantArticleId":3873491,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Tariffs_in_United_States_history","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode": "en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q7686042","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user": "ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface", "ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of tariffs in the United States - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States rootpage-History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Tariff_revenues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tariff_revenues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Tariff revenues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tariff_revenues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Historical summary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tariffs_and_historical_American_politicians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tariffs_and_historical_American_politicians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Tariffs and historical American politicians </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tariffs_and_historical_American_politicians-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Tariffs and historical American politicians subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Tariffs_and_historical_American_politicians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-George_Washington" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_Washington"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 George Washington </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_Washington-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_Jefferson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Jefferson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Thomas Jefferson </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Jefferson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Henry_Clay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_Clay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Henry Clay </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_Clay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-James_Monroe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Monroe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 James Monroe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Monroe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abraham_Lincoln" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abraham_Lincoln"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Abraham Lincoln </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abraham_Lincoln-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_McKinley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_McKinley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 William McKinley </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_McKinley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theodore_Roosevelt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theodore_Roosevelt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Theodore Roosevelt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theodore_Roosevelt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Donald_Trump" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Donald_Trump"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Donald Trump </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Donald_Trump-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joe_Biden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joe_Biden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Joe Biden </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joe_Biden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_Era_to_1789" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_Era_to_1789"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Colonial Era to 1789 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_Era_to_1789-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_National_period,_1789–1828" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_National_period,_1789–1828"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Early National period, 1789–1828 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_National_period,_1789–1828-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Party_System,_1829–1859" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Party_System,_1829–1859"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Second Party System, 1829–1859 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_Party_System,_1829–1859-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Second Party System, 1829–1859 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Second_Party_System,_1829–1859-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Walker_Tariff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Walker_Tariff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Walker Tariff </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Walker_Tariff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low_tariff_of_1857" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_tariff_of_1857"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Low tariff of 1857 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_tariff_of_1857-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Party_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Party_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Third Party System </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Party_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1860–1912" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1860–1912"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 1860–1912 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1860–1912-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1860–1912 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1860–1912-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Civil War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstruction_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstruction_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Reconstruction era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstruction_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_of_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_of_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Politics of protection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_of_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farmers_and_wool" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farmers_and_wool"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Farmers and wool </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farmers_and_wool-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._industrial_output" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._industrial_output"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 U.S. industrial output </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._industrial_output-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cleveland_tariff_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cleveland_tariff_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Cleveland tariff policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cleveland_tariff_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-McKinley_tariff_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#McKinley_tariff_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 McKinley tariff policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-McKinley_tariff_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tariff_with_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tariff_with_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Tariff with Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tariff_with_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1913_to_1929" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1913_to_1929"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 1913 to 1929 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1913_to_1929-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tariffs_and_the_Great_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tariffs_and_the_Great_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Tariffs and the Great Depression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tariffs_and_the_Great_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_liberalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_liberalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Trade liberalization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_liberalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Post World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1980s_to_2000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1980s_to_2000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 1980s to 2000 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1980s_to_2000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2000_to_present:_Deindustrialization_and_lower_wages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2000_to_present:_Deindustrialization_and_lower_wages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 2000 to present: Deindustrialization and lower wages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2000_to_present:_Deindustrialization_and_lower_wages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smuggling_and_Coast_Guard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smuggling_and_Coast_Guard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Smuggling and Coast Guard </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smuggling_and_Coast_Guard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of tariffs in the United States</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 1 language" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-1" aria-hidden="true" > 1 language </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%B2_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Тариф в історії США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тариф в історії США" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7686042#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&oldid=1259672352" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&id=1259672352&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7686042" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tariffs_in_United_States_history&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">Tariffs in United States history</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economy of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-clip:padding-box;"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of the United States"><img alt="Coat of arms of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agricultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the petroleum industry in the United States">Petroleum history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding_in_the_American_colonies" title="Shipbuilding in the American colonies">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_dollar" title="History of the United States dollar">History of the United States dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariff in United States history">Tariff History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar#History" title="United States dollar">United States dollar § History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_the_United_States_by_state_or_territory" title="Category:Economic history of the United States by state or territory">History by state</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">Sectors</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Primary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary sector">Primary sector</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_in_the_United_States" title="Petroleum in the United States">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Electricity sector in the United States">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States"> Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Fishing industry in the United States">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in the United States">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water and sanitation</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Secondary sector</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Automotive industry in the United States">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">Iron and steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Pulp and paper industry in the United States">Pulp and paper</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary sector">Tertiary sector</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation in United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_the_United_States" title="Gambling in the United States">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Financial_services_in_the_United_States" title="Financial services in the United States">Financial services</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Federal_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Federal Reserve">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_banks_in_the_United_States" title="List of largest banks in the United States">Largest banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Stock_exchanges_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Stock exchanges in the United States">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_companies_in_the_United_States_by_revenue" title="List of largest companies in the United States by revenue">Largest companies</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_companies_listed_on_the_New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="Category:Lists of companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange">Companies listed on the NYSE</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Economy by state</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_California" title="Economy of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Texas" title="Economy of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_New_York_(state)" title="Economy of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Florida" title="Economy of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States_by_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="List of states and territories of the United States by GDP">more...</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>State statistics</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_budgets" title="List of U.S. state budgets">State budgets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_credit_rating" title="List of U.S. states by credit rating">State credit ratings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate">State unemployment rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_affiliation_by_U.S._state" title="Union affiliation by U.S. state">Union membership</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Economy by city or county</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Allentown,_Pennsylvania" title="Economy of Allentown, Pennsylvania">Allentown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Atlanta" title="Economy of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Economy of Buffalo, New York">Buffalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Chicago" title="Economy of Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Greater_Cleveland" title="Economy of Greater Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Columbus,_Ohio" title="Economy of Columbus, Ohio">Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_metropolitan_Detroit" title="Economy of metropolitan Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Door_County,_Wisconsin" title="Economy of Door County, Wisconsin">Door County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Erie,_Pennsylvania" title="Economy of Erie, Pennsylvania">Erie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Houston" title="Economy of Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Indianapolis" title="Economy of Indianapolis">Indianapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kansas_City" title="Economy of Kansas City">Kansas City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="Economy of Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Long_Island" title="Economy of Long Island">Long Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Economy of Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Economy of Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_New_York_City" title="Economy of New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Norfolk,_Virginia" title="Economy of Norfolk, Virginia">Norfolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Economy of Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Philadelphia" title="Economy of Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Phoenix" title="Economy of Phoenix">Phoenix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Pittsburgh" title="Economy of Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Salt_Lake_City" title="Economy of Salt Lake City">Salt Lake City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_San_Diego" title="Economy of San Diego">San Diego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Spokane,_Washington" title="Economy of Spokane, Washington">Spokane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_St._Louis" title="Economy of St. Louis">St. Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Stamford,_Connecticut" title="Economy of Stamford, Connecticut">Stamford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Youngstown,_Ohio" title="Economy of Youngstown, Ohio">Youngstown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Washington_Metropolitan_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of the Washington Metropolitan Area">Washington, D.C.</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Labor_force_in_the_United_States" title="Labor force in the United States">Labor</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor law">Labor Law</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labor_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor laws in the United States">Child labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">Minimum wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-to-work_law" title="Right-to-work law">Right-to-work law</a></li></ul> Employment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States"> Unemployment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Causes of unemployment in the United States">Causes</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economy_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template:Economy of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template talk:Economy of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economy_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economy of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">Tariffs</a> have historically served a key role in the <a href="/wiki/Trade_policy_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade policy of the United States">trade policy of the United States</a>. Their purpose was to generate revenue for the federal government and to allow for <a href="/wiki/Import_substitution_industrialization" title="Import substitution industrialization">import substitution industrialization</a> (industrialization of a nation by replacing imports with domestic production) by acting as a <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protective barrier</a> around <a href="/wiki/Infant_industry_argument" title="Infant industry argument">infant industries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> They also aimed to reduce the trade deficit and the pressure of foreign competition. Tariffs were one of the pillars of the <a href="/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">American System</a> that allowed the rapid development and industrialization of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-auto-2">[2]</a> The United States pursued a protectionist policy from the beginning of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century. Between 1861 and 1933, they had one of the highest average tariff rates on manufactured imports in the world. After 1942, the U.S. began to promote worldwide free trade. After the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_Presidential_Election" class="mw-redirect" title="2016 United States Presidential Election">2016 presidential election</a>, the US increased trade protectionism.<a href="#cite_note-auto-2">[2]</a> According to Dartmouth economist Douglas Irwin, tariffs have served three primary purposes: "to raise revenue for the government, to restrict imports and protect domestic producers from foreign competition, and to reach reciprocity agreements that reduce trade barriers."<a href="#cite_note-Irwin-2020-3">[3]</a> From 1790 to 1860, average tariffs increased from 20 percent to 60 percent before declining again to 20 percent.<a href="#cite_note-Irwin-2020-3">[3]</a> From 1861 to 1933, which Irwin characterizes as the "restriction period", the average tariffs increased to 50 percent and remained at that level for several decades. From 1934 onwards, which Irwin characterizes as the "reciprocity period", the average tariff declined substantially until it leveled off at 5 percent.<a href="#cite_note-Irwin-2020-3">[3]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tariff_revenues">Tariff revenues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Tariff revenues">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Excise_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Excise tax in the United States">Excise tax in the United States</a></div> <table class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" align="right" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="7" bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center">U.S. Historical Tariffs (<a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">Customs</a>) and Tax Collections by the Federal Government </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">(All dollar amounts are in millions of U.S. dollars)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">Year</th> <th>Tariff Income</th> <th>Budget % Tariff</th> <th>Federal Receipts</th> <th>Income Tax</th> <th>Payroll Tax</th> <th>Average Tariff </th></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1792 </th> <td>$4.4</td> <td>95.0%</td> <td>$4.6</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>15.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1795 </th> <td>$5.6</td> <td>91.6%</td> <td>$6.1</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>8.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1800 </th> <td>$9.1</td> <td>83.7%</td> <td>$10.8</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>10.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1805 </th> <td>$12.9</td> <td>95.4%</td> <td>$13.6</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>10.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1810 </th> <td>$8.6</td> <td>91.5%</td> <td>$9.4</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>10.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1815 </th> <td>$7.3</td> <td>46.4%</td> <td>$15.7</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>6.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1820 </th> <td>$15.0</td> <td>83.9%</td> <td>$17.9</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>20.2% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1825 </th> <td>$20.1</td> <td>97.9%</td> <td>$20.5</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>22.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1830 </th> <td>$21.9</td> <td>88.2%</td> <td>$24.8</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>35.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1835 </th> <td>$19.4</td> <td>54.1%</td> <td>$35.8</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>14.2% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1840 </th> <td>$12.5</td> <td>64.2%</td> <td>$19.5</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>12.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1845 </th> <td>$27.5</td> <td>91.9%</td> <td>$30.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>24.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1850 </th> <td>$39.7</td> <td>91.0%</td> <td>$43.6</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>22.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1855 </th> <td>$53.0</td> <td>81.2%</td> <td>$65.4</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>20.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1860 </th> <td>$53.2</td> <td>94.9%</td> <td>$56.1</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>15.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1863 </th> <td>$63.0</td> <td>55.9%</td> <td>$112.7</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>25.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1864 </th> <td>$102.3</td> <td>38.7%</td> <td>$264.6</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>32.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1865 </th> <td>$84.9</td> <td>25.4%</td> <td>$333.7</td> <td>$61.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>35.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1870 </th> <td>$194.5</td> <td>47.3%</td> <td>$411.3</td> <td>$37.8</td> <td>$-</td> <td>44.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1875 </th> <td>$157.2</td> <td>54.6%</td> <td>$288.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>36.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1880 </th> <td>$184.5</td> <td>55.3%</td> <td>$333.5</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>27.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1885 </th> <td>$181.5</td> <td>56.1%</td> <td>$323.7</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>32.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1890 </th> <td>$229.7</td> <td>57.0%</td> <td>$403.1</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>27.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1900 </th> <td>$233.2</td> <td>41.1%</td> <td>$567.2</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>27.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1910 </th> <td>$233.7</td> <td>34.6%</td> <td>$675.2</td> <td>$-</td> <td>$-</td> <td>15.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1913 </th> <td>$318.8</td> <td>44.0%</td> <td>$724.1</td> <td>$35.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>17.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1915 </th> <td>$209.8</td> <td>30.1%</td> <td>$697.9</td> <td>$47.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>12.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1916 </th> <td>$213.7</td> <td>27.3%</td> <td>$782.5</td> <td>$121.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>8.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1917 </th> <td>$225.9</td> <td>20.1%</td> <td>$1,124.3</td> <td>$373.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>7.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1918 </th> <td>$947.0</td> <td>25.8%</td> <td>$3,664.6</td> <td>$2,720.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>31.2% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1920 </th> <td>$886.0</td> <td>13.2%</td> <td>$6,694.6</td> <td>$4,032.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>16.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1925 </th> <td>$547.6</td> <td>14.5%</td> <td>$3,780.1</td> <td>$1,697.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>13.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1928 </th> <td>$566.0</td> <td>14.0%</td> <td>$4,042.3</td> <td>$2,088.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>13.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1930 </th> <td>$587.0</td> <td>14.1%</td> <td>$4,177.9</td> <td>$2,300.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>19.2% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1935 </th> <td>$318.8</td> <td>8.4%</td> <td>$3,800.5</td> <td>$1,100.0</td> <td>$-</td> <td>15.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1940 </th> <td>$331.0</td> <td>6.1%</td> <td>$5,387.1</td> <td>$2,100.0</td> <td>$800.0</td> <td>12.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1942 </th> <td>$369.0</td> <td>2.9%</td> <td>$12,799.1</td> <td>$7,900.0</td> <td>$1,200.0</td> <td>13.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1944 </th> <td>$417.0</td> <td>0.9%</td> <td>$44,148.9</td> <td>$34,400.0</td> <td>$1,900.0</td> <td>10.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1946 </th> <td>$424.0</td> <td>0.9%</td> <td>$46,400.0</td> <td>$28,000.0</td> <td>$1,900.0</td> <td>7.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1948 </th> <td>$408.0</td> <td>0.9%</td> <td>$47,300.0</td> <td>$29,000.0</td> <td>$2,500.0</td> <td>5.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1950 </th> <td>$407.0</td> <td>0.9%</td> <td>$43,800.0</td> <td>$26,200.0</td> <td>$3,000.0</td> <td>4.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1951 </th> <td>$609.0</td> <td>1.1%</td> <td>$56,700.0</td> <td>$35,700.0</td> <td>$4,100.0</td> <td>5.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1955 </th> <td>$585.0</td> <td>0.8%</td> <td>$71,900.0</td> <td>$46,400.0</td> <td>$6,100.0</td> <td>5.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1960 </th> <td>$1,105.0</td> <td>1.1%</td> <td>$99,800.0</td> <td>$62,200.0</td> <td>$12,200.0</td> <td>7.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1965 </th> <td>$1,442.0</td> <td>1.2%</td> <td>$116,800.0</td> <td>$74,300.0</td> <td>$22,200.0</td> <td>6.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1970 </th> <td>$2,430.0</td> <td>1.3%</td> <td>$192,800.0</td> <td>$123,200.0</td> <td>$44,400.0</td> <td>6.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1975 </th> <td>$3,676.0</td> <td>1.3%</td> <td>$279,100.0</td> <td>$163,000.0</td> <td>$84,500.0</td> <td>3.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1980 </th> <td>$7,174.0</td> <td>1.4%</td> <td>$517,100.0</td> <td>$308,700.0</td> <td>$157,800.0</td> <td>2.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1985 </th> <td>$12,079.0</td> <td>1.6%</td> <td>$734,000.0</td> <td>$395,900.0</td> <td>$255,200.0</td> <td>3.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1990 </th> <td>$11,500.0</td> <td>1.1%</td> <td>$1,032,000.0</td> <td>$560,400.0</td> <td>$380,000.0</td> <td>2.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">1995 </th> <td>$19,301.0</td> <td>1.4%</td> <td>$1,361,000.0</td> <td>$747,200.0</td> <td>$484,500.0</td> <td>2.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">2000 </th> <td>$19,914.0</td> <td>1.0%</td> <td>$2,025,200.0</td> <td>$1,211,700.0</td> <td>$652,900.0</td> <td>1.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">2005 </th> <td>$23,379.0</td> <td>1.1%</td> <td>$2,153,600.0</td> <td>$1,205,500.0</td> <td>$794,100.0</td> <td>1.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th align="right">2010 </th> <td>$25,298.0</td> <td>1.2%</td> <td>$2,162,700.0</td> <td>$1,090,000.0</td> <td>$864,800.0</td> <td>1.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" style="text-align:left;">-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" style="text-align:left;">Notes: All dollar amounts are in millions of U.S. dollars Income taxes include Individual and Corporate taxes Federal expenditures often exceed Revenue by temporary borrowings. Initially the U.S. Federal Government was financed mainly by <a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">customs</a>(<a href="/wiki/Tariffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs">tariffs</a> Average Tariff Rate % = Customs Revenue/ cost of Imports (goods). Other taxes collected are: Income Tax, Corporate Income Tax, Inheritance, Tariffs—often called <a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">Customs</a> or duties on imports, etc. Income Taxes began in 1913 with the passage of 16th Amendment. Payroll taxes are Social Security and Medicare taxes Payroll Taxes began in 1940. Many Federal government <a href="/wiki/Excise" title="Excise">Excise</a> taxes are assigned to Trust Funds and are collected for and "dedicated" to a particular Trust. Sources: <ul><li>Historical Statistics of the United States (Colonial Times to 1957)<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></li> <li>Historical Statistics of the United States (Colonial Times to 1970)<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></li> <li>Bicentennial Edition Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></li> <li>Historical Tables<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></li> <li>U.S. imports for consumption, duties collected, and ratio of duties to value, 1891–2016;</li> <li>U.S. imports for consumption under tariff preference programs, 1976–2016<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li>U.S. Trade in Goods and Services-Balance of Payments (BOP) Basis, 1960–2010<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/History of tariffs in the United States">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (November 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Tariffs were the greatest (approaching 95% at times) source of federal revenue until the <a href="/wiki/Federal_income_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal income tax">federal income tax</a> began after 1913. For well over a century the federal government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20% on foreign imports. At the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> in 1865 about 63% of Federal income was generated by the excise taxes, which exceeded the 25.4% generated by tariffs. In 1915 during World War I, tariffs generated 30.1% of revenues. Since 1935, tariff income has continued to be a declining percentage of Federal tax income. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_summary">Historical summary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical summary">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Federal_taxes_by_type.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Federal_taxes_by_type.pdf/page1-330px-Federal_taxes_by_type.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Federal_taxes_by_type.pdf/page1-495px-Federal_taxes_by_type.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Federal_taxes_by_type.pdf/page1-660px-Federal_taxes_by_type.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2760" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>Federal revenue by type, 1792–2016</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Average_tariff_rates_(France,_UK,_US).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png/330px-Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png/495px-Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png/660px-Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>Average tariff rates in France, UK, US</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_(1821-2016).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png/330px-Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png/495px-Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png/660px-Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="653" /></a><figcaption>The average US tariff rates, 1821–2016</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Trade_Balance_(1895%E2%80%932015)_and_Trade_Policies.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png/330px-U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png/495px-U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png/660px-U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png 2x" data-file-width="1139" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>U.S. trade balance and trade policy, 1895–2015</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tariffs in the United States">List of tariffs in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protectionism_in_the_United_States" title="Protectionism in the United States">Protectionism in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Foreign trade of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png/330px-Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png/495px-Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png/660px-Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png 2x" data-file-width="981" data-file-height="703" /></a><figcaption>Real Income Gains in the Global Population<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></figcaption></figure> After the United States achieved independence in 1783, under the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, the U.S. federal government, could not collect taxes directly but had to "request" money from each state. The power to levy taxes and tariffs, when proposed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, was granted to the federal government by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> after it came into effect in 1789. The new government needed a way to collect taxes from all the states that were easy to enforce and had only a nominal cost to the average citizen. The <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1789" title="Tariff of 1789">Tariff of 1789</a> was the second bill signed by President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> imposing a tariff of about 5% on nearly all imports, with a few exceptions. <a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-11">[11]</a> In 1790 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">United States Revenue Cutter Service</a> was established to primarily enforce and collect the import tariffs. This service later became the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">United States Coast Guard</a>. The UK was the first country to employ a strategy of promoting emerging industry on a large scale. However, its most fervent supporter was the United States; Paul Bairoch called the U.S., “the mother country and bastion of modern protectionism.”<a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-11">[11]</a> Many American intellectuals and politicians during the country's catching-up period felt that the free trade theory advocated by British classical economists was not suited to their country. They argued that the country should develop manufacturing industries and use government protection and subsidies for this purpose, as Britain had done before them. Many of the great American economists of the time, until the last quarter of the 19th century, were strong advocates of industrial protection: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Raymond" title="Daniel Raymond">Daniel Raymond</a> who influenced <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">Friedrich List</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathew_Carey" title="Mathew Carey">Mathew Carey</a> and his son Henry, who was one of Lincoln's economic advisers. The intellectual leader of this movement was <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States (1789–1795).<a href="#cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">[12]</a> The United States rejected <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_comparative_advantage" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of comparative advantage">theory of comparative advantage</a> and protected its industry. The country pursued a protectionist policy from the beginning of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century, after the Second World War.<a href="#cite_note-Institute_for_Policy_Studies-2003-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">[12]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Report_on_Manufactures" title="Report on Manufactures">Report on Manufactures</a> which is considered the first text to express modern protectionist theory, Alexander Hamilton argued that if a country wished to develop a new activity on its soil, it would have to temporarily protect it. According to him, this protection against foreign producers could take the form of import duties or, in rare cases, prohibition of imports. He called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. He also believed that duties on raw materials should be generally low.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Hamilton argued that despite an initial "increase of price" caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a "domestic manufacture has attained to perfection... it invariably becomes cheaper".<a href="#cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">[12]</a> In this report, Hamilton also proposed export bans on major raw materials, tariff reductions on industrial inputs, pricing and patenting of inventions, regulation of product standards and development of financial and transportation infrastructure. The U.S. Congress adopted the tariffs but refused to grant subsidies to manufactures. Hamilton shaped the pattern of American economic policy until the end of World War II, and his program created the conditions for rapid industrial development.<a href="#cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Raymond" title="Daniel Raymond">Daniel Raymond</a> were among the first theorists to present the <a href="/wiki/Infant_industry_argument" title="Infant industry argument">infant industry argument</a>. Hamilton was the first to use the term "infant industries" and to introduce it to the forefront of economic thinking. He believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. And he feared that Britain's policy towards the colonies would condemn the United States to be only producers of agricultural products and raw materials.<a href="#cite_note-Institute_for_Policy_Studies-2003-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">[12]</a> Britain initially did not want to industrialize the American colonies, and implemented policies to that effect (for example, banning high value-added manufacturing activities). Under British rule, America was denied the use of tariffs to protect its new industries. Thus, the American Revolution was, to some extent, a war against this policy, in which the commercial elite of the colonies rebelled against being forced to play a lesser role in the emerging Atlantic economy. This explains why, after independence, the Tariff Act of 1789 was the second bill of the Republic signed by President Washington allowing Congress to impose a fixed tariff of 5% on all imports, with a few exceptions.<a href="#cite_note-Chang-15">[15]</a> Between 1792 and the war with Britain in 1812, the average tariff level remained around 12.5%, which was too low to encourage consumers to buy domestic products and thus support emerging American industries. When the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American_War_of_1812" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-American War of 1812">Anglo-American War of 1812</a> broke out, all rates doubled to an average of 25% to account for increased government spending. The war paved the way for new industries by disrupting manufacturing imports from the UK and the rest of Europe. A major policy shift occurred in 1816, when American manufacturers who had benefited from the tariffs lobbied to retain them. New legislation was introduced to keep tariffs at the same levels —especially protected were cotton, woolen, and iron goods.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The average rate rose to 35% in 1816. The public agreed, and by 1820, the average rate in the U.S. had risen to 40%. Between 1816 and the end of World War II, the U.S. had one of the highest average import tariffs on manufactured goods in the world. In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> continued Hamilton's themes within the <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a> under the name "<a href="/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">American System</a>" which consisted of protecting industries and developing infrastructure in explicit opposition to the "British system" of free trade.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The American Civil War (1861–1865) was partly triggered by the tariff question. Southern agricultural states opposed any form of protection, while northern industrial states wanted to maintain protection. The fledgling <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade. Early in his political career, Lincoln was a member of the protectionist Whig Party and a supporter of Henry Clay. In 1847, he declared: "Give us a protective tariff, and we shall have the greatest nation on earth". He implemented a 44-percent tariff during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>—in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort, and to protect favored industries.<a href="#cite_note-Chang-15">[15]</a> Tariffs remained at this level even after the war, so that the North's victory in the Civil War allowed the U.S. to remain one of the largest users of tariff protection for industry.<a href="#cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">[12]</a> From 1871 to 1913, "the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent [and] gross national product (GNP) grew 4.3 percent annually, twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century," notes Alfred Eckes Jr, chairman of the U.S. International Trade Commission under President Reagan.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> After the United States caught up with European industries in the 1890s, the <a href="/wiki/Mckinley_Tariff" class="mw-redirect" title="Mckinley Tariff">Mckinley Tariff</a>'s argument was no longer to protect “infant industries”, but to maintain workers' wages, support agricultural protection and the principle of reciprocity.<a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-11">[11]</a> In 1896, the GOP pledged platform pledged to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman".<a href="#cite_note-presidency.ucsb.edu-19">[19]</a> In 1913, following the electoral victory of the Democrats in 1912, there was a significant reduction in the average tariff on manufactured goods from 44% to 25%. However, the First World War rendered this bill ineffective, and new "emergency" tariff legislation was introduced in 1922, after the Republicans returned to power in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">[12]</a> According to economist <a href="/wiki/Ha-Joon_Chang" title="Ha-Joon Chang">Ha-Joon Chang</a>, the protectionist period thus corresponded to the golden age of American industry, when US economic performance outstripped that of the rest of the world. They pursued an interventionist, protectionist policy to promote and protect their industries through tariffs. This would have enabled the United States to enjoy the fastest economic growth in the world throughout the 19th century, right up to the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">[12]</a> It was only after the Second World War that the U.S. liberalized its trade (although not as unequivocally as Britain did in the mid-nineteenth century). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tariffs_and_historical_American_politicians">Tariffs and historical American politicians</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Tariffs and historical American politicians">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a>. Please improve this section by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. (November 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In 1896, the GOP platform pledged to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman."<a href="#cite_note-presidency.ucsb.edu-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="George_Washington">George Washington</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: George Washington">edit</a>]</div> "I use no porter or cheese in my family, but such as is made in America," the inaugural President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> wrote, boasting that these domestic products are "of an excellent quality." One of the first acts of Congress Washington signed was a tariff among whose stated purpose was "the encouragement and protection of manufactures."<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In his 1790 <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union Address</a>, Washington justified his tariff policy for national security reasons: <blockquote>A free people ought not only to be armed, but disciplined; to which end a uniform and well-digested plan is requisite; and their safety and interest require that they should promote such manufactories as tend to render them independent of others for essential, particularly military, supplies<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thomas_Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Thomas Jefferson">edit</a>]</div> As President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> wrote in explaining why his views had evolved to favor more protectionist policies: "In so complicated a science as political economy, no one axiom can be laid down as wise and expedient for all times and circumstances, and for their contraries."<a href="#cite_note-founders.archives.gov-22">[22]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, Jefferson's position began to resemble that of Washington, some level of protection was necessary to secure the nation's political independence. He said:<a href="#cite_note-founders.archives.gov-22">[22]</a> <blockquote>experience has taught me that manufactures are now as necessary to our independence as to our comfort: and if those who quote me as of a different opinion will keep pace with me in purchasing nothing foreign where an equivalent of domestic fabric can be obtained, without regard to difference of price<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_Clay">Henry Clay</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Henry Clay">edit</a>]</div> In 1832, then the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senator</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>, Henry Clay said about his disdain for "free traders" that "it is not free trade that they are recommending to our acceptance. It is in effect, the British colonial system that we are invited to adopt; and, if their policy prevail, it will lead substantially to the re-colonization of these States, under the commercial dominion of Great Britain."<a href="#cite_note-senate.gov-24">[24]</a> Clay said: <blockquote>When gentlemen have succeeded in their design of an immediate or gradual destruction of the American System, what is their substitute? Free trade! Free trade! The call for free trade is as unavailing as the cry of a spoiled child, in its nurse's arms, for the moon, or the stars that glitter in the firmament of heaven. It never has existed; it never will exist. Trade implies, at least two parties. To be free, it should be fair, equal and reciprocal.<a href="#cite_note-senate.gov-24">[24]</a></blockquote> Clay explained that "equal and reciprocal free trade never has existed; [and] it never will exist." He warned against practicing "romantic trade philanthropy... which invokes us to continue to purchase the produce of foreign industry, without regard to the state or prosperity of our own." Clay that he was "utterly and irreconcilably opposed to trade which would throw wide open our ports to foreign productions without reciprocation".<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="James_Monroe">James Monroe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: James Monroe">edit</a>]</div> In 1822, President <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> observed that "whatever may be the abstract doctrine in favor of unrestricted commerce," the conditions necessary for its success—reciprocity and international peace—"has never occurred and can not be expected." Monroe said, "strong reasons... impose on us the obligation to cherish and sustain our manufactures."<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abraham_Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Abraham Lincoln">edit</a>]</div> President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> declared, "Give us a protective tariff and we will have the greatest nation on earth." Lincoln warned that "the abandonment of the protective policy by the American Government... must produce want and ruin among our people."<a href="#cite_note-U-M_Library_Digital_Collections-27">[27]</a> Lincoln similarly said that, "if a duty amount to full protection be levied upon an article" that could be produced domestically, "at no distant day, in consequence of such duty," the domestic article "will be sold to our people cheaper than before."<a href="#cite_note-U-M_Library_Digital_Collections-27">[27]</a> Additionally, Lincoln argued that based on economies of scale, any temporary increase in costs resulting from a tariff would eventually decrease as the domestic manufacturer produced more. Lincoln did not see a tariff as a tax on low-income Americans because it would only burden the consumer according to the amount the consumer consumed. By the tariff system, the whole revenue is paid by the consumers of foreign goods... the burthen of revenue falls almost entirely on the wealthy and luxurious few, while the substantial and laboring many who live at home, and upon home products, go entirely free.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Lincoln argued that a tariff system was less intrusive than domestic taxation: The tariff is the cheaper system, because the duties, being collected in large parcels at a few commercial points, will require comparatively few officers in their collection; while by the direct tax system, the land must be literally covered with assessors and collectors, going forth like swarms of Egyptian locusts, devouring every blade of grass and other green thing.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_McKinley">William McKinley</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: William McKinley">edit</a>]</div> President <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> stated the United States' stance under the Republican Party as: <blockquote>Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave. Protection is but the law of nature, the law of self-preservation, of self-development, of securing the highest and best destiny of the race of man.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> [It is said] that protection is immoral.... Why, if protection builds up and elevates 63,000,000 [the U.S. population] of people, the influence of those 63,000,000 of people elevates the rest of the world. We cannot take a step in the pathway of progress without benefiting mankind everywhere<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></blockquote> <blockquote>[Free trade] destroys the dignity and independence of American labor... It will take away from the people of this country who work for a living—and the majority of them live by the sweat of their faces—it will take from them heart and home and hope. It will be self-destruction.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></blockquote> He also categorically rejected the "cheaper is better" argument: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">They [free traders] say, 'Buy where you can buy the cheapest.' That is one of their maxims... Of course, that applies to labor as to everything else. Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that, and it is the protection maxim: 'Buy where you can pay the easiest.' And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards.<a href="#cite_note-Halstead-1901-33">[33]</a> They say, if you had not the Protective Tariff things would be a little cheaper. Well, whether a thing is cheap or whether it is dear depends on what we can earn by our daily labor. Free trade cheapens the product by cheapening the producer. Protection cheapens the product by elevating the producer.<a href="#cite_note-Halstead-1901-33">[33]</a> The protective tariff policy of the Republicans... has made the lives of the masses of our countrymen sweeter and brighter, and has entered the homes of America carrying comfort and cheer and courage. It gives a premium to human energy, and awakens the noblest aspiration in the breasts of men. Our own experience shows that it is the best for our citizenship and our civilization and that it opens up a higher and better destiny for our people.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theodore_Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Theodore Roosevelt">edit</a>]</div> President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> believed that America's economic growth was due to the protective tariffs, which helped her industrialize. He acknowledged this in his State of the Union address from 1902: <blockquote>The country has acquiesced in the wisdom of the protective-tariff principle. It is exceedingly undesirable that this system should be destroyed or that there should be violent and radical changes therein. Our past experience shows that great prosperity in this country has always come under a protective tariff.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Donald_Trump">Donald Trump</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Donald Trump">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">Trump tariffs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_Donald_Trump" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic policy of Donald Trump">Economic policy of Donald Trump</a></div> The Trump tariffs were imposed by <a href="/wiki/Executive_order" title="Executive order">executive order</a> (not by act of Congress) during the <a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">first presidency</a> of <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> as part of his <a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_Donald_Trump" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic policy of Donald Trump">economic policy</a>. In January 2018, Trump imposed tariffs on <a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">solar panels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Washing_machine" title="Washing machine">washing machines</a> of 30 to 50 percent.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> He soon imposed tariffs on steel (25%) and aluminum (10%) from most countries.<a href="#cite_note-HorsleyFormal-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Long-38">[38]</a> On June 1, 2018, this was extended on the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, Canada, and Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-Long-38">[38]</a> Separately, on May 10, the Trump administration set a tariff of 25% on 818 categories of goods imported from China worth $50 billion (~$59.8 billion in 2023).<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The only country which remained exempt from the steel and aluminum tariffs was Australia. Argentinian and Brazilian aluminium tariffs were started on December 2, 2019, in reaction to currency manipulation.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joe_Biden">Joe Biden</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Joe Biden">edit</a>]</div> In May 2024, the Biden administration doubled <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> on <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> imported from China and more than tripled tariffs on <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries</a> imported from China.<a href="#cite_note-:0-41">[41]</a> He also raised tariffs on imports of Chinese steel, aluminum, and medical equipment.<a href="#cite_note-:0-41">[41]</a> The tariff increases will be phased in over a period of three years.<a href="#cite_note-:0-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonial_Era_to_1789">Colonial Era to 1789</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Colonial Era to 1789">edit</a>]</div> In the colonial era, before 1775, nearly every colony levied its own tariffs, usually with lower rates for British products. There were taxes on ships (on a tonnage basis), import taxes on slaves, export taxes on tobacco, and import taxes on alcoholic beverages.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The London government insisted on a policy of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> whereby only British ships could trade in the colonies. In defiance, some American merchants engaged in smuggling.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> During the Revolution, the British blockade from 1775 to 1783 largely ended foreign trade. In the 1783–89 <a href="/wiki/Confederation_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederation Period">Confederation Period</a>, each state set up its own trade rules, often imposing tariffs or restrictions on neighboring states. The new Constitution, which went into effect in 1789, banned interstate tariffs or trade restrictions, as well as state taxes on exports.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_National_period,_1789–1828">Early National period, 1789–1828</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Early National period, 1789–1828">edit</a>]</div> The framers of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> gave the federal government authority to tax, stating that Congress has the power to "... lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States." and also "To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes." Tariffs between states is prohibited by the U.S. Constitution, and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax-free. Responding to an urgent need for revenue and a trade imbalance with England that was fast destroying the infant American industries and draining the nation of its currency, the <a href="/wiki/First_United_States_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="First United States Congress">First United States Congress</a> passed, and President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> signed, the Hamilton <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1789" title="Tariff of 1789">Tariff of 1789</a>, which authorized the collection of duties on imported goods. <a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">Customs</a> duties as set by tariff rates up to 1860 were usually about 80–95% of all federal revenue. Having just fought a war over taxation, among other things, the U.S. Congress wanted a reliable source of income that was relatively unobtrusive and easy to collect. It also sought to protect the infant industries that had developed during the war but which were now threatened by cheaper imports, especially from England.<a href="#cite_note-auto6-46">[46]</a> Tariffs and excise taxes were authorized by the United States Constitution and recommended by the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> in 1789 to tax foreign imports and set up low excise taxes on whiskey and a few other products to provide the Federal Government with enough money to pay its operating expenses and to redeem at full value U.S. Federal debts and the debts the states had accumulated during the Revolutionary War. The Congress set low excise taxes on only a few goods, such as, <a href="/wiki/Whiskey" class="mw-redirect" title="Whiskey">whiskey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snuff_(tobacco)" title="Snuff (tobacco)">snuff</a> and refined <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>. The tax on whiskey was highly controversial and set off massive protests by Western Farmers in the <a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a> of 1794, which was suppressed by General Washington at the head of an army. The whiskey excise tax collected so little and was so despised it was abolished by President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> in 1802.<a href="#cite_note-auto6-46">[46]</a> All tariffs were on a long list of goods (dutiable goods) with different customs rates and some goods on a "free" list. Books and publications were nearly always on the free list. Congress spent enormous amounts of time figuring out these tariff import tax schedules. With tariffs providing the basic federal revenue, an embargo on trade, or an enemy blockade, would threaten havoc. This happened in connection with the American economic warfare against Britain in the 1807–15 period. In 1807 imports dropped by more than half and some products became much more expensive or unobtainable. Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Embargo_Act_of_1807" title="Embargo Act of 1807">Embargo Act of 1807</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Non-Intercourse_Act_(1809)" title="Non-Intercourse Act (1809)">Non-Intercourse Act (1809)</a> to punish British and French governments for their actions; unfortunately their main effect was to reduce imports even more. The <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> brought a similar set of problems as U.S. trade was again restricted by British naval blockades. The fiscal crisis was made much worse by the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="First Bank of the U.S.">First Bank of the U.S.</a>, which was the national bank. It was reestablished right after the war.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The lack of imported goods relatively quickly gave very strong incentives to start building several U.S. industries in the Northeast. Textiles and machinery manufacturing plants especially grew. Many new industries were set up and run profitably during the wars and about half of them failed after hostilities ceased and normal import competition resumed. Industry in the U.S. was advancing up the skill set, innovation knowledge and organization curve as they adapted to the Industrial Revolution's new machines and techniques. The <a href="/wiki/Tariff_Act_of_1789" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariff Act of 1789">Tariff Act of 1789</a> imposed the first national source of revenue for the newly formed United States. The new <a href="/wiki/U.S._Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a> ratified in 1789, allowed only the federal government to levy uniform tariffs. Only the federal government could set tariff rates (customs), so the old system of separate state rates disappeared. The new law taxed all imports at rates from 5 to 15 percent. These rates were primarily designed to generate revenue to pay the annual expenses of the federal government and the national debt and the debts the states had accumulated during the <a href="/wiki/American_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="American War of Independence">American War of Independence</a> and to also promote manufactures and independence from foreign nations, especially for defense needs.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-48">[48]</a> Hamilton believed that all Revolutionary War debt should be paid in full to establish and keep U.S. financial credibility. In addition to income in his <a href="/wiki/Report_on_Manufactures" title="Report on Manufactures">Report on Manufactures</a> Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton proposed a far-reaching plan to use protective tariffs as a lever for rapid industrialization. In the late 18th century the industrial age was just starting and the United States had little or no textile industry—the heart of the early Industrial Revolution. The British government having just lost the <a href="/wiki/American_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="American War of Independence">Revolutionary War</a> tried to maintain their near monopoly on cheap and efficient textile manufacturing by prohibiting the export of textile machines, machine models or the emigration of people familiar with these machines.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-48">[48]</a> Clothing in the early United States was nearly all hand made by a very time-consuming and expensive process—just like it had been made for centuries before. The new textile manufacturing techniques in Britain were often over thirty times cheaper as well as being easier to use, more efficient and productive. Hamilton believed that a stiff tariff on imports would not only raise income but "protect" and help subsidize early efforts at setting up manufacturing facilities that could compete with British products.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-48">[48]</a> In 1789, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</a> emigrated illegally, since he was familiar with textile manufacturing in Britain. Looking for opportunities he heard of the failing attempts at making cotton mills in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Pawtucket, Rhode Island</a>. Contacting the owners he promised to see if he could fix their mills—they offered him a full partnership if he succeeded. Declaring their early attempts unworkable he proceeded from January 1790 to December 1790 to build the first operational textile manufacturing facility in the United States. The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> was off and running in the United States. Initially the cost of their textiles was slightly higher than the cost of equivalent British goods but the tariff helped protect their early start-up industry.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Ashley notes that: <dl><dd>From 1790 onwards there were constant alterations in the tariff between 1792 and 1816 there were some twenty-five Tariff Acts passed, all modifying the customs duties in one way or another. But Hamilton's Report, and the ideas it embodied, do not seem to have exercised any special influence on the legislation of this period; the motives were always financial.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></dd></dl> Higher tariffs were adopted during and after the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, when nationalists such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> saw the need for more federal income and more industry. In wartime, they declared, having a home industry was a necessity to avoid shortages. Likewise owners of the small new factories that were springing up in the northeast to mass-produce boots, hats, nails and other common items wanted higher tariffs that would significantly protect them when the more efficient British producers returned after the war ended. A 10% discount on the customs tax was offered on items imported in American ships, so that the American merchant marine would be supported.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Once industrialization and mass production started, the demand for higher and higher tariffs came from manufacturers and factory workers. They believed that their businesses should be protected from the lower wages and more efficient factories of Britain and the rest of Europe. Nearly every northern Congressman was eager to logroll a higher tariff rate for his local industry. Senator <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster" title="Daniel Webster">Daniel Webster</a>, formerly a spokesperson for Boston's merchants who imported goods and wanted low tariffs, switched dramatically to represent the manufacturing interests in the <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1824" title="Tariff of 1824">Tariff of 1824</a>. Rates were especially high for bolts of cloth and for bar iron, of which Britain was a low-cost producer.<a href="#cite_note-auto10-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto7-53">[53]</a> The culmination came in the <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1828" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariff of 1828">Tariff of 1828</a>, ridiculed by free traders as the "<a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">Tariff of Abominations</a>", with import custom duties averaging over 25 percent. Intense political opposition to higher tariffs came from Southern Democrats and plantation owners in South Carolina who had little manufacturing industry and imported some products with high tariffs. They would have to pay more for imports. They claimed their economic interest was being unfairly injured. They attempted to "nullify" the federal tariff and spoke of secession from the Union (see the <a href="/wiki/Nullification_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nullification Crisis">Nullification Crisis</a>). President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> let it be known he would use the U.S. Army to enforce the law, and no state supported the South Carolina call for nullification. A compromise ended the crisis included a lowering of the average tariff rate over ten years to a rate of 15% to 20%.<a href="#cite_note-auto10-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto7-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Party_System,_1829–1859">Second Party System, 1829–1859</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Second Party System, 1829–1859">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second Party System</a></div> From 1832 to 1860, the Democrats tried to lower the tariff. The Tariff of 1832 eliminated certain features of the Tariff of 1828 that were disliked by manufacturers and the commercial East, but increased the duty on woolens. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 gradually reduced duties above 20% by removing one tenth from each impost in excess of that level at 2-year intervals. The Tariff of 1842 returned the tariff to the level of 1832, with duties averaging between 23% and 35%. The Walker Tariff of 1846 essentially focused on revenue and reversed the trend of substituting specific for ad valorem duties. The Tariff of 1857 reduced the tariff to a general level of 20%, the lowest rate since 1830, and expanded the free list.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Democrats dominated the <a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second Party System</a> and set low tariffs designed to pay for the government but not protect industry. Their opponents the Whigs wanted high protective tariffs but usually were outvoted in Congress. Tariffs soon became a major political issue as the <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whigs</a> (1832–1852) and after 1854, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> wanted to protect their mostly northern industries and constituents by voting for higher tariffs and the Southern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a>, which had very little industry but imported many goods voted for lower tariffs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Each party as it came into power voted to raise or lower tariffs under the constraints that the Federal Government always needed a certain level of revenues. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_public_debt" class="mw-redirect" title="United States public debt">United States public debt</a> was paid off in 1834 and President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, a strong Southern Democrat, oversaw the cutting of the tariff rates roughly in half and eliminating nearly all federal excise taxes in about 1835.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a>, envisioning a rapid modernization based on highly productive factories, sought a high tariff. Their key argument was that startup factories, or "infant industries", would at first be less efficient than European (British) producers. American factory workers were paid higher wages than their European competitors. The arguments proved highly persuasive in industrial districts. Clay's position was adopted in the 1828 and 1832 Tariff Acts. The <a href="/wiki/Nullification_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nullification Crisis">Nullification Crisis</a> forced a partial abandonment of the Whig position. When the Whigs won victories in the 1840 and 1842 elections, taking control of Congress, they re-instituted higher tariffs with the <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1842" title="Tariff of 1842">Tariff of 1842</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In examining these debates Moore finds that they were not precursors to Civil War. Instead they looked backward and continued the old debate whether foreign trade policy should embrace free trade or protectionism.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Walker_Tariff">Walker Tariff</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Walker Tariff">edit</a>]</div> The Democrats won in 1845, electing <a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> as president. Polk succeeded in passing the <a href="/wiki/Walker_tariff" title="Walker tariff">Walker tariff</a> of 1846 by uniting the rural and agricultural factions of the entire country for lower tariffs. They sought a level of a "tariff for revenue only" that would pay the cost of government but not show favoritism to one section or economic sector at the expense of another. The Walker Tariff actually increased trade with Britain and others and brought in more revenue to the federal treasury than the higher tariff. The average tariff on the Walker Tariff was about 25%. While protectionists in Pennsylvania and neighboring states were angered, the South achieved its goal of setting low tariff rates before the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_tariff_of_1857">Low tariff of 1857</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Low tariff of 1857">edit</a>]</div> The Walker Tariff remained in place until 1857, when a nonpartisan coalition lowered them again with the <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1857" title="Tariff of 1857">Tariff of 1857</a> to 18%. This was in response to the British repeal of their protectionist "<a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a>".<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The Democrats in Congress, dominated by Southern Democrats, wrote and passed the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates, so that the 1857 rates were down to about 15%, a move that boosted trade so overwhelmingly that revenues actually increased, from just over $20 million in 1840 ($0.6 billion in 2023 dollars), to more than $80 million by 1856 ($2.1 billion).<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The South had almost no complaints but the low rates angered many Northern industrialists and factory workers, especially in Pennsylvania, who demanded protection for their growing iron industry. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a> replaced the Whigs in 1854 and also favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth; it was part of the 1860 Republican platform.<a href="#cite_note-Platform-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_Party_System">Third Party System</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Third Party System">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third Party System</a></div> After the Second Party System ended in 1854 the Democrats lost control and the new Republican Party had its opportunity to raise rates. The <a href="/wiki/Morrill_Tariff" title="Morrill Tariff">Morrill Tariff</a> significantly raising tariff rates became possible only after the Southern Senators walked out of Congress when their states left the Union, leaving a Republican majority. It was signed by Democratic President <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> in early March 1861 shortly before President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> took office. Pennsylvania iron mills and New England woolen mills mobilized businessmen and workers to call for high tariffs, but Republican merchants wanted low tariffs.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto9-61">[61]</a> The high tariff advocates lost in 1857, but stepped up their campaign by blaming the economic recession of 1857 on the lower rates. Economist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Charles_Carey" title="Henry Charles Carey">Henry Charles Carey</a> of Philadelphia was the most outspoken advocate, along with <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a> and his influential newspaper, the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Tribune">New York Tribune</a>. In February 1861, increases were enacted after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto9-61">[61]</a> Some historians in recent decades have minimized the tariff issue as a cause of the war, noting that few people in 1860–61 said it was of central importance to them. Compromises were proposed in 1860–61 to save the Union, but they did not involve the tariff.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Arguably, the effects of a tariff enacted in March 1861 could have made little effect upon any delegation which met prior to its signing. It is indicative of the Northern industrial supported and anti-agrarian position of the 1861 Republican-controlled congress. Some secessionist documents do mention a tariff issue, though not nearly as often as the preservation of the institution of slavery. However, a few <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a> economists place more importance on the tariff issue.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The arguments that tariffs were a major cause of the Civil War have become a staple of the <a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause of the Confederacy</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1860–1912">1860–1912</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 1860–1912">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_War">Civil War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Civil War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of the United States Civil War">Economic history of the United States Civil War</a></div> During the war far more revenue was needed, so the rates were raised again and again, along with many other taxes such as excise taxes on luxuries and income taxes on the rich.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> By far most of the wartime government revenue came from bonds and loans ($2.6 billion), not taxes ($357 million) or tariffs ($305 million).<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The Morrill Tariff took effect a few weeks before the war began on April 12, 1861, and was not collected in the South. The <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> (CSA) passed its own tariff of about 15% on most items, including many items that previously were duty-free from the North. Previously tariffs between states were prohibited. The Confederates believed that they could finance their government by tariffs. The anticipated tariff revenue never appeared as the Union Navy blockaded their ports and the Union army restricted their trade with the Northern states. The Confederacy collected a mere $3.5 million in tariff revenue from the Civil War start to end and had to resort to inflation and confiscation instead for revenue.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconstruction_era">Reconstruction era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reconstruction era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Revisionists_and_Beardians,_1930s–1940s" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era § Revisionists and Beardians, 1930s–1940s</a></div> Historian <a href="/wiki/Howard_K._Beale" title="Howard K. Beale">Howard K. Beale</a> argued that high tariffs were needed during the Civil War, but were retained after the war for the benefit of Northern industrialists, who would otherwise lose markets and profits. To keep political control of Congress, Beale argued, Northern Industrialists worked through the Republican Party and supported <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a> policies that kept low-tariff Southern whites out of power. The Beale thesis was widely disseminated by the influential survey of <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a>, The Rise of American Civilization (1927).<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In the late 1950s historians rejected the Beale–Beard thesis by showing that Northern businessmen were evenly divided on the tariff, and were not using Reconstruction policies to support it.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics_of_protection">Politics of protection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Politics of protection">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JudgeMagazine27Oct1888_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/JudgeMagazine27Oct1888_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-JudgeMagazine27Oct1888_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/JudgeMagazine27Oct1888_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-JudgeMagazine27Oct1888_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/JudgeMagazine27Oct1888_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-JudgeMagazine27Oct1888_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1149" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption>1888 anti-free trade cartoon from <a href="/wiki/Judge_(magazine)" title="Judge (magazine)">Judge</a>. Caption: FREE TRADE ENGLAND WANTS THE EARTH</figcaption></figure> The iron and steel industry, and the wool industry, were the well-organized interests groups that demanded (and usually obtained) high tariffs through support of the Republican Party. Industrial workers had much higher wages than their European counterparts, and they credited it to the tariff and voted Republican.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Democrats were divided on the issue, in large part because of pro-tariff elements in the Pennsylvania party who wanted to protect the growing iron industry, as well as pockets of high tariff support in nearby industrializing states.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> However President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> made low tariffs the centerpiece of Democratic Party policies in the late 1880s. His argument is that high tariffs were an unnecessary and unfair tax on consumers. The South and West generally supported low tariffs, and the industrial East high tariffs.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Republican <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> was the outstanding spokesman for high tariffs, promising it would bring prosperity for all groups.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> After the Civil War, high tariffs remained as the Republican Party remained in office and the Southern Democrats were restricted from office. Advocates insisted that tariffs brought prosperity to the nation as a whole and no one was really injured. As industrialization proceeded apace throughout the Northeast, some Democrats, especially Pennsylvanians, became high tariff advocates.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Farmers_and_wool">Farmers and wool</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Farmers and wool">edit</a>]</div> The Republican high-tariff advocates appealed to farmers with the theme that high-wage factory workers would pay premium prices for foodstuffs. This was the "home market" idea, and it won over most farmers in the Northeast, but it had little relevance to the southern and western farmers who exported most of their cotton, tobacco and wheat. In the late 1860s the wool manufacturers (based near Boston and Philadelphia) formed the first national lobby, and cut deals with wool-growing farmers in several states. Their challenge was that fastidious wool producers in Britain and Australia marketed a higher quality fleece than the Americans, and that British manufacturers had costs as low as the American mills. The result was a wool tariff that helped the farmers by a high tariff rate on imported wool—a tariff the American manufacturers had to pay—together with a high tariff on finished woolens and worsted goods.<a href="#cite_note-Tom_E._Terrill_1973-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._industrial_output">U.S. industrial output</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: U.S. industrial output">edit</a>]</div> Apart from wool and woolens, American industry and agriculture—and industrial workers—had become the most efficient in the world in most industries by the 1880s as they took the lead in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. No other country had the industrial capacity, large market, high efficiency and low costs, or the complex distribution system needed to compete in most markets in the vast American market. Most imports were a few "luxury" goods. Indeed, it was the British who watched cheaper American products flooded their home islands. The London Daily Mail in 1900 complained: <blockquote>We have lost to the American manufacturer electrical machinery, locomotives, steel rails, sugar-producing and agricultural machinery, and latterly even stationary engines, the pride and backbone of the British engineering industry.</blockquote> Some American manufacturers and union workers demanded the high tariff be maintained. The tariff represented a complex balance of forces. Railroads, for example, consumed vast quantities of steel. To the extent tariffs raised steel prices, they paid much more making possible the U.S. steel industry's massive investment to expand capacity and switch to the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> and later to the <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">open hearth furnace</a>. Between 1867 and 1900 U.S. steel production increased more than 500 times from 22,000 tons to 11,400,000 tons and Bessemer steel rails, first made in the U.S. that would last 18 years under heavy traffic, would come to replace the old wrought iron rail that could only endure two years under light service.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In 1881, British steel rails sold for $31 a ton, and if Americans imported them they paid a $28/ton tariff, giving $59/ton for an imported ton of rails. American mills charged $61/ton and made a good profit, which was then reinvested into increased capacity, higher quality steels, higher wages and benefits and more efficient production.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> By 1897 the American steel rail price had dropped to $19.60 per ton compared to the British price at $21.00—not including the $7.84 duty charge—demonstrating that the tariff had performed its purpose of giving the industry time to become competitive.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The U.S. steel industry became an exporter of steel rail to England selling below the British price and during WW I would become the largest supplier of steel to the allies. From 1915 to 1918, the largest American steel company, U.S. Steel, alone delivered more steel each year than Germany and Austria-Hungary combined, totaling 99,700,000 tons during WW I.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The Republicans became masters of negotiating exceedingly complex arrangements so that inside each of their congressional districts there were more satisfied "winners" than disgruntled "losers". The tariff after 1880 was an ideological relic with no longer any economic rationale.<a href="#cite_note-Tom_E._Terrill_1973-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cleveland_tariff_policy">Cleveland tariff policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Cleveland tariff policy">edit</a>]</div> Democratic President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> redefined the issue in 1887, with his stunning attack on the tariff as inherently corrupt, opposed to true republicanism, and inefficient to boot: "When we consider that the theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise... it is plain that the exaction of more than [minimal taxes] is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice."<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The election of 1888 was fought primarily over the tariff issue, and Cleveland lost.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Republican Congressman <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> argued, <blockquote>Free foreign trade gives our money, our manufactures, and our markets to other nations to the injury of our labor, our tradespeople, and our farmers. Protection keeps money, markets, and manufactures at home for the benefit of our own people.</blockquote> Democrats campaigned energetically against the high McKinley tariff of 1890, and scored sweeping gains that year; they restored Cleveland to the White House in 1892. The severe depression that started in 1893 ripped apart the Democratic party. Cleveland and the pro-business <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbon Democrats">Bourbon Democrats</a> insisted on a much lower tariff. His problem was that Democratic electoral successes had brought in Democratic congressmen from industrial districts who were willing to raise rates to benefit their constituents. The <a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act</a> of 1894 did lower overall rates from 50 percent to 42 percent, but contained so many concessions to protectionism that Cleveland refused to sign it (it became law anyway).<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="McKinley_tariff_policy">McKinley tariff policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: McKinley tariff policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_Roosevelt_cartoon_Iowa-ohio.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Theodore_Roosevelt_cartoon_Iowa-ohio.JPG/220px-Theodore_Roosevelt_cartoon_Iowa-ohio.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Theodore_Roosevelt_cartoon_Iowa-ohio.JPG/330px-Theodore_Roosevelt_cartoon_Iowa-ohio.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Theodore_Roosevelt_cartoon_Iowa-ohio.JPG/440px-Theodore_Roosevelt_cartoon_Iowa-ohio.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption>A editorial cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt, watching the GOP team pull apart on tariff issue, 1901</figcaption></figure> McKinley <a href="/wiki/1896_United_States_presidential_election" title="1896 United States presidential election">campaigned heavily in 1896</a> on the high tariff as a positive solution to depression. Promising protection and prosperity to every economic sector, he won a smashing victory. The Republicans rushed through the <a href="/wiki/Dingley_Act" title="Dingley Act">Dingley tariff</a> in 1897, boosting rates back to the 50 percent level. Democrats responded that the high rates created government sponsored "trusts" (monopolies) and led to higher consumer prices. McKinley won reelection by an even bigger landslide and started talking about a post-tariff era of reciprocal trade agreements. Reciprocity went nowhere; McKinley's vision was a half century too early.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The Republicans split bitterly on the <a href="/wiki/Payne%E2%80%93Aldrich_Tariff" class="mw-redirect" title="Payne–Aldrich Tariff">Payne–Aldrich Tariff</a> of 1909. Republican President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (1901–1909) saw the tariff issue was ripping his party apart, so he postponed any consideration of it. The delicate balance flew apart on under Republican <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a>. He campaigned for president in 1908 for tariff "reform", which everyone assumed meant lower rates. The House lowered rates with the Payne Bill, then sent it to the Senate where <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Wilmarth_Aldrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich">Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich</a> mobilized high-rate Senators.<a href="#cite_note-auto8-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-86">[86]</a> Aldrich was a New England businessman and a master of the complexities of the tariff, the Midwestern Republican insurgents were rhetoricians and lawyers who distrusted the special interests and assumed the tariff was "sheer robbery" at the expense of the ordinary consumer. Rural America believed that its superior morality deserved special protection, while the dastardly immorality of the trusts—and cities generally—merited financial punishment. Aldrich baited them. His <a href="/wiki/Payne%E2%80%93Aldrich_Tariff_Act" title="Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act">Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act</a> of 1909 lowered the protection on Midwestern farm products, while raising rates favorable to his Northeast.<a href="#cite_note-auto8-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-86">[86]</a> By 1913 with the new income tax generating revenue, the Democrats in Congress were able to reduce rates with the <a href="/wiki/Underwood_Tariff" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwood Tariff">Underwood Tariff</a>. The outbreak of war in 1914 made the impact of tariffs of much less importance compared to war contracts. When the Republicans returned to power they returned the rates to a high level in the <a href="/wiki/Fordney%E2%80%93McCumber_Tariff" title="Fordney–McCumber Tariff">Fordney–McCumber Tariff</a> of 1922. The next raise came with the <a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act</a> of 1930 at the start of the Great Depression.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tariff_with_Canada">Tariff with Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Tariff with Canada">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Canadian%E2%80%93American_Reciprocity_Treaty" title="Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty">Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty</a> increased trade between 1855 and its ending in 1866. When it ended, Canada turned to tariffs. The <a href="/wiki/National_Policy" title="National Policy">National Policy</a> was a Canadian economic program introduced by <a href="/wiki/John_A._Macdonald" title="John A. Macdonald">John A. Macdonald</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada_(1867%E2%80%931942)" title="Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942)">Conservative Party</a> in 1879 after it returned to power. It had been an official policy, however, since 1876. It was based on high tariffs to protect Canada's manufacturing industry. Macdonald campaigned on the policy in the <a href="/wiki/1878_Canadian_federal_election" title="1878 Canadian federal election">1878 election</a>, and handily beat the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberal Party</a>, which supported free trade.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Efforts to restore free trade with Canada collapsed when Canada rejected a proposed reciprocity treaty in fear of <a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American imperialism</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1911_Canadian_federal_election" title="1911 Canadian federal election">1911 federal election</a>. Taft negotiated a reciprocity agreement with Canada, that had the effect of sharply lowering tariffs. Democrats supported the plan but Midwestern Republicans bitterly opposed it. Barnstorming the country for his agreement, Taft undiplomatically pointed to the inevitable integration of the North American economy, and suggested that Canada should come to a "parting of the ways" with Britain. Canada's Conservative Party, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Borden" title="Robert Borden">Robert Borden</a>, now had an issue to regain power from the low-tariff Liberals. After a surge of pro-imperial anti-Americanism, the Conservatives won.<a href="#cite_note-auto5-87">[87]</a> Ottawa rejected reciprocity, reasserted the National Policy and went to London first for new financial and trade deals. The Payne Aldrich Tariff of 1909 actually changed little and had slight economic impact one way or the other, but the political impact was enormous. The insurgents felt tricked and defeated and swore vengeance against Wall Street and its minions Taft and Aldrich. The insurgency led to a fatal split down the middle in 1912 as the GOP lost its balance wheel.<a href="#cite_note-auto5-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1913_to_1929">1913 to 1929</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: 1913 to 1929">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act</a></div> Starting in the Civil War, protection was the ideological cement holding the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Republican_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Republican Party">Republican coalition together.</a> High tariffs were used to promise higher sales to business, higher wages to industrial workers, and higher demand for their crops to farmers. Democrats said it was a tax on the little man. After 1900 Progressive insurgents said it promoted monopoly. It had greatest support in the Northeast, and greatest opposition in the South and West. The Midwest was the battle ground.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The tariff issue was pulling the GOP apart. Roosevelt tried to postpone the issue, but Taft had to meet it head on in 1909 with the <a href="/wiki/Payne%E2%80%93Aldrich_Tariff_Act" title="Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act">Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act</a>. Eastern conservatives led by <a href="/wiki/Nelson_W._Aldrich" title="Nelson W. Aldrich">Nelson W. Aldrich</a> wanted high tariffs on manufactured goods (especially woolens), while Midwesterners called for low tariffs. Aldrich outmaneuvered them by lowering the tariff on farm products, which outraged the farmers. The great battle over the high <a href="/wiki/Payne%E2%80%93Aldrich_Tariff_Act" title="Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act">Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act</a> in 1910 ripped the Republicans apart and set up the realignment in favor of the Democrats.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> made a drastic lowering of tariff rates a major priority for his presidency. The 1913 <a href="/wiki/Underwood_Tariff" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwood Tariff">Underwood Tariff</a> cut rates, but the coming of World War I in 1914 radically revised trade patterns. Reduced trade and, especially, the new revenues generated by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_income_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal income tax">federal income tax</a> made tariffs much less important in terms of economic impact and political rhetoric. The Wilson administration desired a 'revamping' of the current banking system, "... so that the banks may be the instruments, not the masters, of business and of individual enterprise and initiative.".<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> President Wilson achieved this in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act" title="Federal Reserve Act">Federal Reserve Act</a> of 1913. Working with the bullish Senator Aldrich and former presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan, he perfected a way to centralize the banking system to allow Congress to closely allocate paper money production.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The Federal Reserve Act, with the Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution, would create a trend of new forms of government funding. The Democrats lowered the tariff in 1913 but the economic dislocations of the First World War made it irrelevant. When the Republicans returned to power <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Tariff_of_1921" title="Emergency Tariff of 1921">in 1921 they again imposed a protective tariff.</a> They raised it again with the <a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act</a> of 1930 to meet the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression in the United States</a>. But that made the depression worse. This time it backfired, as Canada, Britain, Germany, France and other industrial countries retaliated with their own tariffs and special, bilateral trade deals. American imports and exports both went into a tailspin.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The Democrats promised an end to protection on a reciprocal country-by-country basis (which they did), hoping this would expand foreign trade (which it did not). By 1936 the tariff issue had faded from politics, and the revenue it raised was small. In World War II, both tariffs and reciprocity were insignificant compared to trade channeled through <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Low rates dominated the debate for the rest of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> In 2017 Donald Trump promised to use protective tariffs as a weapon to restore greatness to the economy.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tariffs_and_the_Great_Depression">Tariffs and the Great Depression</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Tariffs and the Great Depression">edit</a>]</div> The years 1920 to 1929 are generally misdescribed as years in which protectionism increased in Europe. In fact, from a general point of view, the crisis was preceded in Europe by trade liberalisation. The weighted average of tariffs remained tendentially the same as in the years preceding the First World War: 24.6% in 1913, as against 24.9% in 1927. In 1928 and 1929, tariffs were lowered in almost all developed countries.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> writes that protectionism does not lead to recessions. According to him, the decrease in imports (which can be obtained by the introduction of tariffs) has an expansionary effect, i.e. favorable to growth. Thus in a trade war, since exports and imports will decrease equally, for the whole world, the negative effect of a decrease in exports will be compensated by the expansionary effect of a decrease in imports. A trade war therefore does not cause a recession. Furthermore, he notes that the Smoot–Hawley tariff did not cause the Great Depression. The decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 "was almost entirely a consequence of the Depression, not a cause. Trade barriers were a response to the Depression, in part a consequence of deflation."<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act was signed by Hoover on June 17, 1930, while the Wall Street crash took place in the fall of 1929. Most of the trade contraction occurred between January 1930 and July 1932, before most protectionist measures were introduced, except for the limited measures applied by the United States in the summer of 1930. In the view of <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Allais" title="Maurice Allais">Maurice Allais</a>, it was therefore the collapse of international liquidity that caused the contraction of trade, not customs tariffs.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> also held the opinion that the Smoot–Hawley tariff of 1930 did not cause the Great Depression. Douglas A. Irwin writes : "most economists, both liberal and conservative, doubt that Smoot Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent contraction."<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Temin" title="Peter Temin">Peter Temin</a>, explains a tariff is an expansionary policy, like a devaluation as it diverts demand from foreign to home producers. He notes that exports were 7 percent of GNP in 1929, they fell by 1.5 percent of 1929 GNP in the next two years and the fall was offset by the increase in domestic demand from tariff. He concludes that contrary the popular argument, contractionary effect of the tariff was small. (Temin, P. 1989. Lessons from the Great Depression, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass)<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_J._Bernstein" title="William J. Bernstein">William J. Bernstein</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Between 1929 and 1932, real GDP fell 17 percent worldwide, and by 26 percent in the United States, but most economic historians now believe that only a minuscule part of that huge loss of both world GDP and the United States' GDP can be ascribed to the tariff wars... At the time of Smoot–Hawley's passage, trade volume accounted for only about 9 percent of world economic output. Had all international trade been eliminated, and had no domestic use for the previously exported goods been found, world GDP would have fallen by the same amount – 9 percent. Between 1930 and 1933, worldwide trade volume fell off by one-third to one-half. Depending on how the falloff is measured, this computes to 3 to 5 percent of world GDP, and these losses were partially made up by more expensive domestic goods. Thus, the damage done could not possibly have exceeded 1 or 2 percent of world GDP—nowhere near the 17 percent falloff seen during the Great Depression... The inescapable conclusion: contrary to public perception, Smoot–Hawley did not cause, or even significantly deepen, the Great Depression.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></blockquote> Jacques Sapir explains that the crisis has other causes than protectionism.<a href="#cite_note-diplo11-102">[102]</a> He points out that "domestic production in major industrialized countries is declining...faster than international trade is declining." If this decrease (in international trade) had been the cause of the depression that the countries have experienced, we would have seen the opposite". "Finally, the chronology of events does not correspond to the thesis of the free traders... The bulk of the contraction of trade occurred between January 1930 and July 1932, that is, before the introduction of protectionist measures, even self-sufficient, in some countries, with the exception of those applied in the United States in the summer of 1930, but with very limited negative effects. He noted that "the credit crunch is one of the main causes of the trade crunch." "In fact, international liquidity is the cause of the trade contraction. This liquidity collapsed in 1930 (-35.7%) and 1931 (-26.7%). A study by the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research </a> highlights the predominant influence of currency instability (which led to the international liquidity crisis<a href="#cite_note-diplo11-102">[102]</a>) and the sudden rise in transportation costs in the decline of trade during the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade_liberalization">Trade liberalization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Trade liberalization">edit</a>]</div> Tariffs up to the <a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act</a> of 1930, were set by Congress after many months of testimony and negotiations. In 1934, the U.S. Congress, in a rare delegation of authority, passed the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_Tariff_Act" title="Reciprocal Tariff Act">Reciprocal Tariff Act</a> of 1934, which authorized the executive branch to negotiate bilateral tariff reduction agreements with other countries. The prevailing view then was that trade liberalization may help stimulate economic growth. However, no one country was willing to liberalize unilaterally.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Between 1934 and 1945, the executive branch negotiated over 32 bilateral trade liberalization agreements with other countries. The belief that low tariffs led to a more prosperous country are now the predominant belief with some exceptions. Multilateralism is embodied in the seven tariff reduction rounds that occurred between 1948 and 1994. In each of these "rounds", all <a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> (GATT) members came together to negotiate mutually agreeable trade liberalization packages and reciprocal tariff rates. In the Uruguay round in 1994, the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO) was established to help establish uniform tariff rates.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Currently only about 30% of all import goods are subject to tariffs in the United States, the rest are on the free list. The "average" tariffs now charged by the United States are at a historic low. The list of negotiated tariffs are listed on the <a href="/wiki/Harmonized_Tariff_Schedule" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonized Tariff Schedule">Harmonized Tariff Schedule</a> as put out by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission" title="United States International Trade Commission">United States International Trade Commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post_World_War_II">Post World War II</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Post World War II">edit</a>]</div> After the war the U.S. promoted the <a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> (GATT) established in 1947, to minimize tariffs and other restrictions, and to liberalize trade among all capitalist countries. In 1995 GATT became the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO); with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of communism">collapse of Communism</a> its open markets/low tariff ideology became dominant worldwide in the 1990s.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] American industry and labor prospered after World War II, but hard times set in after 1970. For the first time there was stiff competition from low-cost producers around the globe. Many <a href="/wiki/Rust_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Rust belt">rust belt industries</a> faded or collapsed, especially the manufacture of steel, TV sets, shoes, toys, textiles and clothing. <a href="/wiki/Toyota" title="Toyota">Toyota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nissan" title="Nissan">Nissan</a> threatened the giant domestic auto industry. In the late 1970s Detroit and the auto workers union combined to fight for protection. They obtained not high tariffs, but a voluntary restriction of imports from the Japanese government.<a href="#cite_note-auto4-105">[105]</a> Quotas were two-country diplomatic agreements that had the same protective effect as high tariffs, but did not invite retaliation from third countries. By limiting the number of Japanese automobiles that could be imported, quotas inadvertently helped Japanese companies push into larger, and more expensive market segments. The Japanese producers, limited by the number of cars they could export to America, opted to increase the value of their exports to maintain revenue growth. This action threatened the American producers' historical hold on the mid- and large-size car markets.<a href="#cite_note-auto4-105">[105]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chicken_tax" title="Chicken tax">Chicken tax</a> was a 1964 response by President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> to tariffs placed by Germany (then West Germany) on importation of US chicken. Beginning in 1962, during the President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a> administration, the US accused Europe of unfairly restricting imports of American poultry at the request of West German chicken farmers. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson retaliated by imposing a 25 percent tax on all imported light trucks. This directly affected the German built <a href="/wiki/Volkswagen_Type_2" title="Volkswagen Type 2">Volkswagen vans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nyt1-106">[106]</a> Officially, it was explained that the light trucks tax would offset the dollar amount of imports of Volkswagen vans from West Germany with the lost American sales of chickens to Europe. But audio tapes from the Johnson White House reveal that in January 1964, President Johnson was attempting to convince <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a>'s president <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a>, not to initiate a strike just prior the 1964 election and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther in turn wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States.<a href="#cite_note-nyt1-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1980s_to_2000">1980s to 2000</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: 1980s to 2000">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a> and George H. W. Bush administrations Republicans abandoned protectionist policies, and came out against quotas and in favor of the GATT/WTO policy of minimal economic barriers to global trade. Free trade with Canada came about as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93U.S._Free_Trade_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Canada–U.S. Free Trade Agreement">Canada–U.S. Free Trade Agreement</a> of 1987, which led in 1994 to the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a> (NAFTA). It was based on Reagan's plan to enlarge the scope of the market for American firms to include Canada and Mexico. President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>, with strong Republican support in 1993, pushed NAFTA through Congress over the vehement objection of labor unions.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In 2000 Clinton worked with Republicans to give China entry into WTO and "<a href="/wiki/Most_favored_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Most favored nation">most favored nation</a>" trading status, i.e., the same low tariffs promised to any other WTO member. NAFTA and WTO advocates promoted an optimistic vision of the future, with prosperity to be based on intellectuals skills and managerial know-how more than on routine hand labor. They promised that free trade meant lower prices for consumers. Opposition to liberalized trade came increasingly from labor unions, who argued that this system also meant lower wages and fewer jobs for American workers who could not compete against wages of less than a dollar an hour. The shrinking size and diminished political clout of these unions repeatedly left them on the losing side.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Despite overall decreases in international tariffs, some tariffs have been more resistant to change. For example, due partially to tariff pressure from the European <a href="/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy" title="Common Agricultural Policy">Common Agricultural Policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S._farm_bill" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. farm bill">US agricultural subsidies</a> have seen little decrease over the past few decades, even in the face of recent pressure from the WTO during the latest <a href="/wiki/Doha_Development_Round" title="Doha Development Round">Doha talks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> On March 5, 2002, President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> placed <a href="/wiki/2002_United_States_steel_tariff" title="2002 United States steel tariff">tariffs on imported steel</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="2000_to_present:_Deindustrialization_and_lower_wages">2000 to present: Deindustrialization and lower wages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: 2000 to present: Deindustrialization and lower wages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">Trump tariffs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png/330px-Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png/495px-Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png/660px-Real_Income_Gains_in_the_Global_Population.png 2x" data-file-width="981" data-file-height="703" /></a><figcaption>Real Income Gains in the Global Population<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></figcaption></figure> In early 2017, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a> wrote that "the American middle class is indeed the loser of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>" (the diminution of international trade regulations as well as tariffs, taxes) and "China, with its large emerging middle class, is among the big beneficiaries of globalization". "Thanks to globalization, in terms of purchasing-power parity, China actually has already become the largest economy in the world in September 2015".<a href="#cite_note-:1-112">[112]</a> Studies by David Autor, David Dorn and Gordon Hanson show that trade with <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> cost Americans around one million manufacturing workers between 1991 and 2007.Competition from Chinese imports has led to manufacturing job losses and declining wages. They also found that offsetting job gains in other <a href="/wiki/Industries" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Industries">industries</a> never materialized. Closed companies no longer order goods and services from local non-manufacturing firms and former industrial workers may be unemployed for years or permanently. Increased import exposure reduces <a href="/wiki/Wages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wages">wages</a> in the non-manufacturing sector due to lower demand for non-manufacturing goods and increased labor supply from workers who have lost their manufacturing jobs. Other work by this team of economists, with Daron Acemoglu and Brendan Price, estimates that competition from Chinese imports cost the U.S. as many as 2.4 million jobs in total between 1999 and 2011.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Avraham Ebenstein, Margaret McMillan, Ann Harrison also pointed out in their article “Why are American Workers getting Poorer? China, Trade and Offshoring” these negative effects of trade with China on American workers.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Economic_Policy_Institute" title="Economic Policy Institute">Economic Policy Institute</a>, a left-leaning think tank, has claimed that free trade created a large trade deficit in the United States for decades which lead to the closure of many <a href="/wiki/Factories" class="mw-redirect" title="Factories">factories</a> and cost the United States millions of jobs in the manufacturing sector. Trade deficits lead to significant wage losses, not only for workers in the manufacturing sector, but also for all workers throughout the economy who do not have a university degree. For example, in 2011, 100 million full-time, full-year workers without a university degree suffered an average loss of $1,800 (~$2,438 in 2023) on their annual salary.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Policy_Institute-117">[117]</a> According to the Economic Policy Institute, the workers who lost their jobs in the manufacturing sector and who have to accept a reduction in their wages to find work in other sectors, are creating competition, that reduces the wages of workers already employed in these other sectors. The threat of <a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">offshoring</a> of production facilities leads workers to accept wage cuts to keep their jobs.<a href="#cite_note-Economic_Policy_Institute-117">[117]</a> According to the Economic Policy Institute, trade agreements have not reduced trade deficits but rather increased them. The growing <a href="/wiki/Trade_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade deficit">trade deficit</a> with China comes from China's manipulation of its <a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">currency</a>, dumping policies, subsidies, <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> barriers that give it a very important advantage in international trade. In addition, industrial jobs lost by imports from China are significantly better paid than jobs created by exports to China. So even if imports were equal to exports, workers would still lose out on their wages.<a href="#cite_note-Epi.org-118">[118]</a> According to the Economic Policy Institute, the manufacturing sector is a sector with very high <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> growth, which promotes high wages and good benefits for its workers. Indeed, this sector accounts for more than two thirds of private sector research and development and employs more than twice as many scientists and engineers as the rest of the economy. The manufacturing sector therefore provides a very important stimulus to overall economic growth. Manufacturing is also associated with well-paid service jobs such as accounting, business management, research and development and legal services. <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Deindustrialisation">Deindustrialisation</a> is therefore also leading to a significant loss of these service jobs. Deindustrialization thus means the disappearance of a very important driver of economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-Epi.org-118">[118]</a> However, other groups such as the CATO Institute, a libertarian or right-leaning think tank, write the opposite. They have said that free trade is not a significant contributor to deindustrialization trends.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Trade can lead to loss of low-skilled or superfluous manufacturing jobs, but these tend to be replaced by higher-paying, higher-skilled manufacturing jobs in other sectors where the U.S. has a competitive advantage.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> While trade may have exacerbated some aspects of the deindustrialization seen in America since the 1980s, increased productivity and factory automation played a much more significant role. Moreover, some aspects of deindustrialization are illusionary, as many factories moved out of high-visibility and concentrated urban areas to rural areas, thus giving an impression of jobs being lost when there simply moved elsewhere in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> According to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=PIIE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PIIE (page does not exist)">PIIE</a>, a think tank promoting free trade, evidence shows that trade agreements do not have significant impacts on trade deficits, and can even close the trade gap between countries.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Smuggling_and_Coast_Guard">Smuggling and Coast Guard</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Smuggling and Coast Guard">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">History of the United States Coast Guard</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/History of tariffs in the United States">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (November 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Historically, high tariffs have led to high rates of smuggling. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">United States Revenue Cutter Service</a> was established by Secretary Hamilton in 1790 as an armed maritime law and custom enforcement service. Today it remains the primary maritime law enforcement force in the United States. The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">U.S. Customs and Border Protection</a> (CBP) is a federal law enforcement agency of the United States <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</a> charged with regulating and facilitating international trade, collecting customs (import duties or tariffs approved by the U.S. Congress), and enforcing U.S. regulations, including trade, customs and immigration. They man most border crossing stations and ports. When shipments of goods arrive at a border crossing or port, customs officers inspect the contents and charge a tax according to the tariff formula for that product. Usually the goods cannot continue on their way until the custom duty is paid. Custom duties are one of the easiest taxes to collect, and the cost of collection is small. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKennedyCohenPiehl2017" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, David M.; Cohen, Lizabeth; Piehl, Mel (2017). The Brief American Pageant: A History of the Republic, Volume I: To 1877 (9th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1285193304" title="Special:BookSources/978-1285193304"><bdi>978-1285193304</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brief+American+Pageant%3A+A+History+of+the+Republic%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1877&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=143&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1285193304&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Lizabeth&rft.au=Piehl%2C+Mel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayashi2023" class="citation web cs1">Hayashi, Yuka (December 28, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/politics/policy/biden-struggles-to-push-trade-deals-with-allies-as-election-approaches-fc512595?mod=RSSMSN">"Biden Struggles to Push Trade Deals with Allies as Election Approaches"</a>. The Wall Street Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228230400/https://www.wsj.com/politics/policy/biden-struggles-to-push-trade-deals-with-allies-as-election-approaches-fc512595?mod=RSSMSN">Archived</a> from the original on December 28, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Biden+Struggles+to+Push+Trade+Deals+with+Allies+as+Election+Approaches&rft.date=2023-12-28&rft.aulast=Hayashi&rft.aufirst=Yuka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Fpolitics%2Fpolicy%2Fbiden-struggles-to-push-trade-deals-with-allies-as-election-approaches-fc512595%3Fmod%3DRSSMSN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Irwin-2020-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin-2020_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin-2020_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin-2020_3-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Irwin, Douglas A. (August 2, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-economics-070119-024409">"Trade Policy in American Economic History"</a>. Annual Review of Economics. 12 (1): 23–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-economics-070119-024409">10.1146/annurev-economics-070119-024409</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1941-1383">1941-1383</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415015849/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-economics-070119-024409">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved August 7, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Trade+Policy+in+American+Economic+History&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-44&rft.date=2020-08-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-economics-070119-024409&rft.issn=1941-1383&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.annualreviews.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-economics-070119-024409&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Historical Statistics of the United States (Colonial Times to 1957); Value of Exports and Imports: 1790 to 1957, pp. 537–538; Value of Merchandise Imports and Duties: 1821 to 1957, p. 539; Indexes of Quantity and Unit Value of Exports and Imports: 1879 to 1957, pp. 540–541; Value of Merchandise Exports and Imports, by Groups of Customs Districts: 1860 to 1954, pp. 542–43; Value of Merchandise Exports and Imports, by Economic Classes: 1820 to 1957, pp. 544–545; Exports of Selected U. S. Merchandise: 1790 to 1957, pp. 546–547; Imports of Selected Products: 1790 to 1957, pp. 548–549; Value of General Imports, by Country of Origin: 1790 to 1957, pp. 552–553 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/histstatus/hstat_1957_cen_1957.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170528140618/https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/histstatus/hstat_1957_cen_1957.pdf">Archived</a> May 28, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Historical Statistics of the United States (Colonial Times to 1970) {Part 2 Zip file: CT1970p2-12;} Series Y 343–51 (1940–1970) Customs, Tot. Receipts, Income taxes; Payroll taxes, Excise; Y342 339 (1940 1970) Receipts; Y-352 357 (1789–1939) Government Receipts: Total (1789–1970), Customs (1789–1970), Y 358 373 Excise tax (1863–1970) Income Tax (1916–1970); Series U 1–25 Balance of International Payments Imports (1790–1970) [6] Accessed 5 Aug 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/237">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160811172729/https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/237">Archived</a> August 11, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Bicentennial Edition Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1975/compendia/hist_stats_colonial-1970.html">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170527081443/https://census.gov/library/publications/1975/compendia/hist_stats_colonial-1970.html">Archived</a> May 27, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Whitehouse Historical Tables 1940–2016; Table 1.1 Tot. Receipts (1901–2010); Table 2-1, 2–4 Excise Tax (1934–2010); Table 2-5 Customs (1940–2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/budget/Historicals">[4]</a> Accessed 5 Aug 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> U.S. imports for consumption, duties collected, and ratio of duties to value, 1891–2016; U.S. imports for consumption under tariff preference programs, 1976–2016 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.usitc.gov/documents/dataweb/ave_table_1891_2016.pdf">[5]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170428235847/https://www.usitc.gov/documents/dataweb/ave_table_1891_2016.pdf">Archived</a> April 28, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> U.S. Trade in Goods and Services – Balance of Payments (BOP) Basis, 1960–2010 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/gands.pdf">[6]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210207023119/https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/gands.pdf">Archived</a> February 7, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed 5 Aug 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://hbr">https://hbr</a> .org/2016/05/why-the-global-1 and-the-asian-middle-class-have-the-most-from-globalization </li> <li id="cite_note-Bairoch-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bairoch_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bairoch_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bairoch_11-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairoch1993" class="citation book cs1">Bairoch (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsworldhi00bair">Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226034621" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226034621"><bdi>978-0226034621</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics+and+World+History%3A+Myths+and+Paradoxes&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0226034621&rft.au=Bairoch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicsworldhi00bair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cepal.org-2001-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cepal.org-2001_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cepal.org-2001_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cepal.org-2001_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cepal.org-2001_12-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cepal.org-2001_12-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cepal.org-2001_12-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cepal.org-2001_12-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cepal.org-2001_12-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192131/https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf">"Infant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective – A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With?"</a> (PDF). www.cepal.org. 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 8, 2021. Retrieved December 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cepal.org&rft.atitle=Infant+Industry+Promotion+in+Historical+Perspective+%E2%80%93+A+Rope+to+Hang+Oneself+or+a+Ladder+to+Climb+With%3F&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cepal.org%2Fprensa%2Fnoticias%2Fcomunicados%2F8%2F7598%2Fchang.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Institute_for_Policy_Studies-2003-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Institute_for_Policy_Studies-2003_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Institute_for_Policy_Studies-2003_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ips-dc.org/kicking_away_the_ladder_the_real_history_of_free_trade/">"Kicking Away the Ladder: The "Real" History of Free Trade"</a>. Institute for Policy Studies. December 30, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190415185236/https://ips-dc.org/kicking_away_the_ladder_the_real_history_of_free_trade/">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2019. Retrieved December 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+for+Policy+Studies&rft.atitle=Kicking+Away+the+Ladder%3A+The+%22Real%22+History+of+Free+Trade&rft.date=2003-12-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fips-dc.org%2Fkicking_away_the_ladder_the_real_history_of_free_trade%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorfman_&_Tugwell1960" class="citation book cs1">Dorfman & Tugwell (1960). Early American Policy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+American+Policy&rft.date=1960&rft.au=Dorfman+%26+Tugwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chang-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHa-Joon_Chang" class="citation book cs1">Ha-Joon Chang. Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kicking+Away+the+Ladder%3A+Development+Strategy+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.au=Ha-Joon+Chang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_C._Cochran,_William_Miller1942" class="citation book cs1">Thomas C. Cochran, William Miller (1942). The Age of Enterprise: A Social History of Industrial America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Enterprise%3A+A+Social+History+of+Industrial+America&rft.date=1942&rft.au=Thomas+C.+Cochran%2C+William+Miller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Luthin1944" class="citation book cs1">R. Luthin (1944). Abraham Lincoln and the Tariff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln+and+the+Tariff&rft.date=1944&rft.au=R.+Luthin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckes1995" class="citation book cs1">Eckes, Alfred E. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/openingamericasm00alfr">Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy Since 1776</a>. Univ of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807848115" title="Special:BookSources/0807848115"><bdi>0807848115</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opening+America%27s+Market%3A+U.S.+Foreign+Trade+Policy+Since+1776&rft.pub=Univ+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0807848115&rft.aulast=Eckes&rft.aufirst=Alfred+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fopeningamericasm00alfr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-presidency.ucsb.edu-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-presidency.ucsb.edu_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-presidency.ucsb.edu_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/republican-party-platform-1896">"Republican Party Platform of 1896 | The American Presidency Project"</a>. www.presidency.ucsb.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228053723/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/republican-party-platform-1896">Archived</a> from the original on December 28, 2022. Retrieved December 28, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.presidency.ucsb.edu&rft.atitle=Republican+Party+Platform+of+1896+%26%23124%3B+The+American+Presidency+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fdocuments%2Frepublican-party-platform-1896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/letter-to-marquis-de-lafayette-10/">"Letter to Marquis de LaFayette"</a>. Teaching American History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210116153407/https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/letter-to-marquis-de-lafayette-10/">Archived</a> from the original on January 16, 2021. Retrieved December 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Teaching+American+History&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Marquis+de+LaFayette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistory.org%2Flibrary%2Fdocument%2Fletter-to-marquis-de-lafayette-10%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29431">"George Washington: First Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union"</a>. www.presidency.ucsb.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180829194010/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29431">Archived</a> from the original on August 29, 2018. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.presidency.ucsb.edu&rft.atitle=George+Washington%3A+First+Annual+Message+to+Congress+on+the+State+of+the+Union&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D29431&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-founders.archives.gov-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-founders.archives.gov_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-founders.archives.gov_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-09-02-0213">"Founders Online: Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Austin, 9 January 1816"</a>. founders.archives.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201101034326/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-09-02-0213">Archived</a> from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved December 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=founders.archives.gov&rft.atitle=Founders+Online%3A+Thomas+Jefferson+to+Benjamin+Austin%2C+9+January+1816&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffounders.archives.gov%2Fdocuments%2FJefferson%2F03-09-02-0213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJefferson1816" class="citation news cs1">Jefferson, Thomas (January 9, 1816). "Letter to Benjamin Austin, Jan 9, 1816". Boston Independent Chronicle.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+Independent+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Benjamin+Austin%2C+Jan+9%2C+1816&rft.date=1816-01-09&rft.aulast=Jefferson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-senate.gov-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-senate.gov_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-senate.gov_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222234442/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/AmericanSystem.pdf">"The Senate 1789-1989 - Classic Speeches 1830-1993"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/AmericanSystem.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on December 22, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Senate+1789-1989+-+Classic+Speeches+1830-1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fartandhistory%2Fhistory%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2FAmericanSystem.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClay" class="citation book cs1">Clay, Henry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gID5RTGOEWQC">The Papers of Henry Clay: The Whig Leader, January 1, 1837 – December 31, 1843</a>. University Press of Kentucky. p. 843. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813130514" title="Special:BookSources/0813130514"><bdi>0813130514</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214042310/https://books.google.com/books?id=gID5RTGOEWQC">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2024. Retrieved September 15, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Papers+of+Henry+Clay%3A+The+Whig+Leader%2C+January+1%2C+1837+%E2%80%93+December+31%2C+1843&rft.pages=843&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.isbn=0813130514&rft.aulast=Clay&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgID5RTGOEWQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141025021431/http://millercenter.org/president/monroe/speeches/speech-3603">"Sixth Annual Message (December 3, 1822)—Miller Center"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/monroe/speeches/speech-3603">the original</a> on October 25, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sixth+Annual+Message+%28December+3%2C+1822%29%E2%80%94Miller+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fmonroe%2Fspeeches%2Fspeech-3603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-U-M_Library_Digital_Collections-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-U-M_Library_Digital_Collections_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-U-M_Library_Digital_Collections_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln1/1:423?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">"Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1"</a>. U-M Library Digital Collections. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171119180623/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln1/1:423?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on November 19, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U-M+Library+Digital+Collections&rft.atitle=Collected+Works+of+Abraham+Lincoln.+Volume+1.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fl%2Flincoln%2Flincoln1%2F1%3A423%3Frgn%3Ddiv1%3Bview%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln1/1:325?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">"Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1"</a>. U-M Library Digital Collections. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205171427/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln1/1:325?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on February 5, 2021. Retrieved December 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U-M+Library+Digital+Collections&rft.atitle=Collected+Works+of+Abraham+Lincoln.+Volume+1.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fl%2Flincoln%2Flincoln1%2F1%3A325%3Frgn%3Ddiv1%3Bview%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln1/1:325?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">"Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1"</a>. quod.lib.umich.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205171427/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln1/1:325?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on February 5, 2021. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=quod.lib.umich.edu&rft.atitle=Collected+Works+of+Abraham+Lincoln.+Volume+1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fl%2Flincoln%2Flincoln1%2F1%3A325%3Frgn%3Ddiv1%3Bview%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsteadMunson1901" class="citation book cs1">Halstead, Murat; Munson, Augustus J. (January 1, 1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifedistinguishe01hals">Life and distinguished services of William McKinley: our martyr President</a>. Memorial Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+distinguished+services+of+William+McKinley%3A+our+martyr+President&rft.pub=Memorial+Association&rft.date=1901-01-01&rft.aulast=Halstead&rft.aufirst=Murat&rft.au=Munson%2C+Augustus+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifedistinguishe01hals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> William McKinley speech, Oct. 4, 1892 in Boston, MA William McKinley Papers (<a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinley1893" class="citation book cs1">McKinley, William (January 1, 1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/speechesandaddr01mckigoog">Speeches and Addresses of William McKinley: From His Election to Congress to the Present Time</a>. D. Appleton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speeches+and+Addresses+of+William+McKinley%3A+From+His+Election+to+Congress+to+the+Present+Time&rft.pub=D.+Appleton&rft.date=1893-01-01&rft.aulast=McKinley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspeechesandaddr01mckigoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halstead-1901-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Halstead-1901_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halstead-1901_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsteadMunson1901" class="citation book cs1">Halstead, Murat; Munson, Augustus J. (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifedistinguishe01hals">Life and distinguished services of William McKinley: Our martyr President</a>. Memorial Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+distinguished+services+of+William+McKinley%3A+Our+martyr+President&rft.pub=Memorial+Association&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Halstead&rft.aufirst=Murat&rft.au=Munson%2C+Augustus+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifedistinguishe01hals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinley1893" class="citation book cs1">McKinley, William (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/speechesandaddr01mckigoog">Speeches and Addresses of William McKinley: From His Election to Congress to the Present Time</a>. D. Appleton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speeches+and+Addresses+of+William+McKinley%3A+From+His+Election+to+Congress+to+the+Present+Time&rft.pub=D.+Appleton&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=McKinley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspeechesandaddr01mckigoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trspeeches.html">"Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt – Speeches of Theodore Roosevelt"</a>. www.theodore-roosevelt.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161231060158/http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trspeeches.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 31, 2016. Retrieved January 4, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.theodore-roosevelt.com&rft.atitle=Almanac+of+Theodore+Roosevelt+%E2%80%93+Speeches+of+Theodore+Roosevelt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodore-roosevelt.com%2Ftrspeeches.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Gonzales2018" class="citation web cs1">Richard Gonzales (January 22, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/01/22/579848409/trump-slaps-tariffs-on-imported-solar-panels-and-washing-machines">"Trump Slaps Tariffs On Imported Solar Panels and Washing Machines"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191021042215/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/01/22/579848409/trump-slaps-tariffs-on-imported-solar-panels-and-washing-machines">Archived</a> from the original on October 21, 2019. Retrieved December 27, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trump+Slaps+Tariffs+On+Imported+Solar+Panels+and+Washing+Machines&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2018-01-22&rft.au=Richard+Gonzales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2018%2F01%2F22%2F579848409%2Ftrump-slaps-tariffs-on-imported-solar-panels-and-washing-machines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HorsleyFormal-37"><a href="#cite_ref-HorsleyFormal_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorsley2018" class="citation web cs1">Horsley, Scott (March 8, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2018/03/08/591744195/trump-expected-to-formally-order-tariffs-on-steel-aluminum-imports">"Trump Formally Orders Tariffs on Steel, Aluminum Imports"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191231034502/https://www.npr.org/2018/03/08/591744195/trump-expected-to-formally-order-tariffs-on-steel-aluminum-imports">Archived</a> from the original on December 31, 2019. Retrieved December 27, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trump+Formally+Orders+Tariffs+on+Steel%2C+Aluminum+Imports&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2018-03-08&rft.aulast=Horsley&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2018%2F03%2F08%2F591744195%2Ftrump-expected-to-formally-order-tariffs-on-steel-aluminum-imports&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Long-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Long_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Long_38-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong2018" class="citation news cs1">Long, Heather (May 31, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/05/31/trump-has-officially-put-more-tariffs-on-u-s-allies-than-on-china/">"Trump has officially put more tariffs on U.S. allies than on China"</a>. The Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191206014401/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/05/31/trump-has-officially-put-more-tariffs-on-u-s-allies-than-on-china/">Archived</a> from the original on December 6, 2019. Retrieved December 27, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Trump+has+officially+put+more+tariffs+on+U.S.+allies+than+on+China&rft.date=2018-05-31&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fwonk%2Fwp%2F2018%2F05%2F31%2Ftrump-has-officially-put-more-tariffs-on-u-s-allies-than-on-china%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawder" class="citation news cs1">Lawder, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-china-ministry/trump-sets-tariffs-on-50-billion-in-chinese-goods-beijing-strikes-back-idUSKBN1JB0KC">"Trump sets tariffs on $50 billion in Chinese goods; Beijing strikes..."</a> U.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191019033349/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-china-ministry/trump-sets-tariffs-on-50-billion-in-chinese-goods-beijing-strikes-back-idUSKBN1JB0KC">Archived</a> from the original on October 19, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.&rft.atitle=Trump+sets+tariffs+on+%2450+billion+in+Chinese+goods%3B+Beijing+strikes...&rft.aulast=Lawder&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-usa-trade-china-ministry%2Ftrump-sets-tariffs-on-50-billion-in-chinese-goods-beijing-strikes-back-idUSKBN1JB0KC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/business/economy/trump-reinstates-tariffs-steel-aluminum-brazil-argentina-n1093976">"Trump reinstates tariffs on steel and aluminum from Brazil and Argentina"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191203113240/https://www.nbcnews.com/business/economy/trump-reinstates-tariffs-steel-aluminum-brazil-argentina-n1093976">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2019. Retrieved December 3, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Trump+reinstates+tariffs+on+steel+and+aluminum+from+Brazil+and+Argentina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Ftrump-reinstates-tariffs-steel-aluminum-brazil-argentina-n1093976&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_41-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoakHusseinWisemanTang2024" class="citation web cs1">Boak, Josh; Hussein, Fatima; Wiseman, Paul; Tang, Didi (May 14, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/biden-china-tariffs-electric-vehicles-evs-solar-2024ba735c47e04a50898a88425c5e2c">"Biden hikes tariffs on Chinese EVs, solar cells, steel, aluminum — and snipes at Trump"</a>. <a href="/wiki/AP_News" class="mw-redirect" title="AP News">AP News</a>. Retrieved May 16, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=Biden+hikes+tariffs+on+Chinese+EVs%2C+solar+cells%2C+steel%2C+aluminum+%E2%80%94+and+snipes+at+Trump&rft.date=2024-05-14&rft.aulast=Boak&rft.aufirst=Josh&rft.au=Hussein%2C+Fatima&rft.au=Wiseman%2C+Paul&rft.au=Tang%2C+Didi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fbiden-china-tariffs-electric-vehicles-evs-solar-2024ba735c47e04a50898a88425c5e2c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> William Hill, "Colonial Tariffs," Quarterly Journal of Economics (1892) 7#1 pp. 78–100 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1883762">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170327171440/http://www.jstor.org/stable/1883762">Archived</a> March 27, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Smith_McClellan1912" class="citation book cs1">William Smith McClellan (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/smugglinginamer00mcclgoog">Smuggling in the American colonies at the outbreak of the Revolution: with special reference to the West Indies trade</a>. Department of Political Science of Williams College. pp. full text online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Smuggling+in+the+American+colonies+at+the+outbreak+of+the+Revolution%3A+with+special+reference+to+the+West+Indies+trade&rft.pages=full+text+online&rft.pub=Department+of+Political+Science+of+Williams+College&rft.date=1912&rft.au=William+Smith+McClellan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsmugglinginamer00mcclgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> John W. Tyler, Smugglers and Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution (1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1939677">online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170327171941/http://www.jstor.org/stable/1939677">Archived</a> March 27, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Dewey, Financial History of the United States (5th ed. 1915) ch. 1–3 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto6-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_46-1">b</a> Dewey, Financial History of the United States (5th ed. 1915) ch. 4–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Dewey, Financial History of the United States (5th ed. 1915) ch. 6–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_48-2">c</a> Douglas A. Irwin, "The Aftermath of Hamilton's 'Report on Manufactures'", Journal of Economic History, Sept 2004, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 800–821 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Barbara M. Tucker, and Kenneth H. Tucker, Industrializing Antebellum America: The Rise of Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in the Early Republic (2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Percy Ashley, Modern Tariff History (1920) p, 138, citing Edward Stanwood. American tariff controversies in the nineteenth century (1904) 1:111 and Taussig, Tariff History p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (8th edition (1931), ch. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto10-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto10_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto10_52-1">b</a> Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (8th edition (1931), ch. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto7-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_53-1">b</a> Robert V. Remini, "Martin Van Buren and the Tariff of Abominations." American Historical Review 63.4 (1958): 903–917. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Taussig, Tariff History pp. 109–124 </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> John A. Moore, "The Grossest and Most Unjust Species of Favoritism: Competing Views of Republican Political Economy: The Tariff Debates of 1841 and 1842", Essays in Economic & Business History (2011) 29: 59–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Taussig, Tariff History pp. 124–154 </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Scott C. James and David E. Lake, "The second face of hegemony: Britain's repeal of the Corn Laws and the American Walker Tariff of 1846", International Organization, Winter 1989, Vol. 43, Issue 1, pp. 1–28 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usgovernmentrevenue.com/revenue_chart_1840_1861USm_16s1li111mcn_F0f">"Government Tax and Revenue Chart: United States 1840–1861 – Federal State Local Data"</a>. www.usgovernmentrevenue.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024122015/https://www.usgovernmentrevenue.com/revenue_chart_1840_1861USm_16s1li111mcn_F0f">Archived</a> from the original on October 24, 2021. Retrieved December 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.usgovernmentrevenue.com&rft.atitle=Government+Tax+and+Revenue+Chart%3A+United+States+1840%E2%80%931861+%E2%80%93+Federal+State+Local+Data&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usgovernmentrevenue.com%2Frevenue_chart_1840_1861USm_16s1li111mcn_F0f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Platform-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Platform_59-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cprr.org/Museum/Ephemera/Republican_Platform_1860.html">Republican Party National Platform, 1860</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230813035120/http://cprr.org/Museum/Ephemera/Republican_Platform_1860.html">Archived</a> August 13, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Reported from the Platform Committee by Judge Jessup of Pennsylvania and adopted unanimously by the Republican National Convention held at Chicago on May 17, 1860. <a href="/wiki/Broadside_(printing)" title="Broadside (printing)">Broadside</a> printing by <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">The Chicago Press & Tribune</a>, May, 1860 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_60-1">b</a> Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp. 123–161 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto9-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto9_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto9_61-1">b</a> Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War", The American Historical Review (1938) 44#1 pp. 50–55 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1840850">full text in JSTOR</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Robert Gray Gunderson, Old Gentlemen's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861 (1961) </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Mark Thornton and Robert B. Ekelund, Jr., Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War (2004) </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp. 155–170 </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Dewey, Financial History (1915) p. 299 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_StudenskiHerman_Edward_Krooss2003" class="citation book cs1">Paul Studenski; Herman Edward Krooss (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_0UqxH-5fdkC&pg=PA157">Financial History of the United States</a>. Beard Books. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1587981753" title="Special:BookSources/978-1587981753"><bdi>978-1587981753</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Financial+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Beard+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1587981753&rft.au=Paul+Studenski&rft.au=Herman+Edward+Krooss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_0UqxH-5fdkC%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Howard K. Beale "The Tariff and Reconstruction," American Historical Review (1930) 35#2 pp. 276–294 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1837439">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180823181059/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1837439">Archived</a> August 23, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHugh_Tulloch1999" class="citation book cs1">Hugh Tulloch (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AVD1-qcknywC&pg=PA226">The Debate On the American Civil War Era</a>. Manchester UP. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719049385" title="Special:BookSources/978-0719049385"><bdi>978-0719049385</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Debate+On+the+American+Civil+War+Era&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Manchester+UP&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0719049385&rft.au=Hugh+Tulloch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAVD1-qcknywC%26pg%3DPA226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Stanley Coben, "Northeastern Business and Radical Reconstruction: A Re-Examination." Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1959): 67–90. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1892388">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180728044212/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1892388">Archived</a> July 28, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Thomas J. Pressly, "Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (review)" Civil War History (1961) 7#1 pp. 91–92 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/civil_war_history/v007/7.1.pressly.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140531142701/http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/civil_war_history/v007/7.1.pressly.pdf">Archived</a> May 31, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Paul H. Tedesco, Patriotism, Protection, and Prosperity: James Moore Swank, the American Iron and Steel Association, and the Tariff, 1873–1913 (Garland, 1985.) </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Ashworth1987" class="citation book cs1">John Ashworth (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqg7pIezRMAC&pg=PA252">'Agrarians' and 'Aristocrats': Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837–1846</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521335676" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521335676"><bdi>978-0521335676</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Agrarians%27+and+%27Aristocrats%27%3A+Party+Political+Ideology+in+the+United+States%2C+1837%E2%80%931846&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0521335676&rft.au=John+Ashworth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djqg7pIezRMAC%26pg%3DPA252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Joanne R. Reitano, The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age: The Great Debate of 1888 (Penn State Press, 1994) </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> H. Wayne Morgan, William McKinley and His America (1965) </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> F. W. Taussig, "The McKinley Tariff Act." The Economic Journal (1891) 1#2 pp. 326–350. in JSTOR </li> <li id="cite_note-Tom_E._Terrill_1973-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tom_E._Terrill_1973_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tom_E._Terrill_1973_76-1">b</a> Tom E. Terrill, The Tariff, Politics, and American Foreign Policy 1874–1901 (1973) </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Douglas A. Fisher, Steel Serves the Nation, U.S. Steel, 1951, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_William_Taussig1931" class="citation book cs1">Frank William Taussig (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MyqgiptJzfwC&pg=PA192">The Tariff History of the United States</a>. Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 192, 293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610163309" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610163309"><bdi>978-1610163309</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tariff+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=192%2C+293&rft.pub=Ludwig+von+Mises+Institute&rft.date=1931&rft.isbn=978-1610163309&rft.au=Frank+William+Taussig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMyqgiptJzfwC%26pg%3DPA192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> F. W. Taussig, The Tariff History Of The United States, 1909 edition, p. 259 </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Douglas A. Fisher, Steel Serves the Nation, U.S. Steel, 1951, p. 48 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpringer1892" class="citation book cs1">Springer, William M., ed. (1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd01AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA391">Tariff reform, the paramount issue: Speeches and writings on the questions involved in the presidential contest of 1892</a>. p. 391.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tariff+reform%2C+the+paramount+issue%3A+Speeches+and+writings+on+the+questions+involved+in+the+presidential+contest+of+1892&rft.pages=391&rft.date=1892&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHd01AAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> H. Wayne Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (1969) </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Festus P. Summers, William L. Wilson and Tariff Reform, a Biography (1953) </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Harold U. Faulkner, Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890–1900 (1959) </li> <li id="cite_note-auto8-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_85-1">b</a> David W. Detzer, "Businessmen, Reformers, and Tariff Revision: The Payne–Aldrich Tariff of 1909", Historian, (1973) 35#2 pp. 196–204, online </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_86-1">b</a> Stanley D. Solvick, "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff," Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1963) 50#3 pp. 424–442 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902605">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307035528/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902605">Archived</a> March 7, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto5-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_87-1">b</a> Paolo Enrico Coletta, The Presidency of William Howard Taft (1973) </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Howard R. Smith, and <a href="/wiki/John_Fraser_Hart" title="John Fraser Hart">John Fraser Hart</a>, "The American tariff map." Geographical Review 45.3 (1955): 327–346 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/211807">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819114049/https://www.jstor.org/stable/211807">Archived</a> August 19, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Stanley D. Solvick, "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 50.3 (1963): 424–442 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902605">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307035528/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902605">Archived</a> March 7, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersWoolley1913" class="citation web cs1">Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T. (June 23, 1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181012012358/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65369">"Woodrow Wilson: "Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Banking System,""</a>. The American Presidency Project. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65369">the original</a> on October 12, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Woodrow+Wilson%3A+%22Address+to+a+Joint+Session+of+Congress+on+the+Banking+System%2C%22&rft.pub=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.date=1913-06-23&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=Woolley%2C+John+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D65369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroz1999" class="citation journal cs1">Broz, J.L. (1999). "Origins of the Federal Reserve System: International Incentives and the Domestic Free-rider Problem". International Organization. 5353 (1): 39–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F002081899550805">10.1162/002081899550805</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155001158">155001158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Organization&rft.atitle=Origins+of+the+Federal+Reserve+System%3A+International+Incentives+and+the+Domestic+Free-rider+Problem&rft.volume=5353&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-46&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F002081899550805&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155001158%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Broz&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Anthony O'Brien, "Smoot–Hawley Tariff." EH. Net Encyclopedia (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eh.net/page/4/?s=crash">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230816220500/https://www.eh.net/page/4/?s=crash">Archived</a> August 16, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy: 1923–1995 (1996) </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Douglas A. Irwin, Clashing over commerce: A history of US trade policy (2017). </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Jean-Christophe Boucher, and Cameron G. Thies. "'I Am a Tariff Man': The Power of Populist Foreign Policy Rhetoric under President Trump." Journal of Politics 81.2 (2019): 712–722 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/702229">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301081639/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/702229">Archived</a> March 1, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairoch1993" class="citation book cs1">Bairoch (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsworldhi00bair">Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226034621" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226034621"><bdi>978-0226034621</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics+and+World+History%3A+Myths+and+Paradoxes&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0226034621&rft.au=Bairoch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicsworldhi00bair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/the-mitt-hawley-fallacy/">"The Mitt-Hawley Fallacy"</a>. March 4, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171003075844/https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/the-mitt-hawley-fallacy/">Archived</a> from the original on October 3, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mitt-Hawley+Fallacy&rft.date=2016-03-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkrugman.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F03%2F04%2Fthe-mitt-hawley-fallacy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurice_Allais2009" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maurice Allais (December 5–11, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soyons-lucides.fr/documents/maurice_allais-contre_les_tabous_indiscutes.pdf">"Lettre aux français : contre les tabous indiscutés"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Marianne_(magazine)" title="Marianne (magazine)">Marianne</a> (in French). p. 38. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170825022755/http://www.soyons-lucides.fr/documents/maurice_allais-contre_les_tabous_indiscutes.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on August 25, 2017. Retrieved January 15, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Marianne&rft.atitle=Lettre+aux+fran%C3%A7ais+%3A+contre+les+tabous+indiscut%C3%A9s&rft.pages=38&rft.date=2009-12-05%2F2009-12-11&rft.au=Maurice+Allais&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soyons-lucides.fr%2Fdocuments%2Fmaurice_allais-contre_les_tabous_indiscutes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin2017" class="citation book cs1">Irwin, Douglas A. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oz_BDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116">Peddling Protectionism: Smoot–Hawley and the Great Depression</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400888429" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400888429"><bdi>978-1400888429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peddling+Protectionism%3A+Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley+and+the+Great+Depression&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1400888429&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doz_BDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemin1991" class="citation book cs1">Temin, Peter (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=squLnSDrJ4EC&q=peter+temin+smoot+hawley+Lessons+from+the+Great+Depression&pg=PA46">Lessons from the Great Depression</a>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262261197" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262261197"><bdi>978-0262261197</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214042246/https://books.google.com/books?id=squLnSDrJ4EC&q=peter+temin+smoot+hawley+Lessons+from+the+Great+Depression&pg=PA46#v=snippet&q=peter%20temin%20smoot%20hawley%20Lessons%20from%20the%20Great%20Depression&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2024. Retrieved October 29, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lessons+from+the+Great+Depression&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0262261197&rft.aulast=Temin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsquLnSDrJ4EC%26q%3Dpeter%2Btemin%2Bsmoot%2Bhawley%2BLessons%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BGreat%2BDepression%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Bernstein" class="citation book cs1">William Bernstein. A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. p. 116.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Splendid+Exchange%3A+How+Trade+Shaped+the+World&rft.pages=116&rft.au=William+Bernstein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-diplo11-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-diplo11_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-diplo11_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2009/03/SAPIR/16883">"Ignorants ou faussaires ?"</a>. March 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101181014/https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2009/03/SAPIR/16883">Archived</a> from the original on November 1, 2022. Retrieved November 1, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ignorants+ou+faussaires+%3F&rft.date=2009-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monde-diplomatique.fr%2F2009%2F03%2FSAPIR%2F16883&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> (in English) Antoni Estevadeordal, Brian Frantz and Alan M. Taylor, "The rise and fall of world trade, 1970–1939", National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper, [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">volume & issue needed</a>] Cambridge, November 2002 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Harmonized Tariff Schedule <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://hts.usitc.gov/">[7]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721002830/http://hts.usitc.gov/">Archived</a> July 21, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed 12 Jul 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto4-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_105-1">b</a> John H. Barton, <a href="/wiki/Judith_L._Goldstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith L. Goldstein">Judith L. Goldstein</a>, Timothy E. Josling, and Richard H. Steinberg, The Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO (2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt1-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt1_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt1_106-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/30/business/license-pollute-special-report-light-trucks-increase-profits-but-foul-air-more.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">"Light Trucks Increase Profits But Foul Air More than Cars"</a>. The New York Times, Keith Bradsher, November 30, 1997. November 30, 1997. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728121153/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/30/business/license-pollute-special-report-light-trucks-increase-profits-but-foul-air-more.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">Archived</a> from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved February 18, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Light+Trucks+Increase+Profits+But+Foul+Air+More+than+Cars&rft.date=1997-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1997%2F11%2F30%2Fbusiness%2Flicense-pollute-special-report-light-trucks-increase-profits-but-foul-air-more.html%3Fsec%3D%26spon%3D%26pagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Chaison2005" class="citation book cs1">Gary Chaison (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DxJZxwyMHHYC&pg=PT151">Unions in America</a>. Sage. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1452239477" title="Special:BookSources/978-1452239477"><bdi>978-1452239477</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231215024942/https://books.google.com/books?id=DxJZxwyMHHYC&pg=PT151#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved October 6, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unions+in+America&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1452239477&rft.au=Gary+Chaison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDxJZxwyMHHYC%26pg%3DPT151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_F._Warren2008" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth F. Warren (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zP4wDcT3PeQC&pg=PA358">Encyclopedia of U.S. Campaigns, Elections, and Electoral Behavior</a>. Sage Publications. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412954891" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412954891"><bdi>978-1412954891</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231215023725/https://books.google.com/books?id=zP4wDcT3PeQC&pg=PA358#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved October 6, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+U.S.+Campaigns%2C+Elections%2C+and+Electoral+Behavior&rft.pages=358&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1412954891&rft.au=Kenneth+F.+Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzP4wDcT3PeQC%26pg%3DPA358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Barton, et al. The Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO (2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> report <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/70332.pdf">[8]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170131130725/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/70332.pdf">Archived</a> January 31, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://hbr">https://hbr</a> .org/2016/05/why-the-global-1 and-the-asian-middle-class-have-the-most-from-globalization </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-112"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiglitz2017" class="citation web cs1">Stiglitz, Joseph E. (February 17, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/02/donald-trump-china-economics-trade">"Trump's Most Chilling Economic Lie"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)" title="Vanity Fair (magazine)">Vanity Fair</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vanity+Fair&rft.atitle=Trump%27s+Most+Chilling+Economic+Lie&rft.date=2017-02-17&rft.aulast=Stiglitz&rft.aufirst=Joseph+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vanityfair.com%2Fnews%2F2017%2F02%2Fdonald-trump-china-economics-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.103.6.2121">https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.103.6.2121</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210618091001/http://economics.mit.edu/files/9811">https://web.archive.org/web/20210618091001/http://economics.mit.edu/files/9811</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w21027">http://www.nber.org/papers/w21027</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epi.org/publication/the-china-toll-deepens-growth-in-the-bilateral-trade-deficit-between-2001-and-2017-cost-3-4-million-u-s-jobs-with-losses-in-every-state-and-congressional-district/">"The China toll deepens: Growth in the bilateral trade deficit between 2001 and 2017 cost 3.4 million U.S. jobs, with losses in every state and congressional district"</a>. Economic Policy Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200115022951/https://www.epi.org/publication/the-china-toll-deepens-growth-in-the-bilateral-trade-deficit-between-2001-and-2017-cost-3-4-million-u-s-jobs-with-losses-in-every-state-and-congressional-district/">Archived</a> from the original on January 15, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Economic+Policy+Institute&rft.atitle=The+China+toll+deepens%3A+Growth+in+the+bilateral+trade+deficit+between+2001+and+2017+cost+3.4+million+U.S.+jobs%2C+with+losses+in+every+state+and+congressional+district&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epi.org%2Fpublication%2Fthe-china-toll-deepens-growth-in-the-bilateral-trade-deficit-between-2001-and-2017-cost-3-4-million-u-s-jobs-with-losses-in-every-state-and-congressional-district%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Economic_Policy_Institute-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Economic_Policy_Institute_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Economic_Policy_Institute_117-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epi.org/publication/standard-models-benchmark-costs-globalization/">"Using standard models to benchmark the costs of globalization for American workers without a college degree"</a>. Economic Policy Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200508124822/https://www.epi.org/publication/standard-models-benchmark-costs-globalization/">Archived</a> from the original on May 8, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Economic+Policy+Institute&rft.atitle=Using+standard+models+to+benchmark+the+costs+of+globalization+for+American+workers+without+a+college+degree&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epi.org%2Fpublication%2Fstandard-models-benchmark-costs-globalization%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Epi.org-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Epi.org_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epi.org_118-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epi.org/publication/trading-manufacturing-advantage-china-trade/">"Trading away the manufacturing advantage: China trade drives down U.S. wages and benefits and eliminates good jobs for U.S. workers | Economic Policy Institute"</a>. Epi.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200418060958/https://www.epi.org/publication/trading-manufacturing-advantage-china-trade/">Archived</a> from the original on April 18, 2020. Retrieved October 7, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trading+away+the+manufacturing+advantage%3A+China+trade+drives+down+U.S.+wages+and+benefits+and+eliminates+good+jobs+for+U.S.+workers+%26%23124%3B+Economic+Policy+Institute&rft.pub=Epi.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epi.org%2Fpublication%2Ftrading-manufacturing-advantage-china-trade%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincicome2021" class="citation web cs1">Lincicome, Scott (January 27, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/manufactured-crisis-deindustrialization-free-markets-national-security#">"Manufactured Crisis: "Deindustrialization," Free Markets, and National Security"</a>. www.cato.org. <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127131949/https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/manufactured-crisis-deindustrialization-free-markets-national-security">Archived</a> from the original on January 27, 2021. Retrieved April 20, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cato.org&rft.atitle=Manufactured+Crisis%3A+%22Deindustrialization%2C%22+Free+Markets%2C+and+National+Security&rft.date=2021-01-27&rft.aulast=Lincicome&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cato.org%2Fpublications%2Fpolicy-analysis%2Fmanufactured-crisis-deindustrialization-free-markets-national-security%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRose2021" class="citation journal cs1">Rose, Stephen J. (October 4, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/do-not-blame-trade-decline-manufacturing-jobs">"Do Not Blame Trade for the Decline in Manufacturing Jobs"</a>. www.csis.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221216230308/https://www.csis.org/analysis/do-not-blame-trade-decline-manufacturing-jobs">Archived</a> from the original on December 16, 2022. Retrieved December 16, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.csis.org&rft.atitle=Do+Not+Blame+Trade+for+the+Decline+in+Manufacturing+Jobs&rft.date=2021-10-04&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csis.org%2Fanalysis%2Fdo-not-blame-trade-decline-manufacturing-jobs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2017/09/12/manufacturing-relatively-more-important-rural-economy-urban-economy">"Manufacturing is Relatively More Important to the Rural Economy than the Urban Economy"</a>. www.usda.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221216230300/https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2017/09/12/manufacturing-relatively-more-important-rural-economy-urban-economy">Archived</a> from the original on December 16, 2022. Retrieved December 16, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.usda.gov&rft.atitle=Manufacturing+is+Relatively+More+Important+to+the+Rural+Economy+than+the+Urban+Economy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usda.gov%2Fmedia%2Fblog%2F2017%2F09%2F12%2Fmanufacturing-relatively-more-important-rural-economy-urban-economy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.piie.com/blogs/trade-and-investment-policy-watch/free-trade-agreements-and-trade-deficits">"Free Trade Agreements and Trade Deficits | PIIE"</a>. www.piie.com. April 4, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221216230302/https://www.piie.com/blogs/trade-and-investment-policy-watch/free-trade-agreements-and-trade-deficits">Archived</a> from the original on December 16, 2022. Retrieved December 16, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.piie.com&rft.atitle=Free+Trade+Agreements+and+Trade+Deficits+%7C+PIIE&rft.date=2016-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.piie.com%2Fblogs%2Ftrade-and-investment-policy-watch%2Ffree-trade-agreements-and-trade-deficits&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Aaronson, Susan Ariel. Trade and the American Dream: A Social History of Postwar Trade Policy (U of Kentucky Press, 1996)</li></ul> <ul><li>Bils, Mark. "Tariff protection and production in the early US cotton textile industry." Journal of Economic History (1984) 44#4 pp. 1033–1045.</li> <li>Bolt, William K. Tariff Wars and the Politics of Jacksonian America (2017) covers 1816 to 1861. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1027&context=utk_graddiss">PhD dissertation version</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181227182912/https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1027&context=utk_graddiss">Archived</a> December 27, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Cohen, Andrew Wender. Contraband: Smuggling and the Birth of the American Century. WW Norton & Company, 2015.</li> <li>Dewey, Davis Rich. Financial History of the United States (5th ed. 1915) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l3oaAAAAMAAJ">online full text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214042208/https://books.google.com/books?id=l3oaAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> February 14, 2024, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Doran, Charles F. and Gregory P. Marchildon. The NAFTA Puzzle: Political Parties and Trade in North America (1994)</li> <li>Eckes, Alfred. Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (1995)</li> <li>Elliott, Orrin Leslie. The Tariff Controversy in the United States 1789–1833: With a Summary of the Period Before the Adoption of the Constitution (1892) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eS3GAAAAMAAJ">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214042213/https://books.google.com/books?id=eS3GAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> February 14, 2024, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gingrich,_Newt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gingrich, Newt">Gingrich, Newt</a>. "Trump's America: The Truth about Our Nation's Great Comeback" (2018)</li> <li>Goodman, Matthew P and Ratner, Ely "A Better Way to Challenge China on Trade" Foreign Affairs, March 22, 2018</li> <li>Hawke, Gary R. "The United States tariff and industrial protection in the late nineteenth century." Economic History Review (1975) 28#1 pp. 84–99.</li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofstadter1938" class="citation journal cs1">Hofstadter, Richard (1938). "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War". The American Historical Review. 44 (1): 50–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1840850">10.2307/1840850</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">1840850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Tariff+Issue+on+the+Eve+of+the+Civil+War&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50-55&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1840850&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1840850%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hofstadter&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Irwin, Douglas A. "Antebellum Tariff Politics: Regional Coalitions and Shifting Economic Interests", Journal of Law and Economics, 51 (Nov. 2008), 715–742.</li> <li>Lake, David A. "International economic structures and American foreign economic policy, 1887–1934." World Politics (1983) 35#4 pp. 517–543. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dlake/Reprints/Structures%20WP%2035,%204%20(1983).pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061015010612/http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dlake/Reprints/Structures%20WP%2035,%204%20(1983).pdf">Archived</a> October 15, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Kaplan, Edward S.; Prelude to Trade Wars: American Tariff Policy, 1890–1922 Greenwood Press 1994</li> <li>Kaplan, Edward S. American Trade Policy: 1923–1995 (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eh.net/bookreviews/library/0038.shtml">online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050215184118/http://www.eh.net/bookreviews/library/0038.shtml">Archived</a> February 15, 2005, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Narton, John H. Judith L. Goldstein, Timothy E. Josling, and Richard H. Steinberg, The Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO (2008)</li></ul> <ul><li>Northrup, Cynthia Clark, and Elaine C. Prange Turney, eds. Encyclopedia of Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History (3 vol Greenwood, 2003) vol 1 on people, politics concepts and laws on tariff. Vol 2 on primary sources; vol 3 has the full text of each major tariff law, 1789 to 1930.</li> <li>Schattsneider, E. E. Politics, Pressures and the Tariff (1935). Passage of Hawley-Smoot tariff</li> <li>Smith, Mark A. The Tariff on Wool 1926</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanwood,_Edward1903" class="citation book cs1">Stanwood, Edward (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oGkpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1">American tariff controversies in the nineteenth century</a>. Houghton, Mifflin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214042308/https://books.google.com/books?id=oGkpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2024. Retrieved October 6, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+tariff+controversies+in+the+nineteenth+century&rft.pub=Houghton%2C+Mifflin&rft.date=1903&rft.au=Stanwood%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoGkpAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> detailed political narrative; full text online</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStudenski,_PaulHerman_Edward_Krooss2003" class="citation book cs1">Studenski, Paul & Herman Edward Krooss (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_0UqxH-5fdkC">Financial History of the United States</a>. Beard Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1587981753" title="Special:BookSources/978-1587981753"><bdi>978-1587981753</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214042209/https://books.google.com/books?id=_0UqxH-5fdkC">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2024. Retrieved October 6, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Financial+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=Beard+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1587981753&rft.au=Studenski%2C+Paul&rft.au=Herman+Edward+Krooss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_0UqxH-5fdkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Summers; Festus P. William L. Wilson and Tariff Reform, a Biography (1953) on 1890s</li> <li>Taussig, F. W. The Tariff History of the United States. 8th edition (1931); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MyqgiptJzfwC">5th edition 1910 is online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214042209/https://books.google.com/books?id=MyqgiptJzfwC">Archived</a> February 14, 2024, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, the standard scholarly history emphasizing politics; it collects articles he wrote in the journals</li> <li>Taussig, Frank William. Some Aspects of the Tariff Question, (3rd ed. 1931), a standard scholarly history, emphasizing the impact on the major industries affected, especially sugar, steel, silk, cotton and wool. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/someaspectsoftar0000taus_y8t4/page/n8/mode/1up">online</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Taussig, Frank William. The history of the present tariff, 1860–1883 (1885) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v80OAAAAYAAJ">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214042310/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=v80OAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> February 14, 2024, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaussig1888" class="citation journal cs1">Taussig, F. W. (1888). "The Tariff, 1830–1860". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2 (3): 314–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1879417">10.2307/1879417</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1879417">1879417</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Tariff%2C+1830%E2%80%931860&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=314-346&rft.date=1888&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1879417&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1879417%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taussig&rft.aufirst=F.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+tariffs+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Taylor, George Rogers, ed. The Great Tariff Debate, 1820–1830 (1953), excerpts from primary and secondary sources</li> <li>Terrill, Tom E. The Tariff, Politics, and American Foreign Policy 1874–1901 (1973).</li></ul> <ul><li>Wolman, Paul. Most Favored Nation: The Republican Revisionists and U.S. Tariff Policy, 1897–1912 (1992)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Northrup, Cynthia Clark, and Elaine C. Prange Turney, eds. Encyclopedia of Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History (3 vol Greenwood, 2003) vol 1 on people, politics concepts and laws on tariff. Vol 2 contains primary sources; vol 3 has the text of each major tariff, 1789 to 1930.</li></ul> <ul><li>Ratner, Sidney. The Tariff in American History (1972) 80 page scholarly history, and 130 pages of text of 23 key primary sources. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tariffinamerican0000ratn">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large/Volume_1/1st_Congress/1st_Session/Chapter_2" class="extiw" title="wikisource:United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/1st Congress/1st Session/Chapter 2">Hamilton tariff 1789</a></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dig.lib.niu.edu/gildedage/teachers/tariff-lesson.html">Lesson plan on tariffs in US history</a> from Northern Illinois University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dig.lib.niu.edu/gildedage/teachers/tariff-songlesson.html">Campaign Songs as Propaganda: Free Trade vs. Protectionism – In Whose Interest?</a> from Northern Illinois University</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_federal_taxation_legislation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_tax_acts" title="Template:US tax acts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_tax_acts" title="Template talk:US tax acts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_tax_acts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US tax acts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_federal_taxation_legislation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Amendments_to_the_Internal_Revenue_Laws_of_the_United_States" title="Amendments to the Internal Revenue Laws of the United States">United States federal taxation legislation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">Internal Revenue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1861" title="Revenue Act of 1861">1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1862" title="Revenue Act of 1862">1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1864" title="Revenue Act of 1864">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">1894</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payne%E2%80%93Aldrich_Tariff_Act" title="Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act">1909</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1913" title="Revenue Act of 1913">1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Internal_Revenue_Tax_Act" title="Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1916" title="Revenue Act of 1916">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Revenue_Act_of_1917" title="War Revenue Act of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1918" title="Revenue Act of 1918">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1921" title="Revenue Act of 1921">1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1924" title="Revenue Act of 1924">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1926" title="Revenue Act of 1926">1926</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1928" title="Revenue Act of 1928">1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1932" title="Revenue Act of 1932">1932</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1934" title="Revenue Act of 1934">1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1935" title="Revenue Act of 1935">1935</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1936" title="Revenue Act of 1936">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1937" title="Revenue Act of 1937">1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code_of_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Revenue Code of 1939">1939 Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1940" title="Revenue Act of 1940">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Revenue_Act_of_1940" title="Second Revenue Act of 1940">1940 (2nd)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1941" title="Revenue Act of 1941">1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1942" title="Revenue Act of 1942">1942</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1943" title="Revenue Act of 1943">1943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_Tax_Payment_Act_of_1943" title="Current Tax Payment Act of 1943">1943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_Income_Tax_Act_of_1944" title="Individual Income Tax Act of 1944">1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1945" title="Revenue Act of 1945">1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1948" title="Revenue Act of 1948">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1950" title="Revenue Act of 1950">1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_profits_tax" title="Excess profits tax">1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1951" title="Revenue Act of 1951">1951</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excise_Tax_Reduction_Act_of_1954" title="Excise Tax Reduction Act of 1954">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code_of_1954" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Revenue Code of 1954">1954 Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1962" title="Revenue Act of 1962">1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1964" title="Revenue Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Adjustment_Act_of_1966" title="Tax Adjustment Act of 1966">1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_and_Expenditure_Control_Act_of_1968" title="Revenue and Expenditure Control Act of 1968">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Reform_Act_of_1969" title="Tax Reform Act of 1969">1969</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1971" title="Revenue Act of 1971">1971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Reduction_Act_of_1975" title="Tax Reduction Act of 1975">1975</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Reform_Act_of_1976" title="Tax Reform Act of 1976">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Reduction_and_Simplification_Act_of_1977" title="Tax Reduction and Simplification Act of 1977">1977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1978" title="Revenue Act of 1978">1978</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crude_Oil_Windfall_Profit_Tax_Act_of_1980" title="Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax Act of 1980">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Recovery_Tax_Act_of_1981" title="Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981">1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Equity_and_Fiscal_Responsibility_Act_of_1982" title="Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway_Revenue_Act_of_1982" class="mw-redirect" title="Highway Revenue Act of 1982">Gas Tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_and_Dividend_Tax_Compliance_Act_of_1983" title="Interest and Dividend Tax Compliance Act of 1983">1983 (PL 98-67)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railroad_Retirement_Solvency_Act_of_1983" title="Railroad Retirement Solvency Act of 1983">1983 (PL 98-76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deficit_Reduction_Act_of_1984" title="Deficit Reduction Act of 1984">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Omnibus_Budget_Reconciliation_Act_of_1985" title="Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985">COBRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Reform_Act_of_1986" title="Tax Reform Act of 1986">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code_of_1986" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Revenue Code of 1986">1986 Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnibus_Budget_Reconciliation_Act_of_1987" title="Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1987">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_and_Miscellaneous_Revenue_Act_of_1988" title="Technical and Miscellaneous Revenue Act of 1988">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnibus_Budget_Reconciliation_Act_of_1990" title="Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnibus_Budget_Reconciliation_Act_of_1993" title="Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993">1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxpayer_Bill_of_Rights_2" title="Taxpayer Bill of Rights 2">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxpayer_Relief_Act_of_1997" title="Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997">1997</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service_Restructuring_and_Reform_Act_of_1998" title="Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998">1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Growth_and_Tax_Relief_Reconciliation_Act_of_2001" title="Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001">2001 (EGTRRA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_Creation_and_Worker_Assistance_Act_of_2002" title="Job Creation and Worker Assistance Act of 2002">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jobs_and_Growth_Tax_Relief_Reconciliation_Act_of_2003" title="Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Jobs_Creation_Act_of_2004" title="American Jobs Creation Act of 2004">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Increase_Prevention_and_Reconciliation_Act_of_2005" title="Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_Protection_Act_of_2006" title="Pension Protection Act of 2006">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Relief_and_Health_Care_Act_of_2006" title="Tax Relief and Health Care Act of 2006">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tax_Increase_Prevention_Act_of_2007&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tax Increase Prevention Act of 2007 (page does not exist)">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_Forgiveness_Debt_Relief_Act_of_2007" title="Mortgage Forgiveness Debt Relief Act of 2007">2007 (Mortgage)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Stimulus_Act_of_2008" title="Economic Stimulus Act of 2008">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_110-343" title="Public Law 110-343">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Recovery_and_Reinvestment_Act_of_2009" title="American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_Care_Act" title="Affordable Care Act">2010 (ACA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Business_Jobs_Act_of_2010" title="Small Business Jobs Act of 2010">2010 (PL 111–240)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Relief,_Unemployment_Insurance_Reauthorization,_and_Job_Creation_Act_of_2010" title="Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010">2010 (PL 111-312)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Payroll_Tax_Cut_Continuation_Act_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporary Payroll Tax Cut Continuation Act of 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Taxpayer_Relief_Act_of_2012" title="American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012">2012 (ATRA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Class_Tax_Relief_and_Job_Creation_Act_of_2012" title="Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2012">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tax_Increase_Prevention_Act_of_2014&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tax Increase Prevention Act of 2014 (page does not exist)">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipartisan_Budget_Act_of_2015&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015 (page does not exist)">2015 (BBA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Appropriations_Act,_2016" title="Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Cuts_and_Jobs_Act_of_2017" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017">2017 (TCJA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Budget_Act_of_2018" title="Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018">2018 (BBA)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Continuing_Appropriations_for_Fiscal_Year_2018,_Federal_Register_Printing_Savings,_Healthy_Kids,_Health-Related_Taxes,_and_Budgetary_Effects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fourth Continuing Appropriations for Fiscal Year 2018, Federal Register Printing Savings, Healthy Kids, Health-Related Taxes, and Budgetary Effects (page does not exist)">2018 (Appropriations)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SECURE_Act_of_2019" class="mw-redirect" title="SECURE Act of 2019">2019 (SECURE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Families_First_Coronavirus_Response_Act" title="Families First Coronavirus Response Act">2020 (Families First)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CARES_Act" title="CARES Act">2020 (CARES)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Appropriations_Act,_2021" title="Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021">2020 (Appropriations)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._(Mac)_Thornberry_National_Defense_Authorization_Act_for_Fiscal_Year_2021" class="mw-redirect" title="William M. (Mac) Thornberry National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021">2021 (Defense Authorization)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Rescue_Plan_Act_of_2021" title="American Rescue Plan Act of 2021">2021 (American Rescue Plan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_Investment_and_Jobs_Act" title="Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act">2021 (Infrastructure, PL 117–58)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">Tariffs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1789" title="Tariff of 1789">1789: Hamilton I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1790" title="Tariff of 1790">1790: Hamilton II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1791" title="Tariff of 1791">1791: Hamilton III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1792" title="Tariff of 1792">1792: Hamilton IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1816" title="Tariff of 1816">1816: Dallas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1824" title="Tariff of 1824">1824: Sectional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">1828: "Abominations"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1832" title="Tariff of 1832">1832</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1833" title="Tariff of 1833">1833: Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1842" title="Tariff of 1842">1842: Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walker_tariff" title="Walker tariff">1846: Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1857" title="Tariff of 1857">1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrill_Tariff" title="Morrill Tariff">1861: Morrill</a></li> <li>1872</li> <li>1875</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1883" title="Tariff of 1883">1883: Mongrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McKinley_Tariff" title="McKinley Tariff">1890: McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">1894: Wilson–Gorman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dingley_Act" title="Dingley Act">1897: Dingley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payne%E2%80%93Aldrich_Tariff_Act" title="Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act">1909: Payne–Aldrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1913" title="Revenue Act of 1913">1913: Underwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Tariff_of_1921" title="Emergency Tariff of 1921">1921: Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fordney%E2%80%93McCumber_Tariff" title="Fordney–McCumber Tariff">1922: Fordney–McCumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">1930: Smoot–Hawley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_Tariff_Act" title="Reciprocal Tariff Act">1934: Reciprocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">1948: GATT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_Expansion_Act" title="Trade Expansion Act">1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_Act_of_1974" title="Trade Act of 1974">1974/75</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_Agreements_Act_of_1979" title="Trade Agreements Act of 1979">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_and_Tariff_Act_of_1984" title="Trade and Tariff Act of 1984">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnibus_Trade_and_Competitiveness_Act" title="Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93United_States_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement">1988: Canada FT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">1993: NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">1994: WTO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">2018/2019: Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Economy_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Economy of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Economy of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economy of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Economy_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Companies_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Companies of the United States">Companies of the United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economic history of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">American System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Industry_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Industry in the United States">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquaculture in the United States">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Automotive industry in the United States">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_transportation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Air transportation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_the_United_States" title="Beer in the United States">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biotechnology_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Biotechnology in the United States">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cement_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Cement industry in the United States">Cement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Hawaii" title="Coffee production in Hawaii">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_production_in_the_United_States" title="Cotton production in the United States">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Electricity sector in the United States">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronics industry in the United States">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Fishing industry in the United States">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_the_United_States" title="Gambling in the United States">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hedge_fund_firms_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Hedge fund firms of the United States">Hedge fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of the United States">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Gold mining in the United States">Gold mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pharmaceutical_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Pharmaceutical industry in the United States">Pharmaceuticals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacies_in_the_United_States" title="Pharmacies in the United States">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Publishing_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Publishing in the United States">Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Real_estate_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Real estate in the United States">Real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Renewable energy in the United States">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel industry in the United States">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the United States">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television_in_the_United_States" title="Digital television in the United States">Digital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Textile_industry_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Textile industry of the United States">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine of the United States">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Special_economic_zones_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Special economic zones of the United States">Special Economic Zones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment_zone" title="Empowerment zone">Empowerment Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunity_zone" title="Opportunity zone">Opportunity Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_Employment_Area" title="Targeted Employment Area">Targeted Employment Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Foreign_trade_zones_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Foreign trade zones of the United States">Foreign Trade Zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_statistical_area" title="Metropolitan statistical area">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Energy in the United States">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal in the United States">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum industry in the United States">Oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oil_shale_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Oil shale in the United States">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_refineries#United_States" title="List of oil refineries">Oil refineries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_States" title="Nuclear power in the United States">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Renewable energy in the United States">Renewable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_States" title="Wind power in the United States">Wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in the United States">Geothermal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Infrastructure_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Infrastructure in the United States">infrastructure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Shipping_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Shipping in the United States">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Illegal drug trade in the United States">Illegal drug trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Foreign_Investment_in_the_United_States" title="Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States">Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ports_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Ports of the United States">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_largest_trading_partners_of_the_United_States" title="List of the largest trading partners of the United States">Trading partners</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Tax system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor law">Labor law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labor_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor laws in the United States">Child labor laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-to-work_law" title="Right-to-work law">Right-to-work law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">Minimum wage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Finance_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Finance in the United States">Finance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Banking in the United States">banking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_services_in_the_United_States" title="Financial services in the United States">Financial services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing" title="Bureau of Engraving and Printing">Bureau of Engraving and Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of banks in the United States">Other banks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="New York Stock Exchange">New York Stock Exchange</a> (<a href="/wiki/NYSE_Composite" title="NYSE Composite">NYSE Composite</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASDAQ" class="mw-redirect" title="NASDAQ">NASDAQ</a> (<a href="/wiki/NASDAQ_Composite" class="mw-redirect" title="NASDAQ Composite">NASDAQ Composite</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Board_of_Trade" title="Chicago Board of Trade">Chicago Board of Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Board_of_Trade" title="New York Board of Trade">New York Board of Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_Exchange" title="Intercontinental Exchange">Intercontinental Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Accounting_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Accounting in the United States">Accounting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economy of the United States">Government institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">Department of the Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">Department of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">Department of Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_States_Trade_Representative" title="Office of the United States Trade Representative">Office of the United States Trade Representative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Business_Administration" title="Small Business Administration">Small Business Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">Internal Revenue Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Trade_and_Development_Agency" title="United States Trade and Development Agency">United States Trade and Development Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">Customs and Border Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_of_the_Currency" title="Office of the Comptroller of the Currency">Office of the Comptroller of the Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_Financial_Protection_Bureau" title="Consumer Financial Protection Bureau">Consumer Financial Protection Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Credit_Union_Administration" title="National Credit Union Administration">National Credit Union Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission" title="United States International Trade Commission">United States International Trade Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_statistical_system" title="Federal statistical system">Statistics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_development_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Economic development in the United States">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_the_United_States" title="International rankings of the United States">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_GDP" title="List of U.S. states and territories by GDP">States by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_welfare_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare in the United States">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_force_in_the_United_States" title="Labor force in the United States">Labor force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Causes of unemployment in the United States">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate">State unemployment rate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_the_United_States" title="Urbanization in the United States">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_United_States" title="Emigration from the United States">Emigration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._International_Development_Finance_Corporation" title="U.S. International Development Finance Corporation">U.S. International Development Finance Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Dot_Network" title="Blue Dot Network">Blue Dot Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Build_Back_Better_World" title="Build Back Better World">Build Back Better World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Export%E2%80%93Import_Bank_of_the_United_States" title="Export–Import Bank of the United States">Export–Import Bank of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economic initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AmeriCorps_VISTA" title="AmeriCorps VISTA">AmeriCorps VISTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_Corps" title="Job Corps">Job Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathways_out_of_Poverty" title="Pathways out of Poverty">Pathways out of Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economic history of the United States">Events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000s_United_States_housing_bubble" title="2000s United States housing bubble">2006–2012 housing bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932010_automotive_industry_crisis" title="2008–2010 automotive industry crisis">2008–2010 automotive industry crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Stimulus_Act_of_2008" title="Economic Stimulus Act of 2008">2008 economic stimulus plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Related topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_the_United_States" title="Bankruptcy in the United States">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_companies_in_the_United_States_by_revenue" title="List of largest companies in the United States by revenue">Largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortune_500" title="Fortune 500">Top 500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_the_United_States" title="State-owned enterprises of the United States">SOEs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute" title="American National Standards Institute">National Standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FCC_mark" title="FCC mark">FCC mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Made_in_USA" title="Made in USA">Made in USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wealthiest_Americans_by_net_worth" title="List of wealthiest Americans by net worth">List of Americans by net worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_economists" title="Category:American economists">American economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economy of the United States">Category</a></dd> <dd><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline of the United States</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_North_America" title="Economy of North America">Economy of North America</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&oldid=1259672352">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&oldid=1259672352</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of foreign trade of the United States">History of foreign trade of the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Category:History of taxation in the United States">History of taxation in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_international_trade" title="Category:History of international trade">History of international trade</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States_by_topic" title="Category:History of the United States by topic">History of the United States by topic</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Comics_articles_needing_issue_citations" title="Category:Comics articles needing issue citations">Comics articles needing issue citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_January_2019" title="Category:Use American English from January 2019">Use American English from January 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_January_2019" title="Category:Use mdy dates from January 2019">Use mdy dates from January 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_November_2024" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from November 2024">Articles needing additional references from November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_November_2024" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from November 2024">Articles lacking reliable references from November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 26 November 2024, at 12:51 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-v9972","wgBackendResponseTime":179,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.246","walltime":"1.390","ppvisitednodes":{"value":12151,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":265092,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":12677,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":25,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":22,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":304186,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1130.218 1 -total"," 39.00% 440.731 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.42% 196.886 26 Template:Cite_book"," 10.31% 116.513 28 Template:Cite_web"," 8.69% 98.200 11 Template:Citation_needed"," 8.63% 97.528 1 Template:Economy_of_the_United_States_sidebar"," 7.69% 86.967 12 Template:Fix"," 6.76% 76.353 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.59% 74.533 2 Template:Navbox"," 4.38% 49.526 2 Template:Unreferenced_section"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.659","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7640084,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-d465dfd78-grx8q","timestamp":"20241126125154","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of tariffs in the United States","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7686042","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7686042","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2006-01-28T11:31:12Z","dateModified":"2024-11-26T12:51:49Z","headline":"history of United States tariffs"}</script> </body> </html>