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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 3.2 FINAL//EN"> <html> <head> <title> Mongolia</title> <script> var _paq = window._paq = window._paq || []; /* tracker methods like "setCustomDimension" should be called before "trackPageView" */ _paq.push(['trackPageView']); _paq.push(['enableLinkTracking']); (function() { var u="https://a.advameg.com/"; _paq.push(['setTrackerUrl', u+'matomo.php']); _paq.push(['setSiteId', '22']); var d=document, g=d.createElement('script'), s=d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; g.async=true; g.src=u+'matomo.js'; s.parentNode.insertBefore(g,s); })(); </script> <noscript><p><img referrerpolicy="no-referrer-when-downgrade" src="https://a.advameg.com/matomo.php?idsite=22&rec=1" style="border:0;" alt="" /></p></noscript> </head> <body> <h1>MONGOLIA - A Country Study</h1> <script type="text/javascript"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="http://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/show_ads.js"> </script> <p><a href="/">Country Listing</a></p> <ul> <li><a name="mn0000" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8868.html">Mongolia</a> <li><a name="mn0001" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8869.html">Foreword</a> <li><a name="mn0002" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8870.html">Acknowledgments</a> <li><a name="mn0003" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8871.html">Preface</a> <li><a name="mn0004" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8872.html">Table A. Chronology of Important Events</a> <li><a name="mn0005" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8873.html">Country Profile</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0005" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8873.html">COUNTRY</a> <li><a name="mn0006" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8874.html">GEOGRAPHY</a> <li><a name="mn0006" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8874.html">SOCIETY</a> <li><a name="mn0007" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8875.html">ECONOMY</a> <li><a name="mn0008" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8876.html">TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS</a> <li><a name="mn0009" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8877.html">GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS</a> <li><a name="mn0010" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8878.html">NATIONAL SECURITY</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0011" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8879.html">Introduction</a> <li><a name="mn0012" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8880.html">Chapter 1. Historical Setting</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0013" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8881.html">Early Development, ca. 220 B.C.-A.D. 1206</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0013" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8881.html">Origins of the Mongols</a> <li><a name="mn0014" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8882.html">Xiongnu and Yuezhi</a> <li><a name="mn0015" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8883.html">Donghu, Toba, and Ruruan</a> <li><a name="mn0016" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8884.html">Rise of the T黵k</a> <li><a name="mn0017" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8885.html">Influence of Tang China</a> <li><a name="mn0018" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8886.html">Kitan and Jurchen</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0019" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8887.html">The Era of Chinggis Khan, 1206-27</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0019" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8887.html">Rise of Chinggis Khan</a> <li><a name="mn0020" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8888.html">Early Wars in China</a> <li><a name="mn0021" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8889.html">Conquest of Khwarizm and Reconnaissance into Europe</a> <li><a name="mn0022" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8890.html">The Last Campaign of Chinggis Khan</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0023" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8891.html">Successors of Chinggis, 1228-59</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0023" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8891.html">Ogedei and Continuing Conquests</a> <li><a name="mn0024" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8892.html">Subetei and the European Expedition</a> <li><a name="mn0025" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8893.html">Reign of Kuyuk</a> <li><a name="mn0026" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8894.html">Mengke and the War in China</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0027" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8895.html">Khubilai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty, 1261-1368</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0027" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8895.html">A New Khan</a> <li><a name="mn0028" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8896.html">The Yuan Dynasty</a> <li><a name="mn0029" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8897.html">The Ilkhans</a> <li><a name="mn0030" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8898.html">The Golden Horde</a> <li><a name="mn0031" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8899.html">The Mongol Decline</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0032" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8900.html">Mongolia in Transition, 1368-1911</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0032" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8900.html">Return to Nomadic Patterns</a> <li><a name="mn0033" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8901.html">Caught Between the Russians and the Manchus</a> <li><a name="mn0034" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8902.html">The End of Independence</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0035" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8903.html">Modern Mongolia, 1911-84</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0035" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8903.html">Period of Autonomy, 1911-21</a> <li><a name="mn0036" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8904.html">Revolutionary Transformation, 1921-24</a> <li><a name="mn0037" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8905.html">Consolidation of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1925- 28</a> <li><a name="mn0038" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8906.html">Purges of the Opposition, 1928-32</a> <li><a name="mn0039" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8907.html">Economic Gradualism and National Defense, 1932-45</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0039" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8907.html">The New Turn Policy, 1932-40</a> <li><a name="mn0040" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8908.html">National Defense, 1940-45</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0041" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8909.html">Peacetime Development, 1946-52</a> <li><a name="mn0042" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8910.html">Socialist Construction under Tsedenbal, 1952-84</a> </ul></ul> <li><a name="mn0043" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8911.html">Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0044" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8912.html">Geography</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0044" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8912.html">Landforms</a> <li><a name="mn0045" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8913.html">Climate</a> <li><a name="mn0046" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8914.html">Environmental Concerns</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0047" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8915.html">Population</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0047" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8915.html">Vital Rates</a> <li><a name="mn0048" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8916.html">Pro-natal Policies</a> <li><a name="mn0049" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8917.html">Population Distribution</a> <li><a name="mn0050" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8918.html">The Urban Population</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0051" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8919.html">Ethnic and Linguistic Groups</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0051" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8919.html">Mongols and Kazakhs</a> <li><a name="mn0052" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8920.html">Chinese, Russians, and Others</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0053" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8921.html">Society</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0053" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8921.html">Pastoral Nomadism</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0054" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8922.html">Pastoralism as a Cultural System</a> <li><a name="mn0055" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8923.html">Pastoralism in Practice</a> <li><a name="mn0056" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8924.html">Constraints on Herding</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0057" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8925.html">Traditional Patterns</a> <li><a name="mn0058" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8926.html">Planned Modernization</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0059" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8927.html">Unifying Structures</a> <li><a name="mn0060" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8928.html">Increasing Social Differentiation</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0061" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8929.html">Collectivized Farming and Herding</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0062" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8930.html">Modernized Nomads</a> <li><a name="mn0063" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8931.html">Work Collectives</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0064" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8932.html">Kinship, Family, and Marriage</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0064" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8932.html">Kinship</a> <li><a name="mn0065" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8933.html">Family Structure</a> <li><a name="mn0066" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8934.html">Marriage</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0067" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8935.html">Position of Women</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0067" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8935.html">Traditional Subordination</a> <li><a name="mn0068" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8936.html">Education and Employment</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0069" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8937.html">Social Mobility</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0069" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8937.html">High Rates of Mobility</a> <li><a name="mn0070" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8938.html">Channels of Social Mobility</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0071" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8939.html">Cultural Unity and Mongol Identity</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0071" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8939.html">Implicit Nationalism</a> <li><a name="mn0072" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8940.html">Promotion of Traditional Festivals</a> </ul></ul> <li><a name="mn0073" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8941.html">Religion</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0073" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8941.html">Buddhism</a> <li><a name="mn0074" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8942.html">The Suppression of Buddhism</a> <li><a name="mn0075" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8943.html">Uses of Buddhism</a> <li><a name="mn0076" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8944.html">Religious Survivals</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0077" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8945.html">Health and Welfare</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0077" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8945.html">Health-Care Systems</a> <li><a name="mn0078" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8946.html">Precautions Against AIDS</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0079" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8947.html">Education</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0079" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8947.html">The School System</a> <li><a name="mn0080" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8948.html">Higher Education</a> <li><a name="mn0081" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8949.html">Study in the Soviet Union</a> <li><a name="mn0082" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8950.html">Mongolian Science</a> <li><a name="mn0083" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8951.html">Science, Progress, and Tradition</a> </ul></ul> <li><a name="mn0084" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8952.html">Chapter 3. The Economy</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0085" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8953.html">Socialist Framework of the Economy</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0085" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8953.html">Role of the Government</a> <li><a name="mn0086" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8954.html">Planning</a> <li><a name="mn0087" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8955.html">Budget</a> <li><a name="mn0088" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8956.html">Structure of the Economy</a> <li><a name="mn0089" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8957.html">Economic Reforms</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0090" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8958.html">Natural resources</a> <li><a name="mn0091" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8959.html">Agriculture</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0092" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8960.html">Crop Production</a> <li><a name="mn0093" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8961.html">Animal Husbandry</a> <li><a name="mn0094" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8962.html">Forestry</a> <li><a name="mn0095" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8963.html">Fishing</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0095" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8963.html">Industry</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0096" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8964.html">Light Industry</a> <li><a name="mn0097" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8965.html">Mining</a> <li><a name="mn0098" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8966.html">Energy</a> <li><a name="mn0099" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8967.html">Construction</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0100" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8968.html">Services</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0100" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8968.html">Banking and Insurance</a> <li><a name="mn0101" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8969.html">Domestic Trade and Other Services</a> <li><a name="mn0102" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8970.html">Retail Trade and Consumption</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0103" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8971.html">Labor Force</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0103" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8971.html">Composition</a> <li><a name="mn0104" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8972.html">Labor Force Policy and Planning</a> <li><a name="mn0105" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8973.html">Working Conditions and Income</a> <li><a name="mn0106" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8974.html">Trade Unions</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0107" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8975.html">Foreign Economic Relations and Comecon</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0108" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8976.html">Participation in Comecon</a> <li><a name="mn0109" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8977.html">Foreign Assistance, Investment, and Joint Ventures</a> <li><a name="mn0110" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8978.html">Exports and Imports</a> <li><a name="mn0111" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8979.html">Trading Partners</a> <li><a name="mn0112" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8980.html">Tourism</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0112" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8980.html">Transportation</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0113" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8981.html">Roads</a> <li><a name="mn0114" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8982.html">Railroads</a> <li><a name="mn0115" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8983.html">Inland Waterways</a> <li><a name="mn0116" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8984.html">Civil Aviation</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0117" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8985.html">Telecommunications</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0118" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8986.html">Chapter 4. Government and Politics</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0119" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8987.html">Government Structure</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0119" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8987.html">Form of Government</a> <li><a name="mn0120" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8988.html">Constitutional Framework</a> <li><a name="mn0121" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8989.html">Major State Organizations</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0122" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8990.html">Legislative</a> <li><a name="mn0123" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8991.html">Executive</a> <li><a name="mn0124" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8992.html">Judicial</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0125" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8993.html">Local Administration</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0126" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8994.html">Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0127" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8995.html">Membership</a> <li><a name="mn0128" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8996.html">Party Congress</a> <li><a name="mn0129" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8997.html">Central Committee</a> <li><a name="mn0130" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8998.html">Political Bureau and Secretariat</a> <li><a name="mn0131" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-8999.html">Regional and Local Party Organizations</a> <li><a name="mn0132" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9000.html">Mass Organizations</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0132" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9000.html">Youth Organizations</a> <li><a name="mn0133" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9001.html">Mongolian-Soviet Friendship Society</a> <li><a name="mn0134" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9002.html">Women's Organizations</a> <li><a name="mn0135" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9003.html">Labor Organizations</a> <li><a name="mn0136" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9004.html">Other Mass Organizations</a> </ul></ul> <li><a name="mn0137" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9005.html">The Political Process</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0138" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9006.html">Democratic Centralism</a> <li><a name="mn0139" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9007.html">Political Issues</a> <li><a name="mn0140" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9008.html">Role of the Military</a> <li><a name="mn0141" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9009.html">General Political Values and Attitudes</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0142" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9010.html">Foreign Policy</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0143" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9011.html">Motivation and Goals</a> <li><a name="mn0144" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9012.html">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a> <li><a name="mn0145" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9013.html">Foreign Relations</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0145" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9013.html">Soviet Union</a> <li><a name="mn0146" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9014.html">China</a> <li><a name="mn0147" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9015.html">United States</a> <li><a name="mn0148" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9016.html">Other Countries</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0149" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9017.html">International Organizations</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0150" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9018.html">The Media</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0151" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9019.html">Information Policy</a> <li><a name="mn0152" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9020.html">Major Channels</a> <li><a name="mn0153" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9021.html">Foreign Sources</a> </ul></ul> <li><a name="mn0154" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9022.html">Chapter 5. National Security</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0155" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9023.html">The Armed Forces</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0155" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9023.html">Historical Traditions</a> <li><a name="mn0156" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9024.html">Beginning of Modern Military Practices, 1911-21</a> <li><a name="mn0157" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9025.html">The Mongolian Army, 1921-68</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0157" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9025.html">Early Development</a> <li><a name="mn0158" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9026.html">Internal Discord and War with Japan</a> <li><a name="mn0159" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9027.html">Postwar Developments</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0160" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9028.html">Organization since 1968</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0161" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9029.html">Personnel</a> <li><a name="mn0162" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9030.html">Education and Training</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0163" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9031.html">Civil-Military Relations</a> <li><a name="mn0164" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9032.html">Economic Role</a> <li><a name="mn0165" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9033.html">Threat Perception</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0166" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9034.html">Criminal Justice and Public Security</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0167" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9035.html">The Legal System</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0167" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9035.html">Criminal Code</a> <li><a name="mn0168" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9036.html">Criminal Court System</a> </ul> <li><a name="mn0169" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9037.html">The Penal System</a> <li><a name="mn0169" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9037.html">Law Enforcement</a> <ul> <li><a name="mn0170" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9038.html">The Security System</a> <li><a name="mn0171" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9039.html">Auxiliary Security Forces</a> <li><a name="mn0172" href="../../cgi-bin/query/r-9040.html">Incidence of Crime</a> </ul></ul></ul> <li><a href="mongolia/mn_appen.html">Appendix. Tables</a>  <li><a href="mongolia/mn_bibl.html">Bibliography</a> <li><a href="mongolia/mn_glos.html">Glossary</a> </ul> </body> </html>