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<span>Specific places</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Specific_places-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Specific places subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Specific_places-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_York" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>New York</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glasgow_and_Edinburgh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glasgow_and_Edinburgh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Glasgow and Edinburgh</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glasgow_and_Edinburgh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Building shared by multiple dwellings</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Tenement_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Tenement (disambiguation)">Tenement (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dudley_Drive_-_geograph.org.uk_-_580164.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Dudley_Drive_-_geograph.org.uk_-_580164.jpg/300px-Dudley_Drive_-_geograph.org.uk_-_580164.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Dudley_Drive_-_geograph.org.uk_-_580164.jpg/450px-Dudley_Drive_-_geograph.org.uk_-_580164.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Dudley_Drive_-_geograph.org.uk_-_580164.jpg/600px-Dudley_Drive_-_geograph.org.uk_-_580164.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption>High-quality tenements in the <a href="/wiki/Hyndland" title="Hyndland">Hyndland</a> residential area of <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, built 1898–1910<sup id="cite_ref-Hyndland_2018_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyndland_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edinburgh_Tenement_with_decorative_lintel_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Edinburgh_Tenement_with_decorative_lintel_1880.jpg/300px-Edinburgh_Tenement_with_decorative_lintel_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Edinburgh_Tenement_with_decorative_lintel_1880.jpg/450px-Edinburgh_Tenement_with_decorative_lintel_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Edinburgh_Tenement_with_decorative_lintel_1880.jpg/600px-Edinburgh_Tenement_with_decorative_lintel_1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption>Tenements in the <a href="/wiki/Morningside,_Edinburgh" title="Morningside, Edinburgh">Morningside</a> area of <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, featuring atypical decorative lintels, built 1880</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>tenement</b> is a type of building shared by multiple dwellings, typically with flats or apartments on each floor and with shared entrance stairway access. They are common on the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. In the medieval <a href="/wiki/Old_Town,_Edinburgh" title="Old Town, Edinburgh">Old Town</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, tenements were developed with each apartment treated as a separate house, built on top of each other (such as <a href="/wiki/Gladstone%27s_Land" title="Gladstone's Land">Gladstone's Land</a>). Over hundreds of years, custom grew to become law concerning maintenance and repairs, as first formally discussed in <a href="/wiki/James_Dalrymple,_1st_Viscount_of_Stair" title="James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair">Stair</a>'s 1681 writings on <a href="/wiki/Scots_property_law" title="Scots property law">Scots property law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReidZimmermann2000_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReidZimmermann2000-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Scotland, these are now governed by the <a href="/wiki/Tenements_(Scotland)_Act_2004" title="Tenements (Scotland) Act 2004">Tenements Act</a>, which replaced the old Law of the Tenement and created a new system of common ownership and procedures concerning repairs and maintenance of tenements. Tenements with one- or two-room flats provided popular rented accommodation for workers, but in some inner-city areas, overcrowding and maintenance problems led to <a href="/wiki/Shanty_town" title="Shanty town">shanty towns</a>, which have been cleared and redeveloped. In more affluent areas, tenement flats form spacious privately owned houses, some with up to six bedrooms, which continue to be desirable properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyndland_2018_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyndland_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yard_of_a_tenement_at_Park_Ave._LOC_det.4a28182.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Yard_of_a_tenement_at_Park_Ave._LOC_det.4a28182.jpg/300px-Yard_of_a_tenement_at_Park_Ave._LOC_det.4a28182.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Yard_of_a_tenement_at_Park_Ave._LOC_det.4a28182.jpg/450px-Yard_of_a_tenement_at_Park_Ave._LOC_det.4a28182.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Yard_of_a_tenement_at_Park_Ave._LOC_det.4a28182.jpg/600px-Yard_of_a_tenement_at_Park_Ave._LOC_det.4a28182.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7240" data-file-height="5384" /></a><figcaption>Tenements at <a href="/wiki/Park_Avenue" title="Park Avenue">Park Avenue</a> and 107th Street, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1898–1910</span></figcaption></figure> <p>In the United States, the term <i>tenement</i> initially meant a large building with multiple small spaces to rent. As <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">cities</a> grew in the nineteenth century, there was increasing <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">separation between rich and poor</a>. With rapid urban growth and <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">immigration</a>, overcrowded houses with poor sanitation gave tenements a reputation as shanty towns.<sup id="cite_ref-Mauch_33_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mauch_33-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expression "tenement house" was used to designate a building subdivided to provide cheap rental accommodation, which was initially a subdivision of a large house. Beginning in the 1850s, purpose-built tenements of up to six stories held several households on each floor.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various names were introduced for better dwellings, and eventually modern <a href="/wiki/Apartment" title="Apartment">apartments</a> predominated in American urban living.<sup id="cite_ref-Mauch_33_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mauch_33-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In parts of England, especially <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, the word refers to an outshot, or additional projecting part at the back of a <a href="/wiki/Terraced_house" title="Terraced house">terraced</a> house, normally with its roof.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gladstones_Land_(4530213293).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Gladstones_Land_%284530213293%29.jpg/170px-Gladstones_Land_%284530213293%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Gladstones_Land_%284530213293%29.jpg/255px-Gladstones_Land_%284530213293%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Gladstones_Land_%284530213293%29.jpg/340px-Gladstones_Land_%284530213293%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3521" data-file-height="6713" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gladstone%27s_Land" title="Gladstone's Land">Gladstone's Land</a> is a tenement from 1617 in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Town,_Edinburgh" title="Old Town, Edinburgh">Old Town, Edinburgh</a><sup id="cite_ref-National_Trust_Gladstone’s_Land_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Trust_Gladstone’s_Land-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the earliest examples of a tenement is <a href="/wiki/Morris_Castle" title="Morris Castle">Morris Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Swansea" title="Swansea">Swansea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>. The castle was built sometime before 1775 by <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Morris" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir John Morris">Sir John Morris</a> to house workers in the rapidly industrializing area. The castle's location was hazardous and impractical and many workers preferred to live in individual cottages. As such, the tenement was abandoned in the 1850s.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>tenement</i> originally referred to tenancy and therefore to any rented accommodation. The New York State legislature defined it in the Tenement House Act of 1867 in terms of rental occupancy by multiple households, as </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Any house, building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased, let, or hired out to be occupied or is occupied, as the home or residence of more than three families living independently of one another and doing their own cooking upon the premises, or by more than two families upon a floor, so living and cooking and having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets, or privies, or some of them.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In Scotland, it continues to be the most common word for a <a href="/wiki/Apartment#Scotland" title="Apartment">multiple-occupancy building</a>, but elsewhere it is used as a pejorative in contrast to <i><a href="/wiki/Apartment" title="Apartment">apartment building</a></i> or <i>block of flats</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tenement houses were either adapted or built for the working class as cities industrialized,<sup id="cite_ref-Bauman6_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bauman6-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and came to be contrasted with middle-class apartment houses, which started to become fashionable later in the 19th century. Late-19th-century social reformers in the United States were hostile to both tenements (for fostering disease, and immorality in the young) and apartment houses (for fostering "sexual immorality, sloth, and divorce").<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specific_places">Specific places</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Specific places"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York">New York</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: New York"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soundviewbxrow.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Soundviewbxrow.JPG/220px-Soundviewbxrow.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Soundviewbxrow.JPG/330px-Soundviewbxrow.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Soundviewbxrow.JPG/440px-Soundviewbxrow.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="307" /></a><figcaption>Tenements in <a href="/wiki/Soundview,_Bronx" title="Soundview, Bronx">Soundview, The Bronx</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Side_Sectional_View_of_Tenement_House,_38_Cherry_Street,_N.Y.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Side_Sectional_View_of_Tenement_House%2C_38_Cherry_Street%2C_N.Y.jpg/220px-Side_Sectional_View_of_Tenement_House%2C_38_Cherry_Street%2C_N.Y.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Side_Sectional_View_of_Tenement_House%2C_38_Cherry_Street%2C_N.Y.jpg/330px-Side_Sectional_View_of_Tenement_House%2C_38_Cherry_Street%2C_N.Y.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Side_Sectional_View_of_Tenement_House%2C_38_Cherry_Street%2C_N.Y.jpg/440px-Side_Sectional_View_of_Tenement_House%2C_38_Cherry_Street%2C_N.Y.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>Side Sectional View of Tenement House, 38 <a href="/wiki/Cherry_Street_(Manhattan)" title="Cherry Street (Manhattan)">Cherry Street</a>, N.Y., 1865</figcaption></figure> <p>As the United States industrialized during the 19th century, immigrants and workers from the countryside were housed in former middle-class houses and other buildings, such as warehouses, which were bought up and divided into small dwellings.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning as early as the 1830s in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a><sup id="cite_ref-Bauman6_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bauman6-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or possibly the 1820s on <a href="/wiki/Mott_Street" title="Mott Street">Mott Street</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Plunz161_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plunz161-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> three- and four-story buildings were converted into "<a href="/wiki/Railroad_apartment" title="Railroad apartment">railroad flats</a>," so called because the rooms were linked together like the cars of a train,<sup id="cite_ref-Plunz164_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plunz164-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with windowless internal rooms. The adapted buildings were also known as "<a href="/wiki/Rookery_(slum)" title="Rookery (slum)">rookeries</a>," and these were a particular concern, as they were prone to collapse and fire. <a href="/wiki/Mulberry_Bend" title="Mulberry Bend">Mulberry Bend</a> and <a href="/wiki/Five_Points,_Manhattan" title="Five Points, Manhattan">Five Points</a> were the sites of notorious rookeries that the city worked for decades to clear.<sup id="cite_ref-Plunz161_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plunz161-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both rookeries and purpose-built tenements, communal water taps and water closets (either privies or "school sinks," which opened into a vault that often became clogged) were squeezed into the small open spaces between buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-Plunz164_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plunz164-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In parts of the Lower East Side, buildings were older and had <a href="/wiki/Courtyards" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtyards">courtyards</a>, generally occupied by machine shops, stables, and other businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LowerEastSideTenements.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/LowerEastSideTenements.JPG/220px-LowerEastSideTenements.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/LowerEastSideTenements.JPG/330px-LowerEastSideTenements.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/LowerEastSideTenements.JPG/440px-LowerEastSideTenements.JPG 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a> tenement buildings</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Henry_White,_The_Condemned_Tenement,_NY,_1906,_NGA_149496.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Charles_Henry_White%2C_The_Condemned_Tenement%2C_NY%2C_1906%2C_NGA_149496.jpg/220px-Charles_Henry_White%2C_The_Condemned_Tenement%2C_NY%2C_1906%2C_NGA_149496.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Charles_Henry_White%2C_The_Condemned_Tenement%2C_NY%2C_1906%2C_NGA_149496.jpg/330px-Charles_Henry_White%2C_The_Condemned_Tenement%2C_NY%2C_1906%2C_NGA_149496.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Charles_Henry_White%2C_The_Condemned_Tenement%2C_NY%2C_1906%2C_NGA_149496.jpg/440px-Charles_Henry_White%2C_The_Condemned_Tenement%2C_NY%2C_1906%2C_NGA_149496.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2884" /></a><figcaption>Charles Henry White, <i>The Condemned Tenement, NY</i>, 1906, <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Such tenements were particularly prevalent in New York, where in 1865 a report stated that 500,000 people lived in unhealthy tenements, whereas in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> in 1845, less than a quarter of workers were housed in tenements.<sup id="cite_ref-Bauman6_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bauman6-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One reason New York had so many tenements was the large number of immigrants; another was that the <a href="/wiki/Commissioners%27_Plan_of_1811" title="Commissioners' Plan of 1811">grid plan</a> on which streets were laid out, and the economic practice of building on individual 25-by-100-foot (7.6 by 30.5 m) lots, combined to produce high land coverage.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to 1867, tenements often covered more than 90 percent of the lot, were five or six stories high, and had 18 rooms per floor, of which only two received direct sunlight. Yards were a few feet wide and often filled with <a href="/wiki/Outhouse" title="Outhouse">privies</a>. Interior rooms were unventilated.<sup id="cite_ref-Plunz164_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plunz164-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early in the 19th century, many of the poor were housed in cellars, which became even less sanitary after the <a href="/wiki/Croton_Aqueduct" title="Croton Aqueduct">Croton Aqueduct</a> brought running water to wealthier New Yorkers: the reduction in well use caused the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> to rise, and the cellar dwellings flooded. Early housing reformers urged the construction of tenements to replace cellars, and beginning in 1859 the number of people living in cellars began to decline.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Airshaft_of_a_dumbbell_tenement,_New_York_City,_taken_from_the_roof,_ca._1900_-_NARA_-_535468.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Airshaft_of_a_dumbbell_tenement%2C_New_York_City%2C_taken_from_the_roof%2C_ca._1900_-_NARA_-_535468.jpg/220px-Airshaft_of_a_dumbbell_tenement%2C_New_York_City%2C_taken_from_the_roof%2C_ca._1900_-_NARA_-_535468.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Airshaft_of_a_dumbbell_tenement%2C_New_York_City%2C_taken_from_the_roof%2C_ca._1900_-_NARA_-_535468.jpg/330px-Airshaft_of_a_dumbbell_tenement%2C_New_York_City%2C_taken_from_the_roof%2C_ca._1900_-_NARA_-_535468.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Airshaft_of_a_dumbbell_tenement%2C_New_York_City%2C_taken_from_the_roof%2C_ca._1900_-_NARA_-_535468.jpg/440px-Airshaft_of_a_dumbbell_tenement%2C_New_York_City%2C_taken_from_the_roof%2C_ca._1900_-_NARA_-_535468.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2450" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The airshaft of a dumbbell tenement, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900</span></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tenements._Brooklyn,_Gold_Street._1890.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tenements._Brooklyn%2C_Gold_Street._1890.jpg/220px-Tenements._Brooklyn%2C_Gold_Street._1890.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tenements._Brooklyn%2C_Gold_Street._1890.jpg/330px-Tenements._Brooklyn%2C_Gold_Street._1890.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tenements._Brooklyn%2C_Gold_Street._1890.jpg/440px-Tenements._Brooklyn%2C_Gold_Street._1890.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>Tenements. Brooklyn, Gold Street, 1890. <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Sweltering_Night_in_New_York_-_Tenement_House_Sufferers,_1883._X1042.141.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/A_Sweltering_Night_in_New_York_-_Tenement_House_Sufferers%2C_1883._X1042.141.jpg/220px-A_Sweltering_Night_in_New_York_-_Tenement_House_Sufferers%2C_1883._X1042.141.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/A_Sweltering_Night_in_New_York_-_Tenement_House_Sufferers%2C_1883._X1042.141.jpg/330px-A_Sweltering_Night_in_New_York_-_Tenement_House_Sufferers%2C_1883._X1042.141.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/A_Sweltering_Night_in_New_York_-_Tenement_House_Sufferers%2C_1883._X1042.141.jpg/440px-A_Sweltering_Night_in_New_York_-_Tenement_House_Sufferers%2C_1883._X1042.141.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><i>A Sweltering Night in New York</i>, 1883. <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Tenement House Act of 1866, the state legislature's first comprehensive legislation on housing conditions, prohibited cellar apartments unless the ceiling was 1 foot (30 cm) above street level; required one water closet per 20 residents and the provision of fire escapes; and paid some attention to space between buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was amended by the Tenement House Act of 1879, known as the Old Law, which required lot coverage of no more than 65 percent. As of 1869, New York State law defined a "tenement house" as "any house or building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased let or hired out, to be occupied, or is occupied as the home or residence of three families or more living independently of each other, and doing their cooking upon the premises, or by more than two families upon any floor, so living and cooking, but having a right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets or privies, or some of them." L 1867, ch 908.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Health_and_Mental_Hygiene" title="New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene">New York City Board of Health</a> was empowered to enforce these regulations, but it declined to do so. As a compromise, the "<a href="/wiki/Old_Law_Tenement" title="Old Law Tenement">Old Law tenement</a>" became the standard: this had a "dumbbell" shape, with air and light shafts on either side in the center (usually fitted to the shafts in the adjacent buildings), and it typically covered 80 percent of the lot.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_E._Ware" title="James E. Ware">James E. Ware</a> is credited with the design;<sup id="cite_ref-nrhpinv_ny_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nrhpinv_ny-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he had won a contest the previous year held by <i>Plumber and Sanitary Engineer</i> Magazine to find the most practical improved tenement design, in which profitability was the most important factor to the jury.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public concern about New York tenements was stirred by publication in 1890 of <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Riis" title="Jacob Riis">Jacob Riis</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/How_the_Other_Half_Lives" title="How the Other Half Lives">How the Other Half Lives</a> </i>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1892 by Riis's <i>The Children of the Poor.</i> <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New York State Assembly Tenement House Committee report of 1894 surveyed 8,000 buildings with approximately 255,000 residents and found New York to be the most densely populated city in the world, at an average of 143 inhabitants per acre (350/ha), with part of the Lower East Side having 800 inhabitants per acre (2,000/ha), denser than <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>. It used both charts and photographs, the first such official use of photographs.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together with the publication in 1895 by the US Department of Labor of a special report on housing conditions and solutions elsewhere in the world, <i>The Housing of Working People,</i> it ultimately led to the passage of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Tenement_House_Act" title="New York State Tenement House Act">Tenement House Act of 1901</a>, known as the New Law, which implemented the Tenement House Committee's recommendation of a maximum of 70 percent lot coverage and mandated strict enforcement, specified a minimum of 12 feet (3.7 m) for a rear yard and 6 feet (1.8 m) for an air and light shaft at the lot line or 12 feet (3.7 m) in the middle of the building (all of these being increased for taller buildings), and required running water and water closets in every apartment and a window in every room. There were also fire-safety requirements. These rules are still the basis of New York City law on low-rise buildings, and they have made single-lot development uneconomical.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the purpose-built tenements in New York were not slums, although they were not pleasant to be inside, especially in hot weather, so people congregated outside, made heavy use of the fire escapes, and slept in summer on fire escapes, roofs, and sidewalks.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side_Tenement_Museum" title="Lower East Side Tenement Museum">Lower East Side Tenement Museum</a>, a five-story brick former tenement building in Manhattan that is a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Sites_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Sites (United States)">National Historic Site</a>, is a museum devoted to tenements in the Lower East Side. </p><p>Other famous tenements in the US include <a href="/wiki/Tenement_Housing_in_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenement Housing in Chicago">tenement housing in Chicago</a>, in which various housing areas were built to the same affect as tenements in New York. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glasgow_and_Edinburgh">Glasgow and Edinburgh</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Glasgow and Edinburgh"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dumbarton_Road,_Glasgow_-_DSC06273.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dumbarton_Road%2C_Glasgow_-_DSC06273.JPG/220px-Dumbarton_Road%2C_Glasgow_-_DSC06273.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dumbarton_Road%2C_Glasgow_-_DSC06273.JPG/330px-Dumbarton_Road%2C_Glasgow_-_DSC06273.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dumbarton_Road%2C_Glasgow_-_DSC06273.JPG/440px-Dumbarton_Road%2C_Glasgow_-_DSC06273.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Tenements in Dumbarton Road, Glasgow</figcaption></figure> <p>Tenements make up a large percentage of the housing stock of <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> in Scotland. Glasgow tenements were built to provide high-density housing for the large number of people immigrating to the city in the 19th and early 20th century as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, when the city's population boomed to more than 1 million people. Edinburgh's tenements are much older, dating from the 17th century onwards, and some were up to 15 storeys high when first built, which made them among the tallest houses in the world at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glasgow tenements were generally built no taller than the width of the street on which they were located; therefore, most are about 3–5 storeys high. Virtually all Glasgow tenements were constructed using red or blonde sandstone, which has become distinctive. </p><p>In Edinburgh, residential dwellings in the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Sites</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Town,_Edinburgh" title="Old Town, Edinburgh">Old Town</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Town,_Edinburgh" title="New Town, Edinburgh">New Town</a> (as well as the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian</a> city centre districts immediately surrounding them) are almost exclusively tenements. The <a href="/wiki/Tenement_House_(Glasgow)" title="Tenement House (Glasgow)">Tenement House</a> <a href="/wiki/Historic_house_museum" title="Historic house museum">historic house museum</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Garnethill" title="Garnethill">Garnethill</a> area of Glasgow preserves the interior, fittings and equipment of a well-kept, upper middle-class tenement from the late 19th century. </p><p>Many tenements in Glasgow were demolished in the 1960s and 1970s because of slum conditions, overcrowding and poor maintenance of the buildings. Perhaps the most striking case of this is seen in the <a href="/wiki/Gorbals" title="Gorbals">Gorbals</a>, where virtually all the tenements were demolished to make way for tower blocks, many of which have in turn have been demolished and replaced with newer structures. The Gorbals is an area of approximately 1 km<sup>2</sup> and at one time had an estimated 90,000 people living in its tenements, leading to very poor living conditions. The population now is roughly 10,000. </p><p>Tenement demolition was to a significantly lesser extent in Edinburgh, thus making its later World Heritage designations in 1985 possible. Largely, such clearances were limited to pre-Victorian buildings outside the New Town area and were precipitated by the so-called "Penny Tenement" incident of 1959 in which a tenement collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apartments in tenement buildings in both cities are now often highly sought after, due to their locations, often large rooms, high ceilings, ornamentation and period features. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berlin">Berlin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Berlin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In German, the term corresponding to <i>tenement</i> is <i>Mietskaserne</i>, "rental barracks", and the city especially known for them is Berlin. In 1930, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Hegemann" title="Werner Hegemann">Werner Hegemann</a>'s polemic <i>Das steinerne Berlin</i> (Stony Berlin) referred to the city in its subtitle as "the largest tenement city in the world."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were built during a period of great increases in population between 1860 and 1914, particularly after <a href="/wiki/German_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="German unification">German unification</a> in 1871, in a broad ring enclosing the old city center, sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Wilhelmine_Ring_(Berlin)" title="Wilhelmine Ring (Berlin)">Wilhelmian or Wilhelmine Ring</a>. The buildings are almost always five stories high because of the mandated maximum height.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The blocks are large because the streets were required to be able to handle heavy traffic, and the lots are therefore also large: required to have courtyards large enough for a fire truck to turn around, the buildings have front, rear, and cross buildings enclosing several courtyards.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buildings within the courtyards were the location of much of Berlin's industry until the 1920s, and noise and other nuisances affected the apartments, only the best of which had windows facing the street.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-69536-0010,_Berlin,_Marienstra%C3%9Fe,_Wohnhaus,_Altbau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-69536-0010%2C_Berlin%2C_Marienstra%C3%9Fe%2C_Wohnhaus%2C_Altbau.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-69536-0010%2C_Berlin%2C_Marienstra%C3%9Fe%2C_Wohnhaus%2C_Altbau.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-69536-0010%2C_Berlin%2C_Marienstra%C3%9Fe%2C_Wohnhaus%2C_Altbau.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-69536-0010%2C_Berlin%2C_Marienstra%C3%9Fe%2C_Wohnhaus%2C_Altbau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-69536-0010%2C_Berlin%2C_Marienstra%C3%9Fe%2C_Wohnhaus%2C_Altbau.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-69536-0010%2C_Berlin%2C_Marienstra%C3%9Fe%2C_Wohnhaus%2C_Altbau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>Members of a tenants' collective in front of their tenement building in <a href="/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a> in 1959 (the façade still pockmarked with <a href="/wiki/Battle_in_Berlin" title="Battle in Berlin">1945 battle damage</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>One notorious Berlin Mietskaserne was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meyers_Hof&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meyers Hof (page does not exist)">Meyers Hof</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyers_Hof" class="extiw" title="de:Meyers Hof">de</a>]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Gesundbrunnen_(Berlin)" title="Gesundbrunnen (Berlin)">Gesundbrunnen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which at times housed 2,000 people and required its police officer to keep order.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1901 and 1920, a Berlin clinic investigated and documented in photographs the living conditions of its patients, revealing that many lived in damp basements and garrets, spaces under stairs, and apartments where the windows were blocked by courtyard businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many apartments in the Wilhelmian Ring were very small, only one room and a kitchen.<sup id="cite_ref-Elkins189_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elkins189-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, apartments were laid out with their rooms reached via a common internal corridor, which even the Berlin Architects' Association recognized was unhealthy and detrimental to family life.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sanitation was inadequate: in a survey of one area in 1962, only 15 percent of apartments had both a toilet and a bath or shower; 19 percent had only a toilet, and 66 percent shared staircase toilets.<sup id="cite_ref-Elkins189_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elkins189-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heating was provided by stoves burning charcoal briquettes.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dublin">Dublin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dublin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Dublin" title="History of Dublin">History of Dublin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tenement_Museum_Dublin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenement Museum Dublin">Tenement Museum Dublin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dublin_Slum_dwellers_1901_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Dublin_Slum_dwellers_1901_cropped.jpg/170px-Dublin_Slum_dwellers_1901_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Dublin_Slum_dwellers_1901_cropped.jpg/255px-Dublin_Slum_dwellers_1901_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Dublin_Slum_dwellers_1901_cropped.jpg/340px-Dublin_Slum_dwellers_1901_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>Dublin slum dwellers, 1901</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 19th and early 20th century, Dublin's tenements (<a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">tionóntán</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were infamous, often described as the worst in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many tenement buildings were originally the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_architecture" title="Georgian architecture">Georgian</a> townhouses of upper-class families, neglected and subdivided over the centuries to house dozens of Dublin's poor.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Street,_Dublin" title="Henrietta Street, Dublin">Henrietta Street</a>'s fifteen buildings housed 835 people. In 1911 nearly 26,000 families lived in inner-city tenements, and 20,000 of these families lived in a single room. Disease was common, with death rates of 22.3 per thousand (compared with 15.6 for <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> at the same time).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The collapse of 65–66 Church Street in 1913, which killed seven residents, led to inquiries into housing.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A housing committee report of 1914 said, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There are many tenement houses with seven or eight rooms that house a family in each room and contain a population of between 40 and 50 souls. We have visited one house that we found to be occupied by 98 persons, another by 74 and a third by 73. </p><p>The entrance to all tenement houses is by a common door off either a street, lane or alley, and, in most cases, the door is never shut, day or night. The passages and stairs are common and the rooms all open directly either off the passages or landings. </p><p>Most of these houses have yards at the back, some of which are a fair size, while others are very small, and some few houses have no yards at all. Generally, the only water supply of the house is furnished by a single water tap, which is in the yard. The yard is common and the closet accommodation [<i>toilet</i>] is to be found there, except in some few cases in which there is no yard, when it is to be found in the basement where there is little light or ventilation. </p><p>The closet accommodation is common not only to the occupants of the house, but to anyone who likes to come in off the street, and is, of course, common to both sexes. The roofs of the tenement houses are, as a rule, bad . . . </p><p> Having visited a large number of these houses in all parts of the city, we have no hesitation in saying that it is no uncommon thing to find halls and landings, yards and closets of the houses in a filthy condition, and, in nearly every case, human excreta is to be found scattered about the yards and in the floors of the closets and, in some cases, even in the passages of the house itself.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Tenement life often appeared in fiction, such as the "Dublin trilogy" of plays by <a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_O%27Casey" title="Seán O'Casey">Seán O'Casey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_St._John_Gogarty" title="Oliver St. John Gogarty">Oliver St. John Gogarty</a>'s play <i><a href="/wiki/Blight_(play)" title="Blight (play)">Blight</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Plunkett" title="James Plunkett">James Plunkett</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/Strumpet_City" title="Strumpet City">Strumpet City</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Strumpet_City_(miniseries)" title="Strumpet City (miniseries)">adapted for television</a> in 1980). <a href="/wiki/14_Henrietta_Street" title="14 Henrietta Street">14 Henrietta Street</a> serves as a museum of Dublin tenement life.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last tenements were closed in the 1970s, families being rehoused in new suburbs such as <a href="/wiki/Ballymun" title="Ballymun">Ballymun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buenos_Aires">Buenos Aires</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Buenos Aires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Boca.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_Boca.jpg/220px-La_Boca.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_Boca.jpg/330px-La_Boca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_Boca.jpg/440px-La_Boca.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Conventillo in <a href="/wiki/La_Boca" title="La Boca">La Boca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> the tenements, called <i>conventillos</i>, developed from subdividing one- or two-story houses built around courtyards for well-off families. These were long and narrow, three to six times as long as they were wide, and the size of the patios was reduced until as many as 350 people could be living on a lot that had originally housed 25. Purpose-built tenements copied their form. By 1907 there were some 2,500 conventillos, with 150,000 occupants.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> El conventillo de la Paloma was particularly famous and is the title of a play by <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Vaccarezza" title="Alberto Vaccarezza">Alberto Vaccarezza</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mumbai">Mumbai</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mumbai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chawl_-_Mumbai_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chawl_-_Mumbai_2006.jpg/220px-Chawl_-_Mumbai_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chawl_-_Mumbai_2006.jpg/330px-Chawl_-_Mumbai_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chawl_-_Mumbai_2006.jpg/440px-Chawl_-_Mumbai_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A <i><a href="/wiki/Chawl" title="Chawl">chawl</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chawl" title="Chawl">Chawl</a></div> <p>"Chawls" are found in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. They are typically four to five story buildings with 10 to 20 <i>kholis</i> (tenements) on each floor, kholis literally meaning '<a href="/wiki/Room_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Room (architecture)">rooms</a>'. Many chawl buildings can be found in <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>, where chawls were constructed by the thousands to house people migrating to the large city because of its booming cotton mills and overall strong economy. </p><p>A typical chawl tenement consists of one all-purpose room, which functions both as a living and sleeping space, and a kitchen which also serves as a dining room. A frequent practice is for the kitchen to also serve as a bedroom for a newly married couple in order to give them some degree of privacy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rynek_Starego_Miasta_w_Warszawie_Strona_Barssa_2020a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Rynek_Starego_Miasta_w_Warszawie_Strona_Barssa_2020a.jpg/220px-Rynek_Starego_Miasta_w_Warszawie_Strona_Barssa_2020a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Rynek_Starego_Miasta_w_Warszawie_Strona_Barssa_2020a.jpg/330px-Rynek_Starego_Miasta_w_Warszawie_Strona_Barssa_2020a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Rynek_Starego_Miasta_w_Warszawie_Strona_Barssa_2020a.jpg/440px-Rynek_Starego_Miasta_w_Warszawie_Strona_Barssa_2020a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4081" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>Tenements in <a href="/wiki/Old_Town,_Warsaw" title="Old Town, Warsaw">Warsaw Old Town</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Town_Market_Place,_Warsaw" title="Old Town Market Place, Warsaw">Market Place</a></figcaption></figure> <p><i><b>Kamienica</b></i> (plural <i>kamienice</i>) is a <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> term describing a type of residential tenement building made of brick or <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">stone</a>, with at least two floors. There are two basic types: one designed as a single-family residence, which existed until the 1800s (a <a href="/wiki/Townhouse" title="Townhouse">burgher house</a>), and the other designed as multi-family housing, which emerged in the 19th century and was the basic type of housing in cities. From the architectural point of view, the word is usually used to describe a building that abuts other similar buildings forming the street <a href="/wiki/Frontage" title="Frontage">frontage</a>, in the manner of a <a href="/wiki/Terraced_house" title="Terraced house">terraced house</a>. The ground floor often consists of shops and other businesses, while the upper floors are apartments, oftentimes spanning the entire floor. Kamienice have large windows in the front, but not in the side walls, since the buildings are close together. </p><p>The first type of kamienica is most prevalent especially in centers of historical cities such as <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Toru%C5%84" title="Toruń">Toruń</a>, whereas the second type is most prominent in <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a>. City which is known for beautiful kamienice in Art Nouveau style is <a href="/wiki/Bydgoszcz" title="Bydgoszcz">Bydgoszcz</a>. The name derives from the Polish word <i>kamień</i> (stone) and dates from the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Late 19th century and early 20th century kamienice often took form of city palaces with ornamental facades, high floors and spacious, representative and heavily decorated interiors. </p><p>Later in the 20th century, especially after the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, large apartments would be divided into several smaller flats due to general lack of habitable space caused by vast destruction of cities, thus lowering the generally high standard of living in so-called grand city tenements (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: <i lang="pl">kamienice wielkomiejskie</i>). Examples of kamienice include <a href="/wiki/Korniakt_Palace" title="Korniakt Palace">Korniakt Palace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_Kamienica" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Kamienica">Black Kamienica</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>. Some kamienice in some areas have a reputation for being inhabited by poor people and families that depend on government money and welfare programs to support them; kamienice are often used as public housing. Those areas are often considered dangerous. The buildings are often neglected, in bad shape (both the exteriors and the interiors), in need of general renovations, sometimes without access to heating or hot water. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Big_single-family_home_2.jpg/32px-Big_single-family_home_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Big_single-family_home_2.jpg/48px-Big_single-family_home_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Big_single-family_home_2.jpg/64px-Big_single-family_home_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="604" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Housing" title="Portal:Housing">Housing portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corti%C3%A7o" title="Cortiço">Cortiço</a>, tenements in Portuguese-speaking countries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">Urban decay</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hyndland_2018-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hyndland_2018_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hyndland_2018_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWatson2018" class="citation web cs1">Watson, Alex (12 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scotsman.com/read-this/13-surprising-things-glasgow-is-famous-for/">"13 surprising things Glasgow is famous for"</a>. <i>The Scotsman</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328115602/https://www.scotsman.com/read-this/13-surprising-things-glasgow-is-famous-for/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Scotsman&rft.atitle=13+surprising+things+Glasgow+is+famous+for&rft.date=2018-01-12&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotsman.com%2Fread-this%2F13-surprising-things-glasgow-is-famous-for%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span>, links to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/travel/glasgow-hyndland-tenements/">Why Glasgow is the only place in the UK protecting its tenements</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328115558/https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/travel/glasgow-hyndland-tenements/">Archived</a> 2019-03-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReidZimmermann2000-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReidZimmermann2000_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_G._C._ReidReinhard_Zimmermann2000" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth G. C. Reid; Reinhard Zimmermann (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mPGAcjrar4oC&pg=PA216"><i>A History of Private Law in Scotland</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 216–219. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-826778-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-826778-2"><bdi>978-0-19-826778-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819145313/https://books.google.com/books?id=mPGAcjrar4oC&pg=PA216">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Private+Law+in+Scotland&rft.pages=216-219&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-826778-2&rft.au=Kenneth+G.+C.+Reid&rft.au=Reinhard+Zimmermann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmPGAcjrar4oC%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mauch_33-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mauch_33_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mauch_33_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMauch2018" class="citation book cs1">Mauch, Jason (14 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k-bD5SXr0SMC&pg=PA33"><i>Industrialism</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781604132229" title="Special:BookSources/9781604132229"><bdi>9781604132229</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180514170145/https://books.google.com/books?id=k-bD5SXr0SMC&pg=PA33">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2018 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrialism&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2018-05-14&rft.isbn=9781604132229&rft.aulast=Mauch&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk-bD5SXr0SMC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaves2004" class="citation book cs1">Caves, R. W. (2004). <i>Encyclopedia of the City</i>. Routledge. p. 665. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415862875" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415862875"><bdi>978-0415862875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+City&rft.pages=665&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0415862875&rft.aulast=Caves&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Shorter Oxford English Dictionary</i>, 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University, 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199206872" title="Special:BookSources/0199206872">0199206872</a>, p. 3804.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Trust_Gladstone’s_Land-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-National_Trust_Gladstone’s_Land_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nts.org.uk/visit/places/gladstones-land">"Gladstone's Land"</a>. <i>National Trust for Scotland</i>. 27 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220605190828/https://www.nts.org.uk/visit/places/gladstones-land">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>. <q>a towering testament to tenement life in Edinburgh's Old Town. It was once owned by merchant Thomas Gladstone, who extended and remodelled the building to create opulently decorated apartments. Gladstone attracted wealthy tenants including William Struther, Minister of St Giles' Cathedral, and Lord Crichton, as well as the high-end grocer John Riddoch, who traded from the ground floor.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Trust+for+Scotland&rft.atitle=Gladstone%27s+Land&rft.date=2017-11-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nts.org.uk%2Fvisit%2Fplaces%2Fgladstones-land&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ancientmonuments.uk/130569-morris-castle-landore">"Morris Castle A Scheduled Monument in Landore (Glandŵr), Swansea (Abertawe)"</a>. <i>Ancient Monuments</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Monuments&rft.atitle=Morris+Castle+A+Scheduled+Monument+in+Landore+%28Gland%C5%B5r%29%2C+Swansea+%28Abertawe%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fancientmonuments.uk%2F130569-morris-castle-landore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thefollyflaneuse.com/morris-castle-swansea-glamorgan-wales/">"Morris Castle, Swansea, Glamorgan, Wales"</a>. 25 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Morris+Castle%2C+Swansea%2C+Glamorgan%2C+Wales&rft.date=2020-09-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthefollyflaneuse.com%2Fmorris-castle-swansea-glamorgan-wales%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Plunz, p. 167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, Heller, Vivian. <i>The City Beneath Us: Building the New York Subways</i>, New York Transit Museum, New York: Norton, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05797-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05797-3">978-0-393-05797-3</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mOBydvX0wCQC&dq=we+called+them+apartment+houses%2C+because+that%27s+what+they+really+were.+To+us%2C+a+tenement+was+a+dump&pg=PA34">p. 34</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141208120832/http://books.google.com/books?id=mOBydvX0wCQC&pg=PA34&dq=we+called+them+apartment+houses,+because+that%27s+what+they+really+were.+To+us,+a+tenement+was+a+dump&hl=en&ei=Xw3TTYuhC5S6sQPQi62hCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA">Archived</a> 2014-12-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> quotes an Italian mason contrasting the better accommodations for the poor built in New York in response to a 1901 law with tenements: "We didn't call them tenements ... we called them apartment houses, because that's what they really were. To us, a tenement was a dump."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bauman6-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bauman6_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bauman6_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bauman6_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bauman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YZ9mO3NLP90C&q=had+become+a+commonplace+habitation+of+the+working+poor">p. 6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140627140817/http://books.google.com/books?id=YZ9mO3NLP90C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bauman,+Biles,+From+Tenements+to+the+Taylor+Homes&hl=en&ei=kAsqTdruGcnsrAeB1NSeDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA">Archived</a> 2014-06-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hutchison, Janet. "Shaping Housing and Enhancing Consumption: Hoover's Interwar Housing Policy", <i>From Tenements to the Taylor Homes</i> pp. 81–101, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YZ9mO3NLP90C&q=condemned+urban+tenement+houses+as+centers+of+juvenile+vice">p. 83</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140627140817/http://books.google.com/books?id=YZ9mO3NLP90C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bauman,+Biles,+From+Tenements+to+the+Taylor+Homes&hl=en&ei=kAsqTdruGcnsrAeB1NSeDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA">Archived</a> 2014-06-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bauman, pp. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairbanks, Robert B. "From Better Dwellings to Better Neighborhoods: The Rise and Fall of the First National Housing Movement," <i>From Tenements to the Taylor Homes</i> pp. 21–42, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YZ9mO3NLP90C&q=Some+investors+converted+abandoned+warehouses">p. 22</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140627140817/http://books.google.com/books?id=YZ9mO3NLP90C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bauman,+Biles,+From+Tenements+to+the+Taylor+Homes&hl=en&ei=kAsqTdruGcnsrAeB1NSeDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA">Archived</a> 2014-06-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plunz161-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plunz161_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plunz161_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plunz164-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plunz164_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plunz164_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plunz164_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nadel, Stanley. <i>Little Germany: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in New York City, 1845-80</i>, Urbana: University of Illinois, 1990, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-01677-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-01677-7">0-252-01677-7</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/littlegermanyeth0000nade">p. 34</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130528104747/http://books.google.com/books?ei=DCsqTae7PIbRrQet_tjXDA&ct=result&id=-uJ4AAAAMAAJ&dq=Nadel%2C+Little+Germany&q=courtyards">Archived</a> 2013-05-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, pp. 167–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.moulinos.com/2016/10/07/judge-declines-to-extend-definition-of-tenement-house-by-andrew-fraser-esq/">"Judge Declines to Extend Definition of "Tenement House" by Andrew Fraser, Esq. | MOULINOS & ASSOCIATES"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170926100031/http://www.moulinos.com/2016/10/07/judge-declines-to-extend-definition-of-tenement-house-by-andrew-fraser-esq/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judge+Declines+to+Extend+Definition+of+%22Tenement+House%22+by+Andrew+Fraser%2C+Esq.+%7C+MOULINOS+%26+ASSOCIATES&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.moulinos.com%2F2016%2F10%2F07%2Fjudge-declines-to-extend-definition-of-tenement-house-by-andrew-fraser-esq%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nrhpinv_ny-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nrhpinv_ny_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe,_Kathy2004" class="citation web cs1">Howe, Kathy (January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121018214556/http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp_view.asp?GroupView=100663">"National Register of Historic Places Registration: Maple Grove Cemetery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Office_of_Parks,_Recreation_and_Historic_Preservation" title="New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation">New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp_view.asp?GroupView=100663">the original</a> on 2012-10-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Register+of+Historic+Places+Registration%3A+Maple+Grove+Cemetery&rft.pub=New+York+State+Office+of+Parks%2C+Recreation+and+Historic+Preservation&rft.date=2004-01&rft.au=Howe%2C+Kathy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oprhp.state.ny.us%2Fhpimaging%2Fhp_view.asp%3FGroupView%3D100663&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, pp. 168–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Riis" title="Jacob Riis">Riis, Jacob A.</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/How_the_Other_Half_Lives" title="How the Other Half Lives">How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York</a>.</i> Repr. ed. Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap/Harvard University, 1970.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Riis, 2018 [1892]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plunz, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girouard, pp. 312–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers1824" class="citation book cs1">Chambers, Robert (1824). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BFkLAAAAYAAJ"><i>Notices of the most remarkable fires in Edinburgh, from 1385 to 1824, including an account of the great fire of November, 1824</i></a>. Edinburgh: Smith. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54265692">54265692</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101001136/https://books.google.com/books?id=BFkLAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-01-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-09-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notices+of+the+most+remarkable+fires+in+Edinburgh%2C+from+1385+to+1824%2C+including+an+account+of+the+great+fire+of+November%2C+1824&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Smith&rft.date=1824&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54265692&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBFkLAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/entertainment/the-penny-tenement-collapse-that-changed-edinburgh-forever-1-4386368">"The 'Penny Tenement' collapse that changed Edinburgh forever"</a>. <i>scotsman.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328024452/https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/entertainment/the-penny-tenement-collapse-that-changed-edinburgh-forever-1-4386368">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-03-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scotsman.com&rft.atitle=The+%27Penny+Tenement%27+collapse+that+changed+Edinburgh+forever&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.edinburghnews.scotsman.com%2Fnews%2Fentertainment%2Fthe-penny-tenement-collapse-that-changed-edinburgh-forever-1-4386368&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hegemann, Werner. <i>Das steinerne Berlin: Geschichte der grössten Mietkasernenstadt der Welt</i>, Berlin: Kiepenheuer, 1930.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Related to the width of the street, but generally the maximum, 72 feet: Girouard, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Worbs, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girouard, pp. 337–38 says that the blocks had been intended to be subdivided with side streets.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elkins, pp. 20, 126, 164–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hake, Sabine. <i>Topographies of Class: Modern Architecture and Mass Society in Weimar Berlin</i>, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-07038-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-07038-X">0-472-07038-X</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reese, Dagmar. <i>Growing Up Female in Nazi Germany</i>, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-09938-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-09938-8">0-472-09938-8</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5qA4My-C2nkC&dq=Meyers+Hof&pg=PA165">p. 165</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180514170145/https://books.google.com/books?id=5qA4My-C2nkC&pg=PA165&dq=Meyers+Hof&hl=en&ei=8T8qTfPIK8KGrAe-6uiLCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA">Archived</a> 2018-05-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Republished as <i>Hinterhof, Keller und Mansarde: Einblicke in Berliner Wohnungselend 1901–1920</i>, ed. Gesine Asmus, Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1982, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-499-17668-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-499-17668-8">3-499-17668-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elkins189-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elkins189_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elkins189_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Elkins, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Worbs, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elkins, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://14henriettastreet.ie/ga/">"14 Henrietta Street | Georgian townhouse to tenement dwelling"</a>. <i>14henriettastreet.ie</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200220231239/https://14henriettastreet.ie/ga/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-02-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=14henriettastreet.ie&rft.atitle=14+Henrietta+Street+%26%23124%3B+Georgian+townhouse+to+tenement+dwelling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F14henriettastreet.ie%2Fga%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rte.ie/centuryireland/index.php/blog/life-in-a-single-room-tenement">"Life in a single room tenement | Century Ireland"</a>. <i>www.rte.ie</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200220231237/https://www.rte.ie/centuryireland/index.php/blog/life-in-a-single-room-tenement">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-02-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rte.ie&rft.atitle=Life+in+a+single+room+tenement+%26%23124%3B+Century+Ireland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rte.ie%2Fcenturyireland%2Findex.php%2Fblog%2Flife-in-a-single-room-tenement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalvey" class="citation news cs1">Falvey, Deirdre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/dublin-tenement-life-i-was-born-right-there-in-1939-1.3628241">"Dublin tenement life: 'I was born right there in 1939'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516215952/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/dublin-tenement-life-i-was-born-right-there-in-1939-1.3628241">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-05-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Dublin+tenement+life%3A+%27I+was+born+right+there+in+1939%27&rft.aulast=Falvey&rft.aufirst=Deirdre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fculture%2Fheritage%2Fdublin-tenement-life-i-was-born-right-there-in-1939-1.3628241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/exhibition/dublin/poverty_health.html">"Exhibition - Poverty and Health"</a>. <i>www.census.nationalarchives.ie</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170311185519/http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/exhibition/dublin/poverty_health.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-03-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.census.nationalarchives.ie&rft.atitle=Exhibition+-+Poverty+and+Health&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.nationalarchives.ie%2Fexhibition%2Fdublin%2Fpoverty_health.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/buried-alive-on-church-street-as-houses-collapse-29780547.html">"Buried alive on Church Street as houses collapse"</a>. <i>independent</i>. 25 November 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200220231244/https://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/buried-alive-on-church-street-as-houses-collapse-29780547.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-02-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=independent&rft.atitle=Buried+alive+on+Church+Street+as+houses+collapse&rft.date=2013-11-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.ie%2Flifestyle%2Fburied-alive-on-church-street-as-houses-collapse-29780547.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/life-in-the-tenements-was-hard-and-brutal-29780548.html">"Life in the tenements was hard and brutal"</a>. <i>independent</i>. 25 November 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200220231240/https://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/life-in-the-tenements-was-hard-and-brutal-29780548.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-02-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=independent&rft.atitle=Life+in+the+tenements+was+hard+and+brutal&rft.date=2013-11-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.ie%2Flifestyle%2Flife-in-the-tenements-was-hard-and-brutal-29780548.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2013" class="citation web cs1">Barry, Aoife (17 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thejournal.ie/henrietta-st-tenements-1175933-Nov2013/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The street was my playground": A journey back to the tenement days"</a>. <i>TheJournal.ie</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200220231237/https://www.thejournal.ie/henrietta-st-tenements-1175933-Nov2013/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-02-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheJournal.ie&rft.atitle=%22The+street+was+my+playground%22%3A+A+journey+back+to+the+tenement+days&rft.date=2013-11-17&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Aoife&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejournal.ie%2Fhenrietta-st-tenements-1175933-Nov2013%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2019" class="citation web cs1">Thomas, Cónal (3 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thejournal.ie/tenement-memories-4462849-Feb2019/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'A whole history to capture': Dublin's Tenement Museum wants your memories of tenement life"</a>. <i>TheJournal.ie</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200220231238/https://www.thejournal.ie/tenement-memories-4462849-Feb2019/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-02-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheJournal.ie&rft.atitle=%27A+whole+history+to+capture%27%3A+Dublin%27s+Tenement+Museum+wants+your+memories+of+tenement+life&rft.date=2019-02-03&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=C%C3%B3nal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejournal.ie%2Ftenement-memories-4462849-Feb2019%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATenement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girouard, p. 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maria Bogdani-Czepita and Zbigniew Zuziak, <i>Managing Historic Cities</i>, Kraków: International Cultural Centre, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788385739074" title="Special:BookSources/9788385739074">9788385739074</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IpuGAAAAIAAJ&q=building+called+kamienica">p. 194</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180514170145/https://books.google.com/books?id=IpuGAAAAIAAJ&q=building+called+kamienica&dq=building+called+kamienica">Archived</a> 2018-05-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tomasz Torbus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zq1NW-9-3dsC&dq=building+called+kamienica&pg=PA164"><i>Poland</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180514170145/https://books.google.com/books?id=zq1NW-9-3dsC&pg=PA164&dq=building+called+kamienica&sig=ACfU3U0ev4KtUsNWFS0mFtkmEVzTRcM0Jw">Archived</a> 2018-05-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Nelles guides, Munich: Nelles, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783886180882" title="Special:BookSources/9783886180882">9783886180882</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bauman, John F. "Introduction: The Eternal War on the Slums," <i>From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America</i>, ed. John F. Bauman, Roger Biles, and Kristin M. Szylvian, University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-02012-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-02012-1">0-271-02012-1</a>, pp. 1–17.</li> <li>Elkins, T. H. with Hofmeister, B. <i>Berlin: The Spatial Structure of a Divided City</i>, London/New York: Methuen, 1988, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-416-92220-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-416-92220-1">0-416-92220-1</a></li> <li>Girouard, Mark. <i>Cities and People: A Social and Architectural History</i>, New Haven, Connecticut/London: Yale University, 1985, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03502-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03502-5">978-0-300-03502-5</a></li> <li>Plunz, Richard A. "On the Uses and Abuses of Air: Perfecting the New York Tenement, 1850–1901," <i>Berlin/New York: Like and Unlike: Essays on Architecture and Art from 1870 to the Present</i>, ed. Josef Paul Kleihues and Christina Rathgeber, New York: Rizzoli, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-1657-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-1657-5">0-8478-1657-5</a>, pp. 159–79.</li> <li>Riis, Jacob. <i>The Children of the Poor: A Child Welfare Classic</i>, Pittsburgh: TCB Classics, 2018 [1892], <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-999-66040-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-999-66040-3">0-999-66040-3</a></li> <li>Worbs, Dietrich. "The Berlin <i>Mietskaserne</i> and Its Reforms," <i>Berlin/New York</i>, pp. 144–57.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Huchzermeyer, Marie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/Tenement-cities-:-from-19th-century-Berlin-to-21st-century-Nairobi/oclc/719863593"><i>Tenement cities: from 19th century Berlin to 21st century Nairobi</i></a>, Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781592218578" title="Special:BookSources/9781592218578">9781592218578</a>.</li> <li>Kearns, Kevin C. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8B4TAQAAIAAJ">Dublin Tenement Life: An Oral History of the Dublin Slums</a></i>, Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1994, repr. 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780717140749" title="Special:BookSources/9780717140749">9780717140749</a>.</li> <li>Lubove, Roy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/psq/article-abstract/79/2/293/7272184?login=true"><i>The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1890–1917</i></a>, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/233162">233162</a>.</li> <li>Worsdall, Frank. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/s6dfyhfd">The Tenement: A Way of Life: A Social, Historical and Architectural Study of Housing in Glasgow</a></i>, Glasgow: W. and R. Chambers, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780550203526" title="Special:BookSources/9780550203526">9780550203526</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Polland, Annie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_jewish_history/v098/98.2.polland.html">"Ivory Towers and Tenements: American Jewish History, Scholars and the Public,"</a> <i>American Jewish History</i> 98 (2014) 41-47: how museums interpret the tenements in New York City.</li> <li>Steinberg, Adam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/tph.2012.34.2.79">"What we talk about when we talk about food: Using food to teach history at the Tenement Museum,"</a> <i>Public Historian</i> 34.2 (2012) 79-89.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tenement&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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