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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>The Cretaceous (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/krɪˈteɪʃəs/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">krih-TAY-shəss</a>)<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">geological period</a> that lasted from about 145 to 66 <a href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">million years ago</a> (Mya). It is the third and final period of the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">Era</a>, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the ninth and longest geological period of the entire <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a>. The name is derived from the Latin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/creta#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:creta">creta</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a>', which is abundant in the latter half of the period. It is usually abbreviated K, for its German translation Kreide. <table class="infobox" style="width:23em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em 0.33em 0.33em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:1.25em;background:rgb(127,198,78);">Cretaceous</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">~145.0 – 66.0 <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a> <div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:171.92307692308px; width:24.738461538462px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth,_105_Ma_(Albian_Age).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_105_Ma_%28Albian_Age%29.png/250px-Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_105_Ma_%28Albian_Age%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_105_Ma_%28Albian_Age%29.png/375px-Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_105_Ma_%28Albian_Age%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_105_Ma_%28Albian_Age%29.png/500px-Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_105_Ma_%28Albian_Age%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3610" data-file-height="1810"></a><div class="infobox-caption">A map of Earth as it appeared 105 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous Epoch</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Chronology</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="font-size:14px"><table id="Container" role="presentation" class="toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:none;margin:auto;overflow:hidden;min-width:26.15em"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:32em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−140 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.62em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.82em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−130 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.02em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.22em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−120 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.62em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−110 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.82em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:14.02em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−100 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.22em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−90 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.62em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.82em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−80 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.02em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.22em;transform:translateY(-50%)">−70 —</div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)">–</div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:10em;height:32em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#000000"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(103,197,202);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:30.222em;left:0.000em;width:1.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-15.111em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><div class="center"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1231500821">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-text{letter-spacing:-0.12em;line-height:1em;text-orientation:upright;writing-mode:vertical-lr;width:1em}}</style><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(242,249,29);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.778em;left:0.000em;width:1.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.889em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">C Z</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(52,178,201);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.222em;height:1.778em;left:1.200em;width:8.800em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.889em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(127,198,78);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:28.344em;left:1.200em;width:1.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-14.172em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cretaceous</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(253,154,82);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.778em;left:1.200em;width:8.800em"><div class="notheme" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(166,216,74);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:12.422em;left:2.400em;width:1.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.211em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:32.000em;left:0.000em;width:10.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-16.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(140,205,96);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:28.350em;height:1.772em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.886em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Berriasian" title="Berriasian">Berriasian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(153,211,106);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:25.758em;height:2.592em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.296em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Valanginian" title="Valanginian">Valanginian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(166,217,117);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.298em;height:2.359em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.180em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Hauterivian" title="Hauterivian">Hauterivian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(179,223,127);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:21.725em;height:1.573em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.787em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Barremian" title="Barremian">Barremian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(191,228,138);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.700em;height:2.924em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.462em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Aptian" title="Aptian">Aptian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(204,234,151);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.200em;height:4.501em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Albian" title="Albian">Albian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(179,222,83);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:11.823em;height:2.376em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.188em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Cenomanian" title="Cenomanian">Cenomanian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(191,227,93);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:10.347em;height:1.376em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.688em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Turonian" title="Turonian">Turonian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(204,233,104);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:9.087em;height:1.260em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.630em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Coniacian" title="Coniacian">Coniacian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(217,239,116);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:8.115em;height:0.872em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.436em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Santonian" title="Santonian">Santonian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(230,244,127);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:3.974em;height:4.141em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.070em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Campanian" title="Campanian">Campanian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(242,250,140);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:2.096em;left:3.600em;width:6.400em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.048em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Maastrichtian" title="Maastrichtian">Maastrichtian</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:32.000em;left:9.900em;width:0.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-16.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:0.072em;left:0.000em;width:10.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.036em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.200em;height:0.054em;left:2.300em;width:7.700em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.027em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.222em;height:0.036em;left:1.200em;width:8.800em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.018em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:10.25em;height:32em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.778em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle">←</td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">K-Pg mass extinction</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 auto;float:left;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:23em">Subdivision of the Cretaceous according to the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">ICS</a>, as of 2023.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago. </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Etymology</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Name formality</th><td class="infobox-data">Formal</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Usage information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Celestial body</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Earth</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Regional usage</th><td class="infobox-data">Global (<a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">ICS</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Time scale(s) used</th><td class="infobox-data">ICS Time Scale</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Definition</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Chronological unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">Period</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Stratigraphic unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)" title="System (stratigraphy)">System</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Time span formality</th><td class="infobox-data">Formal</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary definition</th><td class="infobox-data">Not formally defined</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary definition candidates</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Magnetic—base of <a href="/wiki/Chronozone" title="Chronozone">Chron</a> M18r</li> <li>Base of <a href="/wiki/Calpionellid" title="Calpionellid">Calpionellid</a> zone B</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_appearance_datum" title="First appearance datum">FAD</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">Ammonite</a> <a href="/wiki/Berriasella_jacobi" title="Berriasella jacobi">Berriasella jacobi</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">None</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper boundary definition</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a>-enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent <a href="/wiki/K-Pg_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="K-Pg extinction event">K-Pg extinction event</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper boundary GSSP</th><td class="infobox-data">El Kef Section, <a href="/wiki/El_Kef" title="El Kef">El Kef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Cretaceous&params=36.1537_N_8.6486_E_">36°09′13″N 8°38′55″E / 36.1537°N 8.6486°E / 36.1537; 8.6486</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper GSSP ratified</th><td class="infobox-data">1991</td></tr></tbody></table> The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, resulting in high <a href="/wiki/Sea_level#Local_and_eustatic" title="Sea level">eustatic sea levels</a> that created numerous shallow <a href="/wiki/Inland_sea_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inland sea (geology)">inland seas</a>. These oceans and seas were populated with now-<a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a> <a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">marine reptiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonites" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonites">ammonites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rudists" title="Rudists">rudists</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a> continued to dominate on land. The world was largely ice-free, although there is some evidence of brief periods of glaciation during the cooler first half, and forests extended to the poles. Many of the dominant taxonomic groups present in modern times can be ultimately traced back to origins in the Cretaceous. During this time, new groups of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">birds</a> appeared, including the earliest relatives of <a href="/wiki/Placentalia" title="Placentalia">placentals</a> & <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">Eutheria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metatheria" title="Metatheria">Metatheria</a> respectively), with the earliest <a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">crown group</a> birds appearing towards to the end of the Cretaceous. <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">Teleost</a> fish, the most diverse group of modern vertebrates continued to diversify during the Cretaceous with the appearence of their most diverse subgroup <a href="/wiki/Acanthomorpha" title="Acanthomorpha">Acanthomorpha</a> during this period. During the Early Cretaceous, <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> of previously widespread <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a> groups. The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>, a large <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">mass extinction</a> in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a>, and large <a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">marine reptiles</a>, died out, widely thought to have been caused by the impact of a large asteroid that formed the <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub crater</a> in the Gulf of Mexico. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary">Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary</a> (K–Pg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">Eras</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology_and_history">1 Etymology and history</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Geology">2 Geology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Subdivisions">2.1 Subdivisions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Boundaries">2.2 Boundaries</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Geologic_formations">2.3 Geologic formations</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Europe">2.3.1 Europe</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#North_America">2.3.2 North America</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Paleogeography">3 Paleogeography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Climate">4 Climate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Flora">5 Flora</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Terrestrial_fauna">6 Terrestrial fauna</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Rhynchocephalians">6.1 Rhynchocephalians</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Choristodera">6.2 Choristodera</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Marine_fauna">7 Marine fauna</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#References">9 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Citations">9.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Bibliography">9.2 Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#External_links">10 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Etymology_and_history">Etymology and history</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and history" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> The Cretaceous as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Julien_d%27Omalius_d%27Halloy" title="Jean Baptiste Julien d'Omalius d'Halloy">Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy</a> in 1822 as the Terrain Crétacé,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> using <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Basin" title="Paris Basin">Paris Basin</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> and named for the extensive beds of <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> deposited by the shells of marine <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, principally <a href="/wiki/Coccoliths" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccoliths">coccoliths</a>), found in the upper Cretaceous of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>. The name Cretaceous was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> creta, meaning chalk.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The twofold division of the Cretaceous was implemented by <a href="/wiki/William_Conybeare_(geologist)" title="William Conybeare (geologist)">Conybeare</a> and Phillips in 1822. <a href="/wiki/Alcide_d%27Orbigny" title="Alcide d'Orbigny">Alcide d'Orbigny</a> in 1840 divided the French Cretaceous into five étages (stages): the <a href="/wiki/Neocomian" title="Neocomian">Neocomian</a>, Aptian, Albian, Turonian, and Senonian, later adding the Urgonian between Neocomian and Aptian and the Cenomanian between the Albian and Turonian.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Geology">Geology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subdivisions">Subdivisions</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Subdivisions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Cretaceous is divided into <a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a> <a href="/wiki/Epoch_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (geology)">epochs</a>, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Series_(stratigraphy)" title="Series (stratigraphy)">series</a>. In older literature, the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series: <a href="/wiki/Neocomian" title="Neocomian">Neocomian</a> (lower/early), <a href="/wiki/Gallic_epoch" title="Gallic epoch">Gallic</a> (middle) and <a href="/wiki/Senonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Senonian">Senonian</a> (upper/late). A subdivision into 12 <a href="/wiki/Stage_(stratigraphy)" title="Stage (stratigraphy)">stages</a>, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide. In many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use. From youngest to oldest, the subdivisions of the Cretaceous period are: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Subdivisions of the Cretaceous </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Epoch</th> <th rowspan="2">Stage</th> <th>Start (base)</th> <th>End (top)</th> <th rowspan="2">Definition</th> <th rowspan="2">Etymology </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" align="center">(<a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Mya</a>) </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6" style="background-color: rgb(166,216,74);"><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a></td> <td style="background-color: rgb(242,250,140);"><a href="/wiki/Maastrichtian" title="Maastrichtian">Maastrichtian</a></td> <td align="center">72.1 ± 0.2 </td> <td align="center">66.0</td> <td>top: iridium anomaly at the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary">Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary</a> base:first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Pachydiscus" title="Pachydiscus">Pachydiscus neubergicus</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maastricht_Formation" title="Maastricht Formation">Maastricht Formation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a>, Netherlands </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(230,244,127);"><a href="/wiki/Campanian" title="Campanian">Campanian</a></td> <td align="center">83.6 ± 0.2 </td> <td align="center">72.1 ± 0.2</td> <td>base: last occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Marsupites" title="Marsupites">Marsupites testudinarius</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Champagne_(province)" title="Champagne (province)">Champagne</a>, France </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(217,239,116);"><a href="/wiki/Santonian" title="Santonian">Santonian</a></td> <td align="center">86.3 ± 0.5 </td> <td align="center">83.6 ± 0.2</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Cladoceramus" title="Cladoceramus">Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saintes,_Charente-Maritime" title="Saintes, Charente-Maritime">Saintes</a>, France </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(204,233,104);"><a href="/wiki/Coniacian" title="Coniacian">Coniacian</a></td> <td align="center">89.8 ± 0.3 </td> <td align="center">86.3 ± 0.5</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Cremnoceramus" title="Cremnoceramus">Cremnoceramus rotundatus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cognac,_France" title="Cognac, France">Cognac</a>, France </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(191,227,93);"><a href="/wiki/Turonian" title="Turonian">Turonian</a></td> <td align="center">93.9 ± 0.8 </td> <td align="center">89.8 ± 0.3</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Watinoceras" title="Watinoceras">Watinoceras devonense</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a>, France </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(179,222,83);"><a href="/wiki/Cenomanian" title="Cenomanian">Cenomanian</a></td> <td align="center">100.5 ± 0.9 </td> <td align="center">93.9 ± 0.8</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotalipora&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotalipora (page does not exist)">Rotalipora globotruncanoides</a></td> <td>Cenomanum; <a href="/wiki/Le_Mans" title="Le Mans">Le Mans</a>, France </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6" style="background-color: rgb(140,205,87);"><a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early Cretaceous</a></td> <td style="background-color: rgb(204,234,151);"><a href="/wiki/Albian" title="Albian">Albian</a></td> <td align="center">113.0 ± 1.0 </td> <td align="center">100.5 ± 0.9</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Praediscosphaera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Praediscosphaera (page does not exist)">Praediscosphaera columnata</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aube_(river)" title="Aube (river)">Aube</a>, France </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(191,228,138);"><a href="/wiki/Aptian" title="Aptian">Aptian</a></td> <td align="center">121.4 ± 1.0 </td> <td align="center">113.0 ± 1.0</td> <td>base: <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_anomaly" title="Magnetic anomaly">magnetic anomaly</a> M0r</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apt,_Vaucluse" title="Apt, Vaucluse">Apt</a>, France </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(179,223,127);"><a href="/wiki/Barremian" title="Barremian">Barremian</a></td> <td align="center">125.77 ± 1.5 </td> <td align="center">121.4 ± 1.0</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Spitidiscus" title="Spitidiscus">Spitidiscus hugii</a> and S. vandeckii</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Barr%C3%AAme" title="Barrême">Barrême</a>, France </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(166,217,117);"><a href="/wiki/Hauterivian" title="Hauterivian">Hauterivian</a></td> <td align="center">132.6 ± 2.0 </td> <td align="center">125.77 ± 1.5</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Acanthodiscus" title="Acanthodiscus">Acanthodiscus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hauterive,_Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Hauterive, Neuchâtel">Hauterive</a>, Switzerland </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(153,211,106);"><a href="/wiki/Valanginian" title="Valanginian">Valanginian</a></td> <td align="center">139.8 ± 3.0 </td> <td align="center">132.6 ± 2.0</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Calpionellites" title="Calpionellites">Calpionellites darderi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Valangin" title="Valangin">Valangin</a>, Switzerland </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(140,205,96);"><a href="/wiki/Berriasian" title="Berriasian">Berriasian</a></td> <td align="center">145.0 ± 4.0 </td> <td align="center">139.8 ± 3.0</td> <td>base: first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Berriasella" title="Berriasella">Berriasella jacobi</a> (traditionally); first occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Calpionella" title="Calpionella">Calpionella alpina</a> (since 2016)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Berrias-et-Casteljau" title="Berrias-et-Casteljau">Berrias</a>, France </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boundaries">Boundaries</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Boundaries" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Impact_event.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg/220px-Impact_event.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg/220px-Impact_event.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg/330px-Impact_event.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg/440px-Impact_event.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The impact of a <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comet</a> is today widely accepted as the main reason for the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a></div> The lower boundary of the Cretaceous is currently undefined, and the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined <a href="/wiki/Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point" title="Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point">Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point</a> (GSSP). Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and the lack of any <a href="/wiki/Chemostratigraphy" title="Chemostratigraphy">chemostratigraphic</a> events, such as <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> excursions (large sudden changes in <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope_ratio" title="Stable isotope ratio">ratios of isotopes</a>) that could be used to define or correlate a boundary. <a href="/wiki/Calpionellid" title="Calpionellid">Calpionellids</a>, an enigmatic group of <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">planktonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> with urn-shaped calcitic <a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">tests</a> briefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested as the most promising candidates for fixing the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In particular, the first appearance <a href="/wiki/Calpionella" title="Calpionella">Calpionella alpina</a>, coinciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammonite <a href="/wiki/Strambergella_jacobi" class="mw-redirect" title="Strambergella jacobi">Strambergella jacobi</a>, formerly placed in the genus <a href="/wiki/Berriasella" title="Berriasella">Berriasella</a>, but its use as a stratigraphic indicator has been questioned, as its first appearance does not correlate with that of C. alpina.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The boundary is officially considered by the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">International Commission on Stratigraphy</a> to be approximately 145 million years ago,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> but other estimates have been proposed based on U-Pb geochronology, ranging as young as 140 million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The upper boundary of the Cretaceous is sharply defined, being placed at an <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">iridium</a>-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicxulub Crater">Chicxulub impact crater</a>, with its boundaries circumscribing parts of the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> and extending into the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>. This layer has been dated at 66.043 Mya.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> At the end of the Cretaceous, the impact of a large <a href="/wiki/Small_Solar_System_body" title="Small Solar System body">body</a> with the Earth may have been the punctuation mark at the end of a progressive decline in <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> during the Maastrichtian age. The result was the extinction of three-quarters of Earth's plant and animal species. The impact created the sharp break known as the <a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Pg_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="K–Pg boundary">K–Pg boundary</a> (formerly known as the K–T boundary). Earth's biodiversity required substantial time to recover from this event, despite the probable existence of an abundance of vacant <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-14">[14]</a> Despite the severity of the K-Pg extinction event, there were significant variations in the rate of extinction between and within different <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a>. Species that depended on <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a>. As is the case today, photosynthesizing organisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and land <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, formed the primary part of the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> in the late Cretaceous, and all else that depended on them suffered, as well. <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivorous</a> animals, which depended on plants and plankton as their food, died out as their food sources became scarce; consequently, the top <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>, also perished.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Yet only three major groups of <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> disappeared completely; the nonavian <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Plesiosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiosauria">plesiosaurs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a>. The other Cretaceous groups that did not survive into the Cenozoic Era — the <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaurs</a>, last remaining <a href="/wiki/Temnospondyli" title="Temnospondyli">temnospondyls</a> (<a href="/wiki/Koolasuchus" title="Koolasuchus">Koolasuchus</a>), and nonmammalian <a href="/wiki/Cynodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynodont">cynodonts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tritylodontidae" title="Tritylodontidae">Tritylodontidae</a>) — were already extinct millions of years before the event occurred.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophorids" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccolithophorids">Coccolithophorids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudist">rudists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_snail" title="Freshwater snail">freshwater snails</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a>, as well as organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, <a href="/wiki/Ammonoidea" title="Ammonoidea">ammonites</a> are thought to have been the principal food of <a href="/wiki/Mosasaur" title="Mosasaur">mosasaurs</a>, a group of giant marine <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a> related to snakes that became extinct at the boundary.<a href="#cite_note-Kauffman-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Omnivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnivores">Omnivores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insectivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Insectivores">insectivores</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a>-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources. At the end of the Cretaceous, there seem to have been no purely herbivorous or <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">carnivorous</a> <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. Mammals and birds that survived the extinction fed on <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">worms</a>, and snails, which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter. Scientists theorise that these organisms survived the collapse of plant-based food chains because they fed on <a href="/wiki/Detritus_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detritus (biology)">detritus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SheehanHansen-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">stream</a> <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">communities</a>, few groups of animals became extinct. Stream communities rely less on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from land. This particular ecological niche buffered them from extinction.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">water column</a> than among animals living on or in the seafloor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean floor">ocean floor</a> feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding.<a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-14">[14]</a> The largest air-breathing survivors of the event, <a href="/wiki/Crocodilian" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodilian">crocodilians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Choristodera" title="Choristodera">champsosaurs</a>, were semiaquatic and had access to detritus. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food and go into hibernation when conditions are unfavorable, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous.<a href="#cite_note-SheehanHansen-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geologic_formations">Geologic formations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Geologic formations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg/220px-MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1924" data-file-height="1197"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 137px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg/220px-MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="137" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg/330px-MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg/440px-MosasaurusHoffmann.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Drawing of fossil jaws of <a href="/wiki/Mosasaurus" title="Mosasaurus">Mosasaurus hoffmanni</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Maastrichtian" title="Maastrichtian">Maastrichtian</a> of <a href="/wiki/Limburg_(Netherlands)" title="Limburg (Netherlands)">Dutch Limburg</a>, by Dutch geologist <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Harting" title="Pieter Harting">Pieter Harting</a> (1866)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:9119_-_Milano,_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/9119_-_Milano%2C_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg/220px-9119_-_Milano%2C_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/9119_-_Milano%2C_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg/220px-9119_-_Milano%2C_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/9119_-_Milano%2C_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg/330px-9119_-_Milano%2C_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/9119_-_Milano%2C_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg/440px-9119_-_Milano%2C_Museo_storia_naturale_-_Scipionyx_samniticus_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_22-Apr-2007.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scipionyx" title="Scipionyx">Scipionyx</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">theropod</a> dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Italy</figcaption></figure> The high sea level and warm climate of the Cretaceous meant large areas of the continents were covered by warm, shallow seas, providing habitat for many marine organisms. The Cretaceous was named for the extensive chalk deposits of this age in Europe, but in many parts of the world, the deposits from the Cretaceous are of <a href="/wiki/Lake_sediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake sediment">marine</a> <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, a rock type that is formed under warm, shallow marine conditions. Due to the high sea level, there was extensive <a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(geology)" title="Accommodation (geology)">space</a> for such <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentation</a>. Because of the relatively young age and great thickness of the system, Cretaceous rocks are evident in many areas worldwide. <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">Chalk</a> is a rock type characteristic for (but not restricted to) the Cretaceous. It consists of <a href="/wiki/Coccolith" title="Coccolith">coccoliths</a>, microscopically small <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> skeletons of <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophores</a>, a type of <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> that prospered in the Cretaceous seas. Stagnation of deep sea currents in middle Cretaceous times caused anoxic conditions in the sea water leaving the deposited organic matter undecomposed. Half of the world's petroleum reserves were laid down at this time in the anoxic conditions of what would become the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Mexico. In many places around the world, dark anoxic <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shales</a> were formed during this interval,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley1999481%E2%80%93482-20">[20]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Mancos_Shale" title="Mancos Shale">Mancos Shale</a> of western North America.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> These shales are an important <a href="/wiki/Source_rock" title="Source rock">source rock</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">oil and gas</a>, for example in the subsurface of the North Sea. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Cretaceous_System_of_Europe" title="Category:Cretaceous System of Europe">Category:Cretaceous System of Europe</a></div> In northwestern Europe, chalk deposits from the Upper Cretaceous are characteristic for the <a href="/wiki/Chalk_Group" title="Chalk Group">Chalk Group</a>, which forms the <a href="/wiki/White_cliffs_of_Dover" class="mw-redirect" title="White cliffs of Dover">white cliffs of Dover</a> on the south coast of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and similar cliffs on the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandian</a> coast. The <a href="/wiki/Group_(stratigraphy)" title="Group (stratigraphy)">group</a> is found in England, northern France, the <a href="/wiki/Low_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Low countries">low countries</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and in the subsurface of the southern part of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>. Chalk is not easily <a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">consolidated</a> and the Chalk Group still consists of loose sediments in many places. The group also has other <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arenite" title="Arenite">arenites</a>. Among the fossils it contains are <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belemnite" class="mw-redirect" title="Belemnite">belemnites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonites</a> and sea reptiles such as <a href="/wiki/Mosasaurus" title="Mosasaurus">Mosasaurus</a>. In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of <a href="/wiki/Competence_(geology)" title="Competence (geology)">competent</a> limestone beds or incompetent <a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">marls</a>. Because the <a href="/wiki/Alpine_orogeny" title="Alpine orogeny">Alpine mountain chains</a> did not yet exist in the Cretaceous, these deposits formed on the southern edge of the European <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>, at the margin of the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Ocean</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: North America" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Cretaceous_System_of_North_America" title="Category:Cretaceous System of North America">Category:Cretaceous System of North America</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_(Upper_Cretaceous).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_%28Upper_Cretaceous%29.png/220px-Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_%28Upper_Cretaceous%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1945" data-file-height="2391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 270px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_%28Upper_Cretaceous%29.png/220px-Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_%28Upper_Cretaceous%29.png" data-width="220" data-height="270" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_%28Upper_Cretaceous%29.png/330px-Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_%28Upper_Cretaceous%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_%28Upper_Cretaceous%29.png/440px-Map_of_North_America_with_the_Western_Interior_Seaway_during_the_Campanian_%28Upper_Cretaceous%29.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of North America During the Late Cretaceous</figcaption></figure> During the Cretaceous, the present North American continent was isolated from the other continents. In the Jurassic, the North Atlantic already opened, leaving a proto-ocean between Europe and North America. From north to south across the continent, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway" title="Western Interior Seaway">Western Interior Seaway</a> started forming. This inland sea separated the elevated areas of <a href="/wiki/Laramidia" title="Laramidia">Laramidia</a> in the west and <a href="/wiki/Appalachia_(landmass)" title="Appalachia (landmass)">Appalachia</a> in the east. Three dinosaur clades found in Laramidia (troodontids, therizinosaurids and oviraptorosaurs) are absent from Appalachia from the Coniacian through the Maastrichtian.<a href="#cite_note-Brownstein2018-22">[22]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Paleogeography">Paleogeography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Paleogeography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> During the Cretaceous, the late-<a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>-to-early-Mesozoic <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> completed its <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic</a> breakup into the present-day <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> widened, the convergent-margin mountain building (<a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenies</a>) that had begun during the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> continued in the <a href="/wiki/American_cordillera" class="mw-redirect" title="American cordillera">North American Cordillera</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Nevadan_orogeny" title="Nevadan orogeny">Nevadan orogeny</a> was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Sevier_orogeny" title="Sevier orogeny">Sevier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laramide_orogeny" title="Laramide orogeny">Laramide orogenies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> had begun to break up during the Jurassic Period, but its fragmentation accelerated during the Cretaceous and was largely complete by the end of the period. <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> rifted away from <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> (though <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> remained attached to each other until around 80 million years ago); thus, the South Atlantic and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Oceans</a> were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising <a href="/wiki/Sea_level#Dry_land" title="Sea level">eustatic sea levels</a> worldwide. To the north of Africa the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Sea">Tethys Sea</a> continued to narrow. During most of the Late Cretaceous, North America would be divided in two by the <a href="/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway" title="Western Interior Seaway">Western Interior Seaway</a>, a large interior sea, separating <a href="/wiki/Laramidia" title="Laramidia">Laramidia</a> to the west and <a href="/wiki/Appalachia_(landmass)" title="Appalachia (landmass)">Appalachia</a> to the east, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> beds. Bivalve palaeobiogeography also indicates that Africa was split in half by a shallow sea during the Coniacian and Santonian, connecting the Tethys with the South Atlantic by way of the central Sahara and Central Africa, which were then underwater.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Yet another shallow seaway ran between what is now Norway and Greenland, connecting the Tethys to the Arctic Ocean and enabling biotic exchange between the two oceans.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> At the peak of the Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Transgression_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgression (geology)">transgression</a>, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The Cretaceous is justly famous for its <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a>; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley1999280-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a> activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the <a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">bioavailability</a> of the element for <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccolithophores">calcareous nanoplankton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley1999279%E2%80%93281-27">[27]</a> These widespread <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary deposits</a> make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous <a href="/wiki/Geologic_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic formation">formations</a> from North America include the rich marine fossils of <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Smoky_Hill_Chalk" title="Smoky Hill Chalk">Smoky Hill Chalk</a> Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Hell_Creek_Formation" title="Hell Creek Formation">Hell Creek Formation</a>. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Weald" title="Weald">Weald</a>) and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Yixian_Formation" title="Yixian Formation">Yixian Formation</a>). In the area that is now India, massive <a href="/wiki/Lava_bed" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava bed">lava beds</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Traps" title="Deccan Traps">Deccan Traps</a> were erupted in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Climate">Climate</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Climate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cool_tropics_paradox" title="Cool tropics paradox">Cool tropics paradox</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynological</a> evidence indicates the Cretaceous climate had three broad phases: a Berriasian–Barremian warm-dry phase, an Aptian–Santonian warm-wet phase, and a Campanian–Maastrichtian cool-dry phase.<a href="#cite_note-ClimatePalynology-28">[28]</a> As in the Cenozoic, the 400,000 year eccentricity cycle was the dominant orbital cycle governing carbon flux between different reservoirs and influencing global climate.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was roughly the same as in the present.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The cooling trend of the last epoch of the Jurassic, the Tithonian, continued into the Berriasian, the first age of the Cretaceous.<a href="#cite_note-The_Berriasian_Age-31">[31]</a> The North Atlantic seaway opened and enabled the flow of cool water from the Boreal Ocean into the Tethys.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher latitudes during this age, and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic. Glaciation was restricted to high-<a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther from the poles.<a href="#cite_note-The_Berriasian_Age-31">[31]</a> After the end of the first age, however, temperatures began to increase again, with a number of thermal excursions, such as the middle <a href="/wiki/Valanginian" title="Valanginian">Valanginian</a> <a href="/wiki/Weissert_Event" title="Weissert Event">Weissert Thermal Excursion</a> (WTX),<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> which was caused by the Paraná-Etendeka Large Igneous Province's activity.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> It was followed by the middle <a href="/wiki/Hauterivian" title="Hauterivian">Hauterivian</a> Faraoni Thermal Excursion (FTX) and the early <a href="/wiki/Barremian" title="Barremian">Barremian</a> Hauptblatterton Thermal Event (HTE). The HTE marked the ultimate end of the Tithonian-early Barremian Cool Interval (TEBCI).<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> During this interval, precession was the dominant orbital driver of environmental changes in the Vocontian Basin.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> For much of the TEBCI, northern Gondwana experienced a monsoonal climate.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> A shallow thermocline existed in the mid-latitude Tethys.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The TEBCI was followed by the Barremian-Aptian Warm Interval (BAWI).<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> This hot climatic interval coincides with <a href="/wiki/Manihiki_Plateau" title="Manihiki Plateau">Manihiki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ontong_Java_Plateau" title="Ontong Java Plateau">Ontong Java Plateau</a> volcanism and with the <a href="/wiki/Selli_Event" title="Selli Event">Selli Event</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Early Aptian tropical <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a> (SSTs) were 27–32 °C, based on <a href="/wiki/TEX86" title="TEX86">TEX86</a> measurements from the equatorial Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> During the Aptian, Milankovitch cycles governed the occurrence of anoxic events by modulating the intensity of the hydrological cycle and terrestrial runoff.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The early Aptian was also notable for its millennial scale hyperarid events in the mid-latitudes of Asia.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The BAWI itself was followed by the Aptian-Albian Cold Snap (AACS) that began about 118 Ma.<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> A short, relatively minor ice age may have occurred during this so-called "cold snap", as evidenced by glacial <a href="/wiki/Dropstone" title="Dropstone">dropstones</a> in the western parts of the Tethys Ocean<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> and the expansion of calcareous nannofossils that dwelt in cold water into lower latitudes.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The AACS is associated with an arid period in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Temperatures increased drastically after the end of the AACS,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> which ended around 111 Ma with the Paquier/Urbino Thermal Maximum, giving way to the Mid-Cretaceous Hothouse (MKH), which lasted from the early <a href="/wiki/Albian" title="Albian">Albian</a> until the early Campanian.<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> Faster rates of seafloor spreading and entry of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are believed to have initiated this period of extreme warmth,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> along with high flood basalt activity.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The MKH was punctuated by multiple thermal maxima of extreme warmth. The Leenhardt Thermal Event (LTE) occurred around 110 Ma, followed shortly by the l’Arboudeyesse Thermal Event (ATE) a million years later. Following these two hyperthermals was the <a href="/wiki/Amadeus_Event" title="Amadeus Event">Amadeus Thermal Maximum</a> around 106 Ma, during the middle Albian. Then, around a million years after that, occurred the Petite Verol Thermal Event (PVTE). Afterwards, around 102.5 Ma, the Event 6 Thermal Event (EV6) took place; this event was itself followed by the Breistroffer Thermal Maximum around 101 Ma, during the latest Albian. Approximately 94 Ma, the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum occurred,<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> with this hyperthermal being the most extreme hothouse interval of the Cretaceous<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> and being associated with a sea level highstand.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Temperatures cooled down slightly over the next few million years, but then another thermal maximum, the Coniacian Thermal Maximum, happened, with this thermal event being dated to around 87 Ma.<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> Atmospheric CO2 levels may have varied by thousands of ppm throughout the MKH.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Mean annual temperatures at the poles during the MKH exceeded 14 °C.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Such hot temperatures during the MKH resulted in a very gentle <a href="/wiki/Temperature_gradient" title="Temperature gradient">temperature gradient</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> to the poles; the latitudinal temperature gradient during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum was 0.54 °C per ° latitude for the Southern Hemisphere and 0.49 °C per ° latitude for the Northern Hemisphere, in contrast to present day values of 1.07 and 0.69 °C per ° latitude for the Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> This meant weaker global winds, which drive the ocean currents, and resulted in less <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> and more stagnant <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a> than today.<a href="#cite_note-ThermalEvolutionCretaceousTethyanWaters-55">[55]</a> This is evidenced by widespread black <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shale</a> deposition and frequent <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">anoxic events</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley1999481%E2%80%93482-20">[20]</a> Tropical SSTs during the late Albian most likely averaged around 30 °C. Despite this high SST, seawater was not hypersaline at this time, as this would have required significantly higher temperatures still.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> On land, arid zones in the Albian regularly expanded northward in tandem with expansions of subtropical high pressure belts.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The Cedar Mountain Formation's Soap Wash flora indicates a mean annual temperature of between 19 and 26 °C in Utah at the Albian-Cenomanian boundary.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Tropical SSTs during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum were at least 30 °C,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> though one study estimated them as high as between 33 and 42 °C.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> An intermediate estimate of ~33-34 °C has also been given.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Meanwhile, deep ocean temperatures were as much as 15 to 20 °C (27 to 36 °F) warmer than today's;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkinnerPorter1995557-62">[62]</a> one study estimated that deep ocean temperatures were between 12 and 20 °C during the MKH.<a href="#cite_note-FishToothOxygen-63">[63]</a> The poles were so warm that <a href="/wiki/Ectothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectothermic">ectothermic</a> reptiles were able to inhabit them.<a href="#cite_note-LateCretaceousArcticVertebrates-64">[64]</a> Beginning in the Santonian, near the end of the MKH, the global climate began to cool, with this cooling trend continuing across the Campanian.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> This period of cooling, driven by falling levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide,<a href="#cite_note-FishToothOxygen-63">[63]</a> caused the end of the MKH and the transition into a cooler climatic interval, known formally as the Late Cretaceous-Early Palaeogene Cool Interval (LKEPCI).<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> Tropical SSTs declined from around 35 °C in the early Campanian to around 28 °C in the Maastrichtian.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Deep ocean temperatures declined to 9 to 12 °C,<a href="#cite_note-FishToothOxygen-63">[63]</a> though the shallow temperature gradient between tropical and polar seas remained.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Regional conditions in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway" title="Western Interior Seaway">Western Interior Seaway</a> changed little between the MKH and the LKEPCI.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> During this period of relatively cool temperatures, the ITCZ became narrower,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> while the strength of both summer and winter monsoons in East Asia was directly correlated to atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a> concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Laramidia likewise had a seasonal, monsoonal climate.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The Maastrichtian was a time of chaotic, highly variable climate.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Two upticks in global temperatures are known to have occurred during the Maastrichtian, bucking the trend of overall cooler temperatures during the LKEPCI. Between 70 and 69 Ma and 66–65 Ma, isotopic ratios indicate elevated atmospheric CO2 pressures with levels of 1000–1400 ppmV and mean annual temperatures in <a href="/wiki/West_Texas" title="West Texas">west Texas</a> between 21 and 23 °C (70 and 73 °F). Atmospheric CO2 and temperature relations indicate a doubling of pCO2 was accompanied by a ~0.6 °C increase in temperature.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The latter warming interval, occurring at the very end of the Cretaceous, was triggered by the activity of the Deccan Traps.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The LKEPCI lasted into the <a href="/wiki/Late_Paleocene" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Paleocene">Late Palaeocene</a>, when it gave way to another supergreenhouse interval.<a href="#cite_note-ChristopherScotese-33">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg/220px-Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="557"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 116px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg/220px-Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="116" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg/330px-Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg/440px-Cretacico-isotermas-y-mapamundi.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A computer-simulated model of surface conditions in Middle Cretaceous, 100 mya, displaying the approximate shoreline and calculated <a href="/wiki/Isotherm_(contour_line)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotherm (contour line)">isotherms</a></figcaption></figure> The production of large quantities of magma, variously attributed to <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plumes</a> or to <a href="/wiki/Extensional_tectonics" title="Extensional tectonics">extensional tectonics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Foulger-75">[75]</a> further pushed sea levels up, so that large areas of the continental crust were covered with shallow seas. The <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Sea">Tethys Sea</a> connecting the tropical oceans east to west also helped to warm the global climate. Warm-adapted <a href="/wiki/Plant_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant fossil">plant fossils</a> are known from localities as far north as <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> fossils have been found within 15 degrees of the Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/South_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="South pole">south pole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley1999480%E2%80%93482-76">[76]</a> It was suggested that there was <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctic</a> marine glaciation in the <a href="/wiki/Turonian" title="Turonian">Turonian</a> Age, based on isotopic evidence.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> However, this has subsequently been suggested to be the result of inconsistent isotopic proxies,<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> with evidence of polar rainforests during this time interval at 82° S.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Rafting by ice of stones into marine environments occurred during much of the Cretaceous, but evidence of deposition directly from glaciers is limited to the Early Cretaceous of the <a href="/wiki/Eromanga_Basin" title="Eromanga Basin">Eromanga Basin</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Flora">Flora</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Flora" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg/220px-Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg/220px-Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg/330px-Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg/440px-Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Facsimile of a fossil of Archaefructus from the Yixian Formation, China</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jaguariba_wiersemana,_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde,_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jaguariba_wiersemana%2C_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde%2C_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg/220px-Jaguariba_wiersemana%2C_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde%2C_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jaguariba_wiersemana%2C_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde%2C_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg/220px-Jaguariba_wiersemana%2C_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde%2C_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jaguariba_wiersemana%2C_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde%2C_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg/330px-Jaguariba_wiersemana%2C_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde%2C_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jaguariba_wiersemana%2C_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde%2C_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg/440px-Jaguariba_wiersemana%2C_Brazil_-_Museum_fur_Naturkunde%2C_Berlin_-_MB._Pb._1999-614.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Fossil <a href="/wiki/Jaguariba_wiersemana" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaguariba wiersemana">Jaguariba wiersemana</a> specimen in the collection of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Berlin" title="Natural History Museum, Berlin">Natural History Museum, Berlin</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous_Terrestrial_Revolution" title="Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution">Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plants</a> (angiosperms) make up around 90% of living plant species today. Prior to the rise of angiosperms, during the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous, the higher flora was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a> groups, including <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">conifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyte">ginkgophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">gnetophytes</a> and close relatives, as well as the extinct <a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a>. Other groups of plants included <a href="/wiki/Pteridospermatophyta" title="Pteridospermatophyta">pteridosperms</a> or "seed ferns", a collective term that refers to disparate groups of extinct seed plants with fern-like foliage, including groups such as <a href="/wiki/Corystospermaceae" title="Corystospermaceae">Corystospermaceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caytoniales" title="Caytoniales">Caytoniales</a>. The exact origins of angiosperms are uncertain, although molecular evidence suggests that they are not closely related to any living group of gymnosperms.<a href="#cite_note-Coiro-2019-82">[82]</a> The earliest widely accepted evidence of flowering plants are monosulcate (single-grooved) <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> grains from the late <a href="/wiki/Valanginian" title="Valanginian">Valanginian</a> (~ 134 million years ago) found in Israel<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> and Italy,<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> initially at low abundance. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a> estimates conflict with fossil estimates, suggesting the diversification of <a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">crown-group</a> angiosperms during the Late Triassic or the Jurassic, but such estimates are difficult to reconcile with the heavily sampled pollen record and the distinctive tricolpate to tricolporoidate (triple grooved) pollen of <a href="/wiki/Eudicots" title="Eudicots">eudicot</a> angiosperms.<a href="#cite_note-Coiro-2019-82">[82]</a> Among the oldest records of Angiosperm <a href="/wiki/Macrofossil" title="Macrofossil">macrofossils</a> are <a href="/wiki/Montsechia" title="Montsechia">Montsechia</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Barremian" title="Barremian">Barremian</a> aged <a href="/wiki/La_Hu%C3%A9rguina_Formation" title="La Huérguina Formation">Las Hoyas</a> beds of Spain and <a href="/wiki/Archaefructus" title="Archaefructus">Archaefructus</a> from the Barremian-Aptian boundary <a href="/wiki/Yixian_Formation" title="Yixian Formation">Yixian Formation</a> in China. Tricolpate pollen distinctive of eudicots first appears in the Late Barremian, while the earliest remains of <a href="/wiki/Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">monocots</a> are known from the Aptian.<a href="#cite_note-Coiro-2019-82">[82]</a> Flowering plants underwent a rapid radiation beginning during the middle Cretaceous, becoming the dominant group of land plants by the end of the period, coincident with the decline of previously dominant groups such as conifers.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The oldest known fossils of <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grasses</a> are from the <a href="/wiki/Albian" title="Albian">Albian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> with the family having diversified into modern groups by the end of the Cretaceous.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The oldest large angiosperm trees are known from the Turonian (c. 90 Mya) of New Jersey, with the trunk having a preserved diameter of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) and an estimated height of 50 metres (160 ft).<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> During the Cretaceous, <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> in the order <a href="/wiki/Polypodiales" title="Polypodiales">Polypodiales</a>, which make up 80% of living fern species, would also begin to diversify.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Terrestrial_fauna">Terrestrial fauna</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Terrestrial fauna" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> On land, <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> were generally small sized, but a very relevant component of the <a href="/wiki/Fauna_(animals)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna (animals)">fauna</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Cimolodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimolodont">cimolodont</a> <a href="/wiki/Multituberculates" class="mw-redirect" title="Multituberculates">multituberculates</a> outnumbering dinosaurs in some sites.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Neither true <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a> nor <a href="/wiki/Placental" class="mw-redirect" title="Placental">placentals</a> existed until the very end,<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> but a variety of non-marsupial <a href="/wiki/Metatheria" title="Metatheria">metatherians</a> and non-placental <a href="/wiki/Eutherian" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutherian">eutherians</a> had already begun to diversify greatly, ranging as carnivores (<a href="/wiki/Deltatheroida" title="Deltatheroida">Deltatheroida</a>), aquatic foragers (<a href="/wiki/Stagodontidae" title="Stagodontidae">Stagodontidae</a>) and herbivores (<a href="/wiki/Schowalteria" title="Schowalteria">Schowalteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhelestidae" title="Zhelestidae">Zhelestidae</a>). Various "archaic" groups like <a href="/wiki/Eutriconodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutriconodont">eutriconodonts</a> were common in the Early Cretaceous, but by the Late Cretaceous northern mammalian faunas were dominated by multituberculates and <a href="/wiki/Theria" title="Theria">therians</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Dryolestoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Dryolestoid">dryolestoids</a> dominating <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predators</a> were <a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">archosaurian</a> <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>, which were at their most diverse stage. Avians such as the ancestors of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">birds</a> also diversified. They inhabited every continent, and were even found in cold polar latitudes. <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">Pterosaurs</a> were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded they declined for poorly understood reasons (once thought to be due to competition with early <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, but now it is understood avian <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">adaptive radiation</a> is not consistent with pterosaur decline<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a>). By the end of the period only three highly specialized <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a> remained; <a href="/wiki/Pteranodontidae" title="Pteranodontidae">Pteranodontidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nyctosauridae" title="Nyctosauridae">Nyctosauridae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Azhdarchidae" title="Azhdarchidae">Azhdarchidae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">lagerstätte</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yixian_Formation" title="Yixian Formation">Yixian Formation</a>) in China is an important site, full of preserved remains of numerous types of small dinosaurs, birds and mammals, that provides a glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous. The <a href="/wiki/Coelurosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Coelurosaur">coelurosaur</a> dinosaurs found there represent types of the group <a href="/wiki/Maniraptora" title="Maniraptora">Maniraptora</a>, which includes modern birds and their closest non-avian relatives, such as <a href="/wiki/Dromaeosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Dromaeosaurs">dromaeosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oviraptorosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Oviraptorosaurs">oviraptorosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Therizinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Therizinosaurs">therizinosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Troodontids" class="mw-redirect" title="Troodontids">troodontids</a> along with other <a href="/wiki/Avialans" class="mw-redirect" title="Avialans">avialans</a>. Fossils of these dinosaurs from the <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">lagerstätte</a> are notable for the presence of hair-like <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insects</a> diversified during the Cretaceous, and the oldest known <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">lepidopterans</a>, akin to <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a>, appeared. <a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">Aphids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshoppers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gall_wasp" title="Gall wasp">gall wasps</a> appeared.<a href="#cite_note-UCMP-94">[94]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Tyrannosaurus rex, one of the largest land predators of all time, lived during the Late Cretaceous"><noscript><img alt="Tyrannosaurus rex, one of the largest land predators of all time, lived during the Late Cretaceous" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png/120px-Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="50" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="427"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 50px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png/120px-Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png" data-alt="Tyrannosaurus rex, one of the largest land predators of all time, lived during the Late Cretaceous" data-width="120" data-height="50" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png/180px-Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png/240px-Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>, one of the largest land predators of all time, lived during the Late Cretaceous</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Velociraptor_Restoration.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Up to 2 m long and 0.5 m high at the hip, Velociraptor was feathered and roamed the Late Cretaceous"><noscript><img alt="Up to 2 m long and 0.5 m high at the hip, Velociraptor was feathered and roamed the Late Cretaceous" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Velociraptor_Restoration.png/120px-Velociraptor_Restoration.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="74" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3629" data-file-height="2225"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 74px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Velociraptor_Restoration.png/120px-Velociraptor_Restoration.png" data-alt="Up to 2 m long and 0.5 m high at the hip, Velociraptor was feathered and roamed the Late Cretaceous" data-width="120" data-height="74" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Velociraptor_Restoration.png/180px-Velociraptor_Restoration.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Velociraptor_Restoration.png/240px-Velociraptor_Restoration.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Up to 2 m long and 0.5 m high at the hip, <a href="/wiki/Velociraptor" title="Velociraptor">Velociraptor</a> was feathered and roamed the Late Cretaceous</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Triceratops, one of the most recognizable genera of the Cretaceous"><noscript><img alt="Triceratops, one of the most recognizable genera of the Cretaceous" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png/120px-Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="49" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2452" data-file-height="1004"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 49px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png/120px-Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png" data-alt="Triceratops, one of the most recognizable genera of the Cretaceous" data-width="120" data-height="49" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png/180px-Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png/240px-Triceratops_by_Tom_Patker.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Triceratops" title="Triceratops">Triceratops</a>, one of the most recognizable genera of the Cretaceous</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The azhdarchid Quetzalcoatlus, one of the largest animals to ever fly, lived during the Late Cretaceous"><noscript><img alt="The azhdarchid Quetzalcoatlus, one of the largest animals to ever fly, lived during the Late Cretaceous" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg/120px-Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="579"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 73px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg/120px-Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg" data-alt="The azhdarchid Quetzalcoatlus, one of the largest animals to ever fly, lived during the Late Cretaceous" data-width="120" data-height="73" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg/180px-Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg/240px-Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Azhdarchid" class="mw-redirect" title="Azhdarchid">azhdarchid</a> <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatlus" title="Quetzalcoatlus">Quetzalcoatlus</a>, one of the largest animals to ever fly, lived during the Late Cretaceous</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Confuciusornis, a genus of crow-sized birds from the Early Cretaceous"><noscript><img alt="Confuciusornis, a genus of crow-sized birds from the Early Cretaceous" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png/120px-Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="77" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="231"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 77px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png/120px-Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png" data-alt="Confuciusornis, a genus of crow-sized birds from the Early Cretaceous" data-width="120" data-height="77" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png/180px-Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png/240px-Confuciusornis_sanctus_mmartyniuk.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Confuciusornis" title="Confuciusornis">Confuciusornis</a>, a genus of crow-sized birds from the Early Cretaceous</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ichthyornis was a toothed, seabird-like ornithuran from the Late Cretaceous"><noscript><img alt="Ichthyornis was a toothed, seabird-like ornithuran from the Late Cretaceous" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg/120px-Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2254"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 90px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg/120px-Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg" data-alt="Ichthyornis was a toothed, seabird-like ornithuran from the Late Cretaceous" data-width="120" data-height="90" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg/180px-Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg/240px-Ichthyornis_restoration.jpeg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ichthyornis" title="Ichthyornis">Ichthyornis</a> was a toothed, <a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">seabird</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Ornithuran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ornithuran">ornithuran</a> from the Late Cretaceous</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhynchocephalians">Rhynchocephalians</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rhynchocephalians" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Priosphenodon_skeleton.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Priosphenodon_skeleton.png/220px-Priosphenodon_skeleton.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="70" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1599" data-file-height="506"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 70px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Priosphenodon_skeleton.png/220px-Priosphenodon_skeleton.png" data-width="220" data-height="70" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Priosphenodon_skeleton.png/330px-Priosphenodon_skeleton.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Priosphenodon_skeleton.png/440px-Priosphenodon_skeleton.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Skeleton of <a href="/wiki/Priosphenodon" title="Priosphenodon">Prosphenodon avelasi</a> a large herbivorous rhynchocephalian known from the mid-Cretaceous of South America</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Rhynchocephalia" title="Rhynchocephalia">Rhynchocephalians</a> (which today only includes the <a href="/wiki/Tuatara" title="Tuatara">tuatara</a>) disappeared from North America and Europe after the <a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early Cretaceous</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Cleary-2018-95">[95]</a> and were absent from North Africa<a href="#cite_note-Apestegu%C3%ADa-2016-96">[96]</a> and northern South America<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> by the early <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a>. The cause of the decline of Rhynchocephalia remains unclear, but has often been suggested to be due to competition with advanced lizards and mammals.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2009-98">[98]</a> They appear to have remained diverse in high-latitude southern South America during the Late Cretaceous, where lizards remained rare, with their remains outnumbering terrestrial lizards 200:1.<a href="#cite_note-Apestegu%C3%ADa-2016-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Choristodera">Choristodera</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Choristodera" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg/220px-Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5259" data-file-height="3310"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 138px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg/220px-Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="138" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg/330px-Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg/440px-Philydrosaurus_proseilus_NMNS.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philydrosaurus" title="Philydrosaurus">Philydrosaurus</a>, a choristodere from the Early Cretaceous of China</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Choristodera" title="Choristodera">Choristoderes</a>, a group of freshwater aquatic reptiles that first appeared during the preceding Jurassic, underwent a major <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">evolutionary radiation</a> in Asia during the Early Cretaceous, which represents the high point of choristoderan diversity, including long necked forms such as <a href="/wiki/Hyphalosaurus" title="Hyphalosaurus">Hyphalosaurus</a> and the first records of the gharial-like <a href="/wiki/Neochoristodera" title="Neochoristodera">Neochoristodera</a>, which appear to have evolved in the regional absence of aquatic <a href="/wiki/Neosuchia" title="Neosuchia">neosuchian</a> crocodyliformes. During the Late Cretaceous the neochoristodere <a href="/wiki/Champsosaurus" title="Champsosaurus">Champsosaurus</a> was widely distributed across western North America.<a href="#cite_note-Matsumoto-2010-99">[99]</a> Due to the extreme climatic warmth in the Arctic, choristoderans were able to colonise it too during the Late Cretaceous.<a href="#cite_note-LateCretaceousArcticVertebrates-64">[64]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Marine_fauna">Marine fauna</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Marine fauna" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> In the seas, <a href="/wiki/Batoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Batoidea">rays</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleosts</a> became common.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Marine reptiles included <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaurs</a> in the early and mid-Cretaceous (becoming extinct during the late Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Cenomanian-Turonian_anoxic_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event">Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event</a>), <a href="/wiki/Plesiosaur" title="Plesiosaur">plesiosaurs</a> throughout the entire period, and <a href="/wiki/Mosasaur" title="Mosasaur">mosasaurs</a> appearing in the Late Cretaceous. Sea turtles in the form of <a href="/wiki/Cheloniidae" title="Cheloniidae">Cheloniidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panchelonioidea" title="Panchelonioidea">Panchelonioidea</a> lived during the period and survived the extinction event. Panchelonioidea is today represented by a single species; the <a href="/wiki/Leatherback_sea_turtle" title="Leatherback sea turtle">leatherback sea turtle</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hesperornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hesperornithiformes">Hesperornithiformes</a> were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Baculites" title="Baculites">Baculites</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonite</a> genus with a straight shell, flourished in the seas along with reef-building <a href="/wiki/Rudist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudist">rudist</a> clams. <a href="/wiki/Inoceramidae" title="Inoceramidae">Inoceramids</a> were also particularly notable among Cretaceous bivalves,<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> and they have been used to identify major biotic turnovers such as at the Turonian-Coniacian boundary.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Predatory gastropods with drilling habits were widespread.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Globotruncanid <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Echinoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoderms">echinoderms</a> such as sea urchins and <a href="/wiki/Asteroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroidea">starfish (sea stars)</a> thrived. <a href="/wiki/Ostracods" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracods">Ostracods</a> were abundant in Cretaceous marine settings; ostracod species characterised by high male sexual investment had the highest rates of extinction and turnover.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thylacocephala" title="Thylacocephala">Thylacocephala</a>, a class of crustaceans, went extinct in the Late Cretaceous. The first radiation of the <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> (generally <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">siliceous</a> shelled, rather than <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a>) in the oceans occurred during the Cretaceous; freshwater diatoms did not appear until the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UCMP-94">[94]</a> Calcareous nannoplankton were important components of the marine microbiota and important as biostratigraphic markers and recorders of environmental change.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The Cretaceous was also an important interval in the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">bioerosion</a>, the production of borings and scrapings in rocks, <a href="/wiki/Hardgrounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardgrounds">hardgrounds</a> and shells. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A scene from the early Cretaceous: a Woolungasaurus is attacked by a Kronosaurus."><noscript><img alt="A scene from the early Cretaceous: a Woolungasaurus is attacked by a Kronosaurus." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg/120px-Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="86" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1285"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 86px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg/120px-Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg" data-alt="A scene from the early Cretaceous: a Woolungasaurus is attacked by a Kronosaurus." data-width="120" data-height="86" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg/180px-Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg/240px-Kronosaurus_hunt1DB.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A scene from the early Cretaceous: a <a href="/wiki/Woolungasaurus" title="Woolungasaurus">Woolungasaurus</a> is attacked by a <a href="/wiki/Kronosaurus" title="Kronosaurus">Kronosaurus</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tylosaurus was a large mosasaur, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous."><noscript><img alt="Tylosaurus was a large mosasaur, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg/120px-Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="39" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2476" data-file-height="806"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 39px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg/120px-Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg" data-alt="Tylosaurus was a large mosasaur, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous." data-width="120" data-height="39" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg/180px-Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg/240px-Tylosaurus_pembinensis_1DB.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tylosaurus" title="Tylosaurus">Tylosaurus</a> was a large <a href="/wiki/Mosasaur" title="Mosasaur">mosasaur</a>, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hesperornis_BW_(white_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird Hesperornis roamed late Cretacean oceans."><noscript><img alt="Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird Hesperornis roamed late Cretacean oceans." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Hesperornis_BW_%28white_background%29.jpg/120px-Hesperornis_BW_%28white_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="64" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="427"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 64px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Hesperornis_BW_%28white_background%29.jpg/120px-Hesperornis_BW_%28white_background%29.jpg" data-alt="Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird Hesperornis roamed late Cretacean oceans." data-width="120" data-height="64" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Hesperornis_BW_%28white_background%29.jpg/180px-Hesperornis_BW_%28white_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Hesperornis_BW_%28white_background%29.jpg/240px-Hesperornis_BW_%28white_background%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird <a href="/wiki/Hesperornis" title="Hesperornis">Hesperornis</a> roamed late Cretacean oceans.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The ammonite Discoscaphites iris, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi"><noscript><img alt="The ammonite Discoscaphites iris, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg/120px-DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="118" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2562" data-file-height="2514"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 118px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg/120px-DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg" data-alt="The ammonite Discoscaphites iris, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi" data-width="120" data-height="118" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg/180px-DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg/240px-DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonite</a> <a href="/wiki/Discoscaphites" title="Discoscaphites">Discoscaphites</a> iris, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A plate with Nematonotus sp., Pseudostacus sp. and a partial Dercetis triqueter, found in Hakel, Lebanon"><noscript><img alt="A plate with Nematonotus sp., Pseudostacus sp. and a partial Dercetis triqueter, found in Hakel, Lebanon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg/120px-The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="86" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4286"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 86px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg/120px-The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg" data-alt="A plate with Nematonotus sp., Pseudostacus sp. and a partial Dercetis triqueter, found in Hakel, Lebanon" data-width="120" data-height="86" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg/180px-The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg/240px-The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A plate with <a href="/wiki/Nematonotus" title="Nematonotus">Nematonotus</a> sp., Pseudostacus sp. and a partial Dercetis triqueter, found in <a href="/wiki/Hakel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakel">Hakel</a>, Lebanon</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Cretoxyrhina, one of the largest Cretaceous sharks, attacking a Pteranodon in the Western Interior Seaway"><noscript><img alt="Cretoxyrhina, one of the largest Cretaceous sharks, attacking a Pteranodon in the Western Interior Seaway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png/120px-Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="77" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3199" data-file-height="2056"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 77px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png/120px-Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png" data-alt="Cretoxyrhina, one of the largest Cretaceous sharks, attacking a Pteranodon in the Western Interior Seaway" data-width="120" data-height="77" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png/180px-Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png/240px-Cretoxyrhina_attacking_Pteranodon.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cretoxyrhina" title="Cretoxyrhina">Cretoxyrhina</a>, one of the largest Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a>, attacking a <a href="/wiki/Pteranodon" title="Pteranodon">Pteranodon</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway" title="Western Interior Seaway">Western Interior Seaway</a></div> </li> </ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png/56px-Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Paleontology" title="Portal:Paleontology">Paleontology portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous_Thermal_Maximum" title="Cretaceous Thermal Maximum">Cretaceous Thermal Maximum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a> (with link directory)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Polar_region_of_the_Cretaceous" class="mw-redirect" title="South Polar region of the Cretaceous">South Polar region of the Cretaceous</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" class="citation web cs1">International Commission on Stratigraphy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stratigraphy.org/chart">"ICS - Chart/Time Scale"</a>. www.stratigraphy.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.stratigraphy.org&rft.atitle=ICS+-+Chart%2FTime+Scale&rft.au=International+Commission+on+Stratigraphy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstratigraphy.org%2Fchart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Cretaceous">"Cretaceous"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">Dictionary.com Unabridged</a> (Online). n.d.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cretaceous&rft.btitle=Dictionary.com+Unabridged&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2FCretaceous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFd’Halloy,_d’O.,_J.-J.1822" class="citation journal cs1">d’Halloy, d’O., J.-J. 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Annales des Mines. 7: 353–376.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+des+Mines&rft.atitle=Observations+sur+un+essai+de+carte+g%C3%A9ologique+de+la+France%2C+des+Pays-Bas%2C+et+des+contr%C3%A9es+voisines&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=353-376&rft.date=1822&rft.au=d%E2%80%99Halloy%2C+d%E2%80%99O.%2C+J.-J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc-ocAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) From page 373: "La troisième, qui correspond à ce qu'on a déja appelé formation de la craie, sera désigné par le nom de terrain crétacé." (The third, which corresponds to what was already called the "chalk formation", will be designated by the name "chalky terrain".) </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Great_Soviet_Encyclopedia" title="Great Soviet Encyclopedia">Sovetskaya Enciklopediya</a> [Great Soviet Encyclopedia] (in Russian) (3rd ed.). 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Retrieved 22 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleobiology&rft.atitle=Changes+in+Late+Cretaceous%E2%80%93early+Tertiary+benthic+marine+assemblages%3A+analyses+from+the+North+American+coastal+plain+shallow+shelf&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=459-479&rft.date=2005-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130932162%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0094-8373&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F0094-8373%282005%29031%5B0459%3ACILCTB%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Kosnik&rft.aufirst=Matthew+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbioone.org%2Fjournals%2Fpaleobiology%2Fvolume-31%2Fissue-3%2F0094-8373_2005_031_0459_CILCTB_2.0.CO_2%2FChanges-in-Late-Cretaceousearly-Tertiary-benthic-marine-assemblages--analyses%2F10.1666%2F0094-8373%282005%29031%5B0459%3ACILCTB%5D2.0.CO%3B2.short&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernandes_MartinsPuckettLockwoodSwaddle2018" class="citation journal cs1">Fernandes Martins, Maria João; Puckett, Mark; Lockwood, Rowan; Swaddle, John P.; Hunt, Gene (11 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324504488">"High male sexual investment as a driver of extinction in fossil ostracods"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 556 (7701): 366–369. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.556..366M">2018Natur.556..366M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0020-7">10.1038/s41586-018-0020-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29643505">29643505</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256767945">256767945</a>. Retrieved 31 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=High+male+sexual+investment+as+a+driver+of+extinction+in+fossil+ostracods&rft.volume=556&rft.issue=7701&rft.pages=366-369&rft.date=2018-04-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0020-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256767945%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29643505&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.556..366M&rft.aulast=Fernandes+Martins&rft.aufirst=Maria+Jo%C3%A3o&rft.au=Puckett%2C+Mark&rft.au=Lockwood%2C+Rowan&rft.au=Swaddle%2C+John+P.&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Gene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F324504488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLees2008" class="citation journal cs1">Lees, Jackie A. (February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0195667107000961">"The calcareous nannofossil record across the Late Cretaceous Turonian/Coniacian boundary, including new data from Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and England"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous_Research" title="Cretaceous Research">Cretaceous Research</a>. 29 (1): 40–64. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008CrRes..29...40L">2008CrRes..29...40L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cretres.2007.08.002">10.1016/j.cretres.2007.08.002</a>. Retrieved 24 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cretaceous+Research&rft.atitle=The+calcareous+nannofossil+record+across+the+Late+Cretaceous+Turonian%2FConiacian+boundary%2C+including+new+data+from+Germany%2C+Poland%2C+the+Czech+Republic+and+England&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-64&rft.date=2008-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cretres.2007.08.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008CrRes..29...40L&rft.aulast=Lees&rft.aufirst=Jackie+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0195667107000961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuichiro_KashiyamaNanako_O._OgawaJunichiro_KurodaMotoo_Shiro2008" class="citation journal cs1">Yuichiro Kashiyama; Nanako O. Ogawa; Junichiro Kuroda; Motoo Shiro; Shinya Nomoto; Ryuji Tada; Hiroshi Kitazato; Naohiko Ohkouchi (May 2008). "Diazotrophic cyanobacteria as the major photoautotrophs during mid-Cretaceous oceanic anoxic events: Nitrogen and carbon isotopic evidence from sedimentary porphyrin". Organic Geochemistry. 39 (5): 532–549. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008OrGeo..39..532K">2008OrGeo..39..532K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.orggeochem.2007.11.010">10.1016/j.orggeochem.2007.11.010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organic+Geochemistry&rft.atitle=Diazotrophic+cyanobacteria+as+the+major+photoautotrophs+during+mid-Cretaceous+oceanic+anoxic+events%3A+Nitrogen+and+carbon+isotopic+evidence+from+sedimentary+porphyrin&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=532-549&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.orggeochem.2007.11.010&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008OrGeo..39..532K&rft.au=Yuichiro+Kashiyama&rft.au=Nanako+O.+Ogawa&rft.au=Junichiro+Kuroda&rft.au=Motoo+Shiro&rft.au=Shinya+Nomoto&rft.au=Ryuji+Tada&rft.au=Hiroshi+Kitazato&rft.au=Naohiko+Ohkouchi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarsonJorgensenFarrarLarson1997" class="citation book cs1">Larson, Neal L; Jorgensen, Steven D; Farrar, Robert A; Larson, Peter L (1997). Ammonites and the other Cephalopods of the Pierre Seaway. Geoscience Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ammonites+and+the+other+Cephalopods+of+the+Pierre+Seaway&rft.pub=Geoscience+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Neal+L&rft.au=Jorgensen%2C+Steven+D&rft.au=Farrar%2C+Robert+A&rft.au=Larson%2C+Peter+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgg2004" class="citation web cs1">Ogg, Jim (June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060716071827/http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm">"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)"</a>. 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(2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060824202146/http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/vol31/10ovek.pdf">"Quantitative changes of calcareous nannoflora in the Saratov region (Russian Platform) during the late Maastrichtian warming event"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Iberian_Geology" title="Journal of Iberian Geology">Journal of Iberian Geology</a>. 31 (1): 149–165. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/vol31/10ovek.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on August 24, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Iberian+Geology&rft.atitle=Quantitative+changes+of+calcareous+nannoflora+in+the+Saratov+region+%28Russian+Platform%29+during+the+late+Maastrichtian+warming+event&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=149-165&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Ovechkina&rft.aufirst=M.N.&rft.au=Alekseev%2C+A.S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucm.es%2Finfo%2Festratig%2Fvol31%2F10ovek.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasnitsynQuicke2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alex_Rasnitsyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Alex Rasnitsyn">Rasnitsyn, A.P.</a>; Quicke, D.L.J. (2002). History of Insects. <a href="/wiki/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kluwer Academic Publishers">Kluwer Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0026-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0026-3"><bdi>978-1-4020-0026-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Insects&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-0026-3&rft.aulast=Rasnitsyn&rft.aufirst=A.P.&rft.au=Quicke%2C+D.L.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988">—detailed coverage of various aspects of the evolutionary history of the insects.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkinnerPorter1995" class="citation book cs1">Skinner, Brian J.; Porter, Stephen C. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dynamicearthin00skin">The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology</a> (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-60618-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-60618-9"><bdi>0-471-60618-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dynamic+Earth%3A+An+Introduction+to+Physical+Geology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-471-60618-9&rft.aulast=Skinner&rft.aufirst=Brian+J.&rft.au=Porter%2C+Stephen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdynamicearthin00skin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanley1999" class="citation book cs1">Stanley, Steven M. (1999). Earth System History. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-2882-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-2882-6"><bdi>0-7167-2882-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth+System+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-7167-2882-6&rft.aulast=Stanley&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorWilson2003" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, P. D.; Wilson, M. A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doc.rero.ch/record/13828/files/PAL_E727.pdf">"Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities"</a> (PDF). Earth-Science Reviews. 62 (1): 1–103. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ESRv...62....1T">2003ESRv...62....1T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0012-8252%2802%2900131-9">10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00131-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth-Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Palaeoecology+and+evolution+of+marine+hard+substrate+communities&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-103&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0012-8252%2802%2900131-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003ESRv...62....1T&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=P.+D.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+M.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoc.rero.ch%2Frecord%2F13828%2Ffiles%2FPAL_E727.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cretaceous&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section 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data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cretaceous" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/cretaceous" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/cretaceous">cretaceous</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mesozoic/cretaceous/cretaceous.html">UCMP Berkeley Cretaceous page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foraminifera.eu/querydb.php?period=Cretaceous&aktion=suche">Cretaceous Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghkclass.com/ghkC.html?cretaceous">Cretaceous (chronostratigraphy scale)</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Cretaceous_System">"Cretaceous System" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 414–418.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cretaceous+System&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=414-418&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACretaceous" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 10 December 2024, at 13:44 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryt_(geologie)" title="Kryt (geologie) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kryt (geologie)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreide_(Geologie)" title="Kreide (Geologie) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kreide (Geologie)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="العصر الطباشيري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصر الطباشيري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceu" title="Cretaceu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cretaceu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99ba%C5%9Fir_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Təbaşir dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Təbaşir dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapur_(pariuda)" title="Kapur (pariuda) – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kapur (pariuda)" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creta-k%C3%AD" title="Creta-kí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Creta-kí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%A1%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE" title="Аҡбур осоро – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Аҡбур осоро" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%B4" title="Мелавы перыяд – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мелавы перыяд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%B4" title="Крэйдавы пэрыяд – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Крэйдавы пэрыяд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Креда – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Креда" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreda_(period)" title="Kreda (period) – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kreda (period)" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kretase" title="Kretase – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kretase" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaci" title="Cretaci – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cretaci" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%80%C4%83_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%85%C4%83%D1%80%C4%95" title="Пурă тапхăрĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пурă тапхăрĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%99%C3%ADda" title="Křída – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Křída" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretasaidd" title="Cretasaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cretasaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kridt_(geologisk_periode)" title="Kridt (geologisk periode) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kridt (geologisk periode)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreide_(Geologie)" title="Kreide (Geologie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kreide (Geologie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriit_(ajastu)" title="Kriit (ajastu) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kriit (ajastu)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Κρητιδική περίοδος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κρητιδική περίοδος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cret%C3%A1cico" title="Cretácico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cretácico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kretaceo" title="Kretaceo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kretaceo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kretazeoa" title="Kretazeoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kretazeoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%87" title="کرتاسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کرتاسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%A9tac%C3%A9" title="Crétacé – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Crétacé" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Tr%C3%A9imhse_Chailceach" title="An Tréimhse Chailceach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Tréimhse Chailceach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cret%C3%A1ceo" title="Cretáceo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cretáceo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%B1%EC%95%85%EA%B8%B0" title="백악기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="백악기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B3%D5%AB_%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Կավճի ժամանակաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կավճի ժամանակաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="चाकमय कल्प – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चाकमय कल्प" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreda_(geolo%C5%A1ko_razdoblje)" title="Kreda (geološko razdoblje) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kreda (geološko razdoblje)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapur_(zaman)" title="Kapur (zaman) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kapur (zaman)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceo" title="Cretaceo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cretaceo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Мелон период – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Мелон период" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%ADtart%C3%ADmabili%C3%B0" title="Krítartímabilið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Krítartímabilið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretacico" title="Cretacico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cretacico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9F" title="קרטיקון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרטיקון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AA%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ცარცული სისტემა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ცარცული სისტემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B5%D2%A3%D1%96" title="Бор кезеңі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бор кезеңі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Бор мезгили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бор мезгили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%B5%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%BD%E0%BA%94" title="ຍຸກຄຣີເຕຊຽດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຍຸກຄຣີເຕຊຽດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceum" title="Cretaceum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cretaceum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%ABts_(periods)" title="Krīts (periods) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Krīts (periods)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%A4id_(Geologie)" title="Kräid (Geologie) – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kräid (Geologie)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreida_(periodas)" title="Kreida (periodas) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kreida (periodas)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriet_(geologie)" title="Kriet (geologie) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kriet (geologie)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretasica" title="Cretasica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cretasica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%A9ta_(id%C5%91szak)" title="Kréta (időszak) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kréta (időszak)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Креда (период) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Креда (период)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ക്രിറ്റേഷ്യസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്രിറ്റേഷ്യസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%87" title="کرتاسه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کرتاسه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapur_(geologi)" title="Kapur (geologi) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kapur (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%83h-%C3%A1uk-g%C4%AB" title="Băh-áuk-gī – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Băh-áuk-gī" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AF%E1%80%82%E1%80%BA_(%E1%80%81%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AF%E1%80%82%E1%80%BA)" title="မြေဖြူယုဂ် (ခရီတေးရှတ်ယုဂ်) – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မြေဖြူယုဂ် (ခရီတေးရှတ်ယုဂ်)" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krijt_(periode)" title="Krijt (periode) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Krijt (periode)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="खरीढुङ्गा युग – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="खरीढुङ्गा युग" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E4%BA%9C%E7%B4%80" title="白亜紀 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="白亜紀" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritj_(Geologii)" title="Kritj (Geologii) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kritj (Geologii)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritt_(geologi)" title="Kritt (geologi) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kritt (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krittida" title="Krittida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Krittida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretac%C3%A8u" title="Cretacèu – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cretacèu" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bo%CA%BBr_davri" title="Boʻr davri – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Boʻr davri" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="کریٹیشیس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کریٹیشیس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%90%D9%BC%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3" title="کرېټیسوس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کرېټیسوس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretass" title="Cretass – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Cretass" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kried_(Geologie)" title="Kried (Geologie) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kried (Geologie)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreda_(okres)" title="Kreda (okres) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kreda (okres)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cret%C3%A1ceo" title="Cretáceo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cretáceo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretacic" title="Cretacic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cretacic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isku_Unaq" title="Isku Unaq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Isku Unaq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Меловой период – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Меловой период" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cretaceous" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Cretaceous" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cretaceous" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krieda_(geochronologick%C3%A1_jednotka)" title="Krieda (geochronologická jednotka) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Krieda (geochronologická jednotka)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreda" title="Kreda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kreda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuurad_(da%27da)" title="Nuurad (da'da) – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Nuurad (da'da)" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0)" title="Креда (периода) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Креда (периода)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreda_(period)" title="Kreda (period) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kreda (period)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapur_(period%C3%A9)" title="Kapur (periodé) – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kapur (periodé)" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liitukausi" title="Liitukausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Liitukausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krita_(geologisk_period)" title="Krita (geologisk period) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Krita (geologisk period)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kretasiko" title="Kretasiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kretasiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கிரீத்தேசியக் காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிரீத்தேசியக் காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80_%D1%87%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Акбур чоры – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Акбур чоры" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AA" title="ยุคครีเทเชียส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคครีเทเชียส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kretase" title="Kretase – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kretase" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Крейдовий період – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Крейдовий період" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="کریٹیشیس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کریٹیشیس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%BB%B7_Ph%E1%BA%A5n_Tr%E1%BA%AFng" title="Kỷ Phấn Trắng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kỷ Phấn Trắng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E5%A0%8A%E7%B4%80" title="白堊紀 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="白堊紀" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Cretaceous" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E5%9E%A9%E7%BA%AA" title="白垩纪 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="白垩纪" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cgb%C3%A0_%E1%BA%B8l%E1%BA%B9%CC%81fun" title="Ìgbà Ẹlẹ́fun – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìgbà Ẹlẹ́fun" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E5%A0%8A%E7%B4%80" title="白堊紀 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="白堊紀" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E5%9E%A9%E7%BA%AA" title="白垩纪 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="白垩纪" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 10 December 2024, at 13:44 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a 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class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-59bf896c4b-9twdc","wgBackendResponseTime":197,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.605","walltime":"1.873","ppvisitednodes":{"value":22576,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":512596,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":8649,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":24,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":10,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":487728,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1646.934 1 -total"," 43.26% 712.495 1 Template:Reflist"," 30.23% 497.829 88 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.15% 200.054 1 Template:Infobox_geologic_timespan"," 6.54% 107.715 6 Template:Sfn"," 6.32% 104.112 1 Template:Geological_range"," 6.04% 99.464 1 Template:Phanerozoic_220px"," 5.81% 95.627 1 Template:Commons_category"," 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[\"CITEREFJudD’EmicWilliamsMathews2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKauffman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazlev\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerrick2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKielan-JaworowskaCifelliLuo2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKosnik2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarsonErba2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarsonJorgensenFarrarLarson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaugiéDonnadieuLadantGreen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeckieBralowerCashman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLees2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLenaLópez-MartínezLescanoAguire-Urreta2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinnertRobinsonLeesBown2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongrichMartillAndres2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaHeZhaoPeng2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacLeod,_NRawson,_PFForey,_PLBanner,_FT1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinezAguirre-UrretaDeraLescano2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatsumotoEvans2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoussavou2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMutterloseBornemannHerrle2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMutterloseBrumsackFlögelHay2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNordtAtchleyDworkin2003\"] = 1,\n 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[\"CITEREFSimõesWilnerCaldwellWeinschütz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkinnerPorter1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTardunoBrinkmanRenneCottrell1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorWilson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVandermarkTardunoBrinkman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVennariLescanoNaipauerAguirre-Urreta2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWIMBLEDON2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalaszczykCobban1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalaszczykSzasz1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangHoffmannHeZhang2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangHuangSunQuan2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangLiLiWang2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangScottWanGraham2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeimar1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilf,_PJohnson_KR2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilsonNorrisCooper2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilton,_Mark_P.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWimbledonRehakovaSvobodováSchnabl2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodErnstRasemann1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWuYouLi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuichiro_KashiyamaNanako_O._OgawaJunichiro_KurodaMotoo_Shiro2008\"] = 1,\n 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