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<span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Altruism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altruism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anonymity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anonymity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Anonymity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anonymity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><i>Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_anthropology" title="Category:Economic anthropology">a series</a> on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">applied</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">development <br />anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">Commodification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">Barter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_studies_of_finance" title="Social studies of finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embeddedness" title="Embeddedness">Embeddedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Redistribution (cultural anthropology)">Redistribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth#Anthropological_views" title="Wealth">Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_good" title="Limited good">Limited good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possessions" title="Inalienable possessions">Inalienable possessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_pathway_diversion" title="Commodity pathway diversion">Singularization <span style="font-size:85%;">(commodity pathway)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheres_of_exchange" title="Spheres of exchange">Spheres of exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">Cultural capital</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Provisioning systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunting-gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">Pastoralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralism" title="Nomadic pastoralism">Nomadic pastoralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_economy" title="Moral economy">Moral economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_economics" title="Peasant economics">Peasant economics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><i>Prestations</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kula_ring" title="Kula ring">Kula ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moka_exchange" title="Moka exchange">Moka exchange</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potlatch" title="Potlatch">Potlatch</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Gifting</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gifting_remittances" title="Gifting remittances">Gifting remittances</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Organ gifting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_money" title="Shell money">Shell money</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Provisioning</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ach%C3%A9_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Aché people">Aché people</a> (hunter-gatherers)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batek_people" title="Batek people">Batek people</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Colonialism and development</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Anti-Politics_Machine" title="The Anti-Politics Machine">The Anti-Politics Machine</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Europe_and_the_People_Without_History" title="Europe and the People Without History">Europe and the <br />People Without History</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Political economy</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_economy" title="Jim Crow economy">Jim Crow economy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_affluent_society" title="Original affluent society">Original affluent society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalist%E2%80%93substantivist_debate" title="Formalist–substantivist debate">Formalist–substantivist debate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_economics" title="Peasant economics">Peasant economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_poverty" title="Culture of poverty">Culture of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">State formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_commodification" title="Heritage commodification">Heritage commodification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Anthropology of development</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bohannan" title="Paul Bohannan">Paul Bohannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chayanov" title="Alexander Chayanov">Alexander Chayanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Diamond" title="Stanley Diamond">Stanley Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Firth" title="Raymond Firth">Raymond Firth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Godelier" title="Maurice Godelier">Maurice Godelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_I._Guyer" title="Jane I. Guyer">Jane I. Guyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Hart_(anthropologist)" title="Keith Hart (anthropologist)">Keith Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Marvin Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Mintz" title="Sidney Mintz">Sidney Mintz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_K._Schneider" title="Harold K. Schneider">Harold K. Schneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economic_%26_development_anthropology" title="Template:Economic & development anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economic_%26_development_anthropology" title="Template talk:Economic & development anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economic_%26_development_anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economic & development anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Several authors have used the terms <b>organ gifting</b> and "tissue gifting" to describe processes behind organ and tissue transfers that are not captured by more traditional terms such as <a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">donation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">transplantation</a>. The concept of "gift of life" in the U.S. refers to the fact that "transplantable organs must be given willingly, unselfishly, and anonymously, and any money that is exchanged is to be perceived as solely for operational costs, but never for the organs themselves".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Organ gifting" is proposed to contrast with organ <a href="/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">commodification</a>. The maintenance of a spirit of altruism in this context has been interpreted by some as a mechanism through which the economic relations behind organ/tissue production, distribution, and consumption can be disguised.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheper_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheper-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organ/tissue gifting differs from commodification in the sense that anonymity and social trust are emphasized to reduce the offer and request of monetary compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharp_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tober_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tober-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is reasoned that the implementation of the gift-giving analogy to organ transactions shows greater respect for the diseased body, honors the donor, and transforms the transaction into a morally acceptable and desirable act that is borne out of <a href="/wiki/Voluntarism_(philosophy)" title="Voluntarism (philosophy)">voluntarism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of gifting with regards to body parts or fluids was first analyzed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Titmuss" title="Richard Titmuss">Richard Titmuss</a> in his book titled <i>The Gift Relationship: from Human Blood to Social Policy</i>. Here the author highlights the negative effects of compensating blood donors and the benefits of maintaining a system where the donation of body tissues and fluids is seen in the form of a gift that is voluntarily and altruistically given to society.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Titmuss (1971) draws from Mauss's (1950) publication, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(Mauss_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Gift (Mauss book)">The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies</a></i>, to argue that when blood is given in the form of a gift, collective social relations are formed to maintain a sense of community.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Titmuss follows Mauss' (1950) ideas of gift giving as a system of total services (production, distribution, and consumption) where self-interest interacts with social and moral obligations that are collectively imposed to maintain social relationships and guarantee the reproduction of society.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Titmuss' work was very influential at a policy level. It motivated the <a href="/wiki/Nixon_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Nixon administration">Nixon administration</a> in the U.S. to reform its system of blood donation and led many people in the U.K. to oppose models of marketable blood donation systems.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept has been incorporated into the phrase "the gift of life" which was used to refer to multiple forms of organ, blood, tissue, semen, and cell line donations. The concept of gift is widely used in policies (such as the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Anatomical_Gift_Act" title="Uniform Anatomical Gift Act">Uniform Anatomical Gift Act</a>) regarding organ transplantation and the use of cadavers for medical studies. </p><p>Researchers from various disciplines have analyzed and critiqued the idea of organ gifting and this belief that gifting and organ commodification are mutually exclusive.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheper_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheper-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherry-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, Waldby and Mitchell, in their book <i>Tissue Economies: Blood, Organs, and Cell Lines in Late Capitalism</i>, have indicated that "we hope to complicate and disorganize the gift-commodity dichotomy, because we consider it an inadequate way to conceptualize the political economy of tissues in the modern world of globalized biotechnology".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Objects and their exchange serve multiple purposes and result in alternative values depending on the context.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilk_and_Cligget_2007_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilk_and_Cligget_2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other individuals have questioned the assumptions that link systems of organ gifting with the equitable distribution of human organs arguing that the voluntary and altruistic donation of organs does not necessarily imply the free transplantation of that organ.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherry-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, under current systems of healthcare in the U.S., not only are organ donations managed by private organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Network_for_Organ_Sharing" title="United Network for Organ Sharing">United Network for Organ Sharing</a> (UNOS), but organ transplantation is provided only to those who can afford it and in rare cases to those who desperately need it.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherry-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alienable/Inalienable_possessions"><span id="Alienable.2FInalienable_possessions"></span>Alienable/Inalienable possessions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Alienable/Inalienable possessions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout history, human organs have acquired different characteristics, acting as both alienable and <a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possessions" title="Inalienable possessions">inalienable possessions</a> depending on the temporal and spatial context.<sup id="cite_ref-Lock_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lock-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alienable possessions are objects that can be bought and sold, while inalienable possessions are things that must be kept due to their relationships with an individual's identity and origins.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 17th century, human organs were represented as inalienable possessions, that is, objects that could not be given away in exchange and their use by the medical profession was associated with violent actions.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, once the medical value of bodies was recognized, there was an increase in its commodification which was not legally acknowledged until the <a href="/wiki/Anatomy_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomy Act">Anatomy Act</a>, which prohibited the selling of bodies, was signed in 1832.<sup id="cite_ref-Lock2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lock2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reality, consensus over the sale of bodies and body parts had not been reached, and as Locke as argued, "competition over corpses and body parts existed because ideas about their value and beliefs about their alienability varied among contenders".<sup id="cite_ref-Lock2_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lock2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, different representations of organs and other body parts coexist blurring the lines between alienability and inalienability. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reciprocity">Reciprocity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reciprocity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> is recognized as one of the first authors interested in the study of <a href="/wiki/Gift_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Gift economies">gift economies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilk_and_Cligget_2007_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilk_and_Cligget_2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His main concern centered on individuals' need to provide gifts and the obligations to reciprocate them. He identified human obligation to give, receive, and reciprocate as the most important factor in the creation and maintenance of social ties. Reciprocation was mainly produced by the insertion of the giver's identity in the object that was given. The object maintained this essence (referred to as <i>hau</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Mana_(Oceanian_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mana (Oceanian mythology)">mana</a></i> by Mauss) of the giver which needed to return to him/her through reciprocation in the form of a counter-gift (another object, services, person, agreements, etc.). </p><p>Organ gifting entails two simultaneous gifts: the gift of the organ itself and the gift of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharp_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first form of gift is a transaction where the giver provides an object to the receiver. This action leads to the creation of a relationship among individuals where the receiver is compelled to provide a counter-gift.<sup id="cite_ref-Tober_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tober-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The obligation to return the gift has received various interpretations, but one common assumption is that the object that is given tends to keep a portion of the identity of the giver (hau used by Mauss).<sup id="cite_ref-Lock_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lock-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of organ gifting, this personalization of the gifted object reaches extreme proportions because the gift is actually a piece of the giver's body.<sup id="cite_ref-Lock_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lock-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(social_and_political_philosophy)" title="Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)">Reciprocity</a> tends to be discouraged in contemporary organ gifting, thus creating an irresoluble sense of debt in the receiver. This separation of the donor from the object being given was not always implemented, and in earlier cases of organ transplantation the receiver could obtain information from the donor and even meet.<sup id="cite_ref-Holtkamp_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holtkamp-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Holtkamp (2002) has argued, this arrangement created a feeling of debt in the receiver (and close kin) and led to the creation of obligations. The discouragement of reciprocal relationships between giver and receiver is produced through what Sharp (2001) has labeled etiquettes of dehumanization where the identities of the donors are removed from the organs. </p><p>Organs, then, become unreciprocated gifts. According to Mauss, the unreciprocated gift makes the person who has accepted it inferior, especially when its acceptance is done without the thought of returning it.<sup id="cite_ref-Mauss_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mauss-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Mauss' words, "Charity is still wounding for him who has accepted it, and the whole tendency of our morality is to strive to do away with the unconscious and injurious patronage of the rich almsgiver".<sup id="cite_ref-Mauss_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mauss-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prohibition, or in some cases delay, of the giver/receiver interaction creates a myriad of situations. The dehumanization of organs and the removal of all possible donor characteristics do not prevent receivers from imagining the lives of the individuals who provided the organs.<sup id="cite_ref-Tober_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tober-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Holtkamp_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holtkamp-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have shed light on cases where organ receivers feel the essence of the organ donors inside them after transplantation.<sup id="cite_ref-Holtkamp_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holtkamp-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The close kin of donors who have died also maintain the idea that the person in their family who has died continues to live in the body of someone else. </p><p>Organ gifting entails not only the gifting of the organ itself, but also the "gift of life".<sup id="cite_ref-Sharp_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, the organ not only represents the transference of an object from one person to the other as it was mentioned earlier, but the possession of this object in turn allows the receiver to obtain a second "gift", the opportunity to live. The obligation to reciprocate is still present in this form of gifting, but the possibility of providing a counter-gift of equal or greater value is practically impossible. The use of the metaphor "gift of life" transforms the nature of the object into a mystical one as the implication is that life emanates from a supernatural source.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is further exacerbated by the use of this same metaphor to express religious beliefs like rebirth and reincarnation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Value">Value</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Discussions over value are common in studies on organ gifting. As Lock has indicated, the main reason for this is that "human body parts do not have universal value, and once, potentially available for conversion into circulating commodities, their worth, and more basically the question of whether or not they are alienable, is open to dispute".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important factor to consider is the fact that organ gifting differs from the gifting of blood or semen in the sense that organs are scarce. It is this scarcity which creates stronger relationships between the giver and the receiver because it endows the object that is being transferred with greater value. As <a href="/wiki/Arjun_Appadurai" title="Arjun Appadurai">Arjun Appadurai</a> (1986) has indicated, the link between exchange and value is created by politics, thus making value an issue of judgment. In the case of organ exchange, when the demand, whether real or fictitious, exceeds the supply, the object is endowed with greater value. In other words, objects can be controlled to create value.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several authors have examined the issue of organ scarcity pointing to the different ways in which it is publicly exacerbated for profit-driven interests.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheper_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheper-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another factor that can increase the value of the object, are the characteristics of the object itself. As <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Sahlins</a> (1972) has indicated, the material exchanged influences the relationship of exchange. Spielman (2002) has discussed four main qualities of social valuables that also allude to the different ways in which the object exchanged can determine the relationship maintained between the giver and receiver: 1. Social valuables must have unique properties that distinguish their production 2. Distance, in terms of obtaining the materials necessary for production, plays a role in the establishment of value 3. The transformative aspects of production and the role of craftspeople need to be considered in the creation of value 4. Value is also influenced by the modifications the good suffers as it circulates. </p><p>This last point has been examined by Appadurai through his concept of the social lives of objects where objects are seen as circulating in different regimes of value in space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Appadurai has indicated, "commodity is not one kind of thing rather than another, but one phase in the life of some things".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of organ gifting, it is possible to see the biographical transformations of objects in clearer form as the object in question comes from a person and becomes part of another person.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organs can be both gifts and commodities depending on the context in question.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The value of the object responds to the social relationships and contracts present in this context. This is the reason why not all organ gifting is visualized in the same form and individuals make distinctions between cadaveric donations, kin donations, and anonymous donations. </p><p>Furthermore, organ gifting raises additional concerns regarding the biographies of objects because the object that is given is actually a part of another person.<sup id="cite_ref-Lock_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lock-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interest over the life of the object includes an interest over the life of the individual who provided it as well. This has been documented by researchers examining the processes through which organ procurers select donors.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharp_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Sharp has indicated, "through organ procurement, human bodies are commodified and codified following a relatively strict hierarchy of medical value and social worth".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Age, race and ethnicity all play a role in the identification of ideal candidates. Organ receivers are also interested in obtaining information about donors. As Lock has mentioned, "organ recipients worry about the gender, ethnicity, skin color, personality and social status of their donors, and many believe that their mode of being-in-the-world is radically changed after a transplant, thanks to the power of diffusing form the organ they have received".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Altruism">Altruism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Altruism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a> is constantly referenced by proponents of organ gifting.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Authors such as Sahlins (1972), incorporated Maussian concepts of gifting and reciprocity and expanded them to describe three different types of transactions: generalized reciprocity (system of giving without taking account of how much is given), balanced reciprocity (direct exchange, expectation of equal value), and negative reciprocity (obtaining something for nothing). Individuals engage in each one of these transaction depending on the person they are exchanging with and the social distance involved. Sahlins' (1972) work has pointed to the need to examine the different types of relationships behind gift-giving and the characteristics of the transaction. In the case of generalized reciprocity, altruistic relationships are present and the expectation of reciprocity is indefinite.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The value of the object can be increased by the way in which it is given and several authors have pointed to the fact that organs given in altruistic manner acquire greater social worth.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organs given in altruistic manner are thought to say something about the moral character of the people who give them. Furthermore, the giving of organs without any form of compensation erases the possibility that the giver will have any form of vested interest in the transaction.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherry-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Munson has presented a list of the common claims made by individuals arguing against the selling of kidneys: "a paid donor loses the psychological benefits that reward a voluntary donor; the practice reduces altruism in the society; the quality of donated kidneys will decline; the donor may suffer harm and become a burden to society; selling a kidney involves putting a price on the priceless; organ selling treats the human body as a commodity and thus reduces our respect for people".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed that the commodification of organ donations could lead the organ donors to lie on issues pertaining to their health in order to obtain money in exchange for their organs, thus making the quality of the organ questionable.<sup id="cite_ref-Tober_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tober-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A direct relationship between commodification and quality is thus created where the social trust present in altruistic relationships is missing. Goodwin has argued that this distinction between commodification and altruism is based on a common assumption socially maintained regarding altruism where it is thought as "pure and unspoiled by secondary or spurious motivations".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anonymity">Anonymity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Anonymity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">Anonymity</a> is an important component of organ gifting and it is thought to foster the social well-being of donors, recipients, and close kin.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharp2_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharp2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anonymity is related to the eradication of reciprocal relations between giver and receiver where the origin of the object that is exchanged is erased by eliminating the identity of the giver. According to some authors, this is currently done to promote better coping mechanisms for the recipient and close kin as well as to maintain standardized operating procedures by organ procurers. The idea is that anonymity will protect organ procurers "from close encounters with the animistic, magic-infused thinking about transplanted organs in which the givers and receivers of cadaver organs often engage".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other authors have argued that the use of the gift-giving metaphor in conjunction with the enforcement of anonymous donations lead to the obscuring of the origins of body parts and the unequal power relations behind their donation and reception.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheper_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheper-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sharp2_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharp2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharp (2001:116)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scheper-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scheper_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheper_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheper_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheper_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Scheper-Hughes (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharp-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharp_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharp_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharp_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharp_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharp (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tober-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tober_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tober_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tober_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tober_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tober (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerrand (1994:49)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Titmuss (1971)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see also Waldby and Mitchell (2006:10-18)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see also Randhawa (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waldby and Mitchell (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cherry-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cherry_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cherry_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cherry_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cherry_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cherry (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waldby and Mitchell (2006:9)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilk_and_Cligget_2007-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilk_and_Cligget_2007_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilk_and_Cligget_2007_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilk and Cligget (2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lock-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lock_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lock_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lock_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lock_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lock (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Godelier (1999:33)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weiner (1992)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lock (2002:66)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lock2-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lock2_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lock2_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lock (2002:67)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holtkamp-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holtkamp_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holtkamp_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holtkamp_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Holtkamp (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mauss-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mauss_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mauss_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mauss (1950:65)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fox and Swazey (1992)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lock (2002:65)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Appadurai (1986)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goodwin (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Appadurai (1986: 4)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Appadurai (1986:17)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tober (2001:142)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wadby and Mitchell (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharp(2001:118)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lock (2002: 72)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilkinson (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sahlins (1972:194)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tober (2001:155)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Munson (2002:112)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goodwin (2006:59)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharp2-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharp2_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharp2_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharp (2001:115)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fox and Swazey (1992:43)</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Appadurai, Arjun – (1986). Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value. <i>In</i> The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. A. Appadurai, ed. pp. 3–63. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Cherry, Mark – (2003). <i>Kidney for Sale by Owner: Human Organs, Transplantation, and the Market</i>. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.</li> <li>Fox, R. and J. Swazey – (1992). <i>Spare Parts: Organ Replacement in American Society</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Godelier, Maurice – (1999). <i>The Enigma of the Gift</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Goodwin, Michele – (2006). <i>Black Markets: The Supply and Demand of Body Parts</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Holtkamp, Sue – (2002). <i>Wrapped in Mourning: The Gift of Life and Organ Donor Family Trauma</i>. Taylor and Francis Group.</li> <li>Lock, Margaret – (2002). The Alienation of Body Tissue and the Biopolitics of Immortalized Cell Lines. <i>In</i> Commodifying Bodies, Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Loic Wacquant, eds. pp. 63–91. London: SAGE.</li> <li>Mauss, Marcel – (1950). <i>The Gift. The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies</i>. New York: W.W. Norton.</li> <li>Munson, Ronald – (2002). <i>Raising the Dead: Organ Transplants, Ethics, and Society</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Randhawa, Gurch – (2000). The 'Gift' of Body Organs. <i>In</i> Social Policy and the Body: Transitions in Corporeal Discourse, Kathryn Ellis and Hartley Dean, eds. pp. 45–62. London: Macmillan Press.</li> <li>Sahlins, Marshall – (1972). On the Sociology of Primitive Exchange. <i>In</i> Stone Age Economics. M. Sahlins, ed. pp. 185–230. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.</li> <li>Scheper-Hughes, Nancy – (2002). Commodity Fetishism in Organs Trafficking. <i>In</i> Commodifying Bodies, Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Loic Wacquant, eds. pp. 31–62. London: SAGE.</li> <li>Sharp, Lesley – (2001). Commodified Kin: Death, Mourning, and Competing Claims on the Bodies of Organ Donors in the United States. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 103(1):112-133.</li> <li>Spielman, Katherine – (2002). Feasting, Craft Specialization, and the Ritual Mode of Production in Small-Scale Societies. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104(1):195-207.</li> <li>Titmuss, Richard – (1971). <i>The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy</i>. New York: Pantheon Books.</li> <li>Tober, Diane – (2001). Semen as Gift, Semen as Goods: Reproductive Workers and the Market in Altruism. <i>Body and Society</i> 7(2-3): 137–160.</li> <li>Waldby, Catherine and Robert Mitchell – (2006). <i>Tissue Economies: Blood, Organs, and Cell Lines in Late Capitalism</i>. Durham: Duke University Press.</li> <li>Weiner, Annette – (1992). <i>Inalienable Possessions: The Paradox of Keeping-While-Giving</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Wilk, Richard and Lisa Cliggett – (2007). <i>Economies and Cultures: Foundations of Economic Anthropology</i>. Cambridge: Westview Press.</li> <li>Wilkinson, Stephen – (2003). <i>Bodies for Sale: Ethics and Exploitation in the Human Body Trade</i>. New York: Routledge.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.giftofhope.org/">Gift of Hope</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lifegift.org/">Life Gift</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&oldid=1214709777">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organ_gifting&oldid=1214709777</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Organ_donation" title="Category:Organ donation">Organ donation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_ethics" title="Category:Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 March 2024, at 17:35<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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