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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Load-following_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Load-following power plants</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Load-following_power_plants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Load-following power plants subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Load-following_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gas_turbine_power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_turbine_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Gas turbine power plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_turbine_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diesel_and_gas_engine_power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diesel_and_gas_engine_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Diesel and gas engine power plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diesel_and_gas_engine_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydroelectric_power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydroelectric_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Hydroelectric power plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydroelectric_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coal-fired_power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coal-fired_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Coal-fired power plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coal-fired_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Nuclear power plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Boiling_water_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boiling_water_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Boiling water reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boiling_water_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pressurized_water_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pressurized_water_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Pressurized water reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pressurized_water_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pressurized_heavy_water_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pressurized_heavy_water_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>Pressurized heavy water reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pressurized_heavy_water_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_thermal_power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_thermal_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Solar thermal power plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_thermal_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fuel_cell_power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fuel_cell_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Fuel cell power plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fuel_cell_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_PV_and_wind_power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_PV_and_wind_power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Solar PV and wind power plants</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Solar_PV_and_wind_power_plants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Solar PV and wind power plants subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Solar_PV_and_wind_power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Solar_and_wind_intensive_smart_grids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_and_wind_intensive_smart_grids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Solar and wind intensive smart grids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_and_wind_intensive_smart_grids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric_vehicle_batteries_as_distributed_load_following_or_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_vehicle_batteries_as_distributed_load_following_or_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Electric vehicle batteries as distributed load following or storage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_vehicle_batteries_as_distributed_load_following_or_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Load_following_power_plant&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Load following power plant">Load following power plant</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Power plant that adjusts output based on demand</div> <p>A <b>load-following power plant</b>, regarded as producing <a href="/wiki/Merit_order" title="Merit order">mid-merit</a> or mid-priced electricity, is a <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plant</a> that adjusts its power output as demand for <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> fluctuates throughout the day.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Load-following plants are typically in between <a href="/wiki/Base_load_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Base load power plant">base load</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peaking_power_plant" title="Peaking power plant">peaking power plants</a> in efficiency, speed of start-up and shut-down, construction cost, cost of electricity and <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factor</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Base_load_and_peaking_power_plants">Base load and peaking power plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Base load and peaking power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Base_load_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Base load power plant">Base load power plants</a> are <a href="/wiki/Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">dispatchable</a> plants that tend to operate at maximum output.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They generally shut down or reduce power only to perform maintenance or repair or due to grid constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Power plants operated mostly in this way include <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">run-of-the-river hydroelectric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">combined cycle</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> plants.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peaking_power_plant" title="Peaking power plant">Peaking power plants</a> operate only during times of peak demand. In countries with widespread <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a>, demand peaks around the middle of the afternoon, so a typical peaking power plant may start up a couple of hours before this point and shut down a couple of hours after.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The duration of operation for peaking plants varies from a good portion of the waking day to only a couple of dozen hours per year. </p><p>Peaking power plants include hydroelectric and <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a> power plants. Many gas turbine power plants can be fueled with natural gas, fuel oil, and/or <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel</a>, allowing greater flexibility in choice of operation- for example, while most gas turbine plants primarily burn natural gas, a supply of fuel oil and/or diesel is sometimes kept on hand in case the gas supply is interrupted.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other gas turbines can only burn a single fuel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Load-following_power_plants">Load-following power plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Load-following power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By way of contrast, load-following power plants usually run during the day and early evening, and are operated in direct response to changing demand for power supply. They either shut down or greatly curtail output during the night and early morning, when the demand for electricity is the lowest. The exact hours of operation depend on numerous factors. One of the most important factors for a particular plant is how efficiently it can convert fuel into electricity. The most efficient plants, which are almost invariably the least costly to run per <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt-hour" title="Kilowatt-hour">kilowatt-hour</a> produced, are brought online first. </p><p>As demand increases, the next most efficient plants are brought on line and so on. The status of the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grid</a> in that region, especially how much base load generating capacity it has, and the variation in demand are also very important. An additional factor for operational variability is that demand does not vary just between night and day. There are significant variations in the time of year and day of the week. A region that has large variations in demand will require a large load following or peaking power plant capacity because base load power plants can only cover the capacity equal to that needed during times of lowest demand. </p><p>Load-following power plants can be hydroelectric power plants, <a href="/wiki/Diesel_generator" title="Diesel generator">diesel and gas engine</a> power plants, combined cycle gas turbine power plants and steam turbine power plants that run on natural gas or heavy <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oil</a>, although heavy fuel oil plants make up a very small portion of the energy mix. A relatively efficient model of gas turbine that runs on natural gas can also make a decent load-following plant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gas_turbine_power_plants">Gas turbine power plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gas turbine power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gas turbine power plants are the most flexible in terms of adjusting power level, but are also among the most expensive to operate. Therefore, they are generally used as "peaking" units at times of maximum power demand or <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">Combined cycle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">cogeneration</a> power plants where turbine exhaust waste heat can be economically used to generate additional power and thermal energy for process or space heating. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diesel_and_gas_engine_power_plants">Diesel and gas engine power plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Diesel and gas engine power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diesel and gas engine power plants can be used for base load to stand-by power production due to their high overall flexibility. Such power plants can be started rapidly to meet the grid demands. These engines can be operated efficiently on a wide variety of fuels, adding to their flexibility. </p><p>Some applications are: base load power generation, wind-diesel, load following, cogeneration and trigeneration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydroelectric_power_plants">Hydroelectric power plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hydroelectric power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectric</a> power plants can operate as base load, load following or peaking power plants. They have the ability to start within minutes, and in some cases seconds. How the plant operates depends heavily on its water supply, as many plants do not have enough water to operate near their full capacity on a continuous basis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Where <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric dam">hydroelectric dams</a> or associated reservoirs exist, these can often be backed up, reserving the hydro draw for a peak time. This introduces ecological and mechanical stress, so is practiced less today than previously. Lakes and man-made reservoirs used for hydropower come in all sizes, holding enough water for as little as a one-day supply (a diurnal peak variance), or as much as a year's supply, allowing for seasonal peak variance. </p><p>A plant with a reservoir that holds less than the annual river flow may change its operating style depending on the season of the year. For example, the plant may operate as a peaking plant during the dry season, as a base load plant during the wet season and as a load-following plant between seasons. A plant with a large reservoir may operate independently of wet and dry seasons, such as operating at maximum capacity during peak heating or cooling seasons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When electrical generation supplying the grid and the consumption or load on the electrical grid are in balance, the frequency of the alternating current is at its normal rate (either 50 or 60 hertz). Hydroelectric power plants can be utilized for making extra revenue in an electric grid with erratic grid frequency. When grid frequency is above normal, e.g. Indian grid frequency is exceeding the rated 50 Hz for most of the duration in a month/day,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the extra power available can be consumed by adding extra load, say agriculture water pumps, to the grid and this new energy draw is available at nominal price or no price. However, there may not be a guarantee of continued supply at that price when the grid frequency falls below normal, which would then call for a higher price.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To arrest the fall of frequency below normal, the available hydro power plants are kept in no load/nominal load operation and the load is automatically ramped up or down strictly following the grid frequency, i.e. the hydro units would run at no load condition when frequency is above 50 Hz and generate power up to full load in case the grid frequency is below 50 Hz. Thus a utility can draw two or more times energy from the grid by loading the hydro units less than 50% of the duration and the effective use of available water is enhanced more than twice the conventional peak load operation.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Baltwg.png" class="mw-file-description" title="BPA Daily Peak Load with large Hydro, base load Thermal generation and intermittent Wind power. Hydro is load-following and managing the peaks, with some response from base load thermal.[5]"><img alt="BPA Daily Peak Load with large Hydro, base load Thermal generation and intermittent Wind power. Hydro is load-following and managing the peaks, with some response from base load thermal.[5]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Baltwg.png" decoding="async" width="755" height="477" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="477" /></a></span> </p><p>Example of daily peak load (for the <a href="/wiki/Bonneville_Power_Administration" title="Bonneville Power Administration">Bonneville Power Administration</a>) with large hydro, base load thermal generation and intermittent wind power. Hydro is load following and managing the peaks, with some response from base load thermal. Note that total generation is always greater than the total BPA load because most of the time BPA is a net exporter of energy. The BPA load does not include scheduled energy to other balancing authority areas.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coal-fired_power_plants">Coal-fired power plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Coal-fired power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Load-following_power_plant" title="Special:EditPage/Load-following power plant">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Load-following+power+plant%22">"Load-following power plant"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Load-following+power+plant%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Load-following+power+plant%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Load-following+power+plant%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Load-following+power+plant%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Load-following+power+plant%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Large size coal fired thermal power plants can also be used as load following / variable load power stations to varying extents, with <a href="/wiki/Anthracite" title="Anthracite">hard coal</a> fueled plants typically being significantly more flexible than <a href="/wiki/Lignite" title="Lignite">lignite</a> fueled coal plants. Some of the features which may be found in coal plants that have been optimized for load following include: </p> <ul><li><b>Sliding pressure operation:</b> Sliding pressure operation of the steam generator allows the power plant to generate electricity without much deterioration in fuel efficiency at part load operation down to 75% of the <a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">nameplate capacity</a>.</li> <li><b>Over loading capability:</b> The power plants are generally designed to run at 5 to 7% above the name plate rating for 5% duration in a year</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Utility_frequency" title="Utility frequency">Frequency</a> follow governor controls:</b> The load generation can be automatically varied to suit the grid frequency needs.</li> <li><b>Two shift daily operation for five days in a week:</b> The needed warm and hot start up of these power stations are designed to take lesser time to achieve full load operation. Thus these power plants are not strictly base load power generation units.</li> <li><b>HP/LP steam bypass systems:</b> This feature allows the steam <a href="/wiki/Turbo_generator" title="Turbo generator">turbo generator</a> to reduce the load quickly and allows the <a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">steam generator</a> to adjust to the load requirement with a lag.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_power_plants">Nuclear power plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nuclear power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, nuclear power plants were built as baseload plants, without load following capability to keep the design simple. Their startup or shutdown took many hours as they were designed to operate at maximum power, and heating up steam generators to the desired temperature took time.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nuclear power generation has been also portrayed as inflexible by anti-nuclear activists and the German Federal Environment Ministry, while others claimed "that the plants might clog the power grid".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern nuclear plants with light water reactors are designed to have maneuvering capabilities in the 30-100% range with 5%/minute slope, up to 140 MW/minute.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nuclear power plants in France operate in load-following mode and so participate in the primary and secondary frequency control. Some units follow a variable load program with one or two large power changes per day. Some designs allow for rapid changes of power level around rated power, a capability that is usable for frequency regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more efficient solution is to maintain the primary circuit at full power and to use the excess power for cogeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While most nuclear power plants in operation as of early 2000's were already <i>designed</i> with strong load following capabilities, they might have not been <i>used</i> as such for purely economic reasons: nuclear power generation is composed almost entirely of fixed and sunk costs so lowering the power output doesn't significantly reduce generating costs, so it is more effective to run them at full power most of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In countries where the baseload was predominantly nuclear (e.g. France) the load-following mode became economical due to overall electricity demand fluctuating throughout the day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Boiling_water_reactors">Boiling water reactors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Boiling water reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling water reactors</a> (BWRs) can vary the speed of recirculation water flow to quickly reduce their power level down to 60% of rated power (up to 10%/minute), making them useful for overnight load-following. They can also use control rod manipulation to achieve deeper reductions in power. A few BWR designs do not have recirculation pumps, and these designs must rely solely on <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rod</a> manipulation in order to load follow, which is possibly less ideal.<sup id="cite_ref-LFNPP_report_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LFNPP_report-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In markets such as <a href="/wiki/Chicago,_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago, Illinois">Chicago, Illinois</a> where half of the local utility's fleet is BWRs, it is common to load-follow (although potentially less economic to do so). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pressurized_water_reactors">Pressurized water reactors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pressurized water reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized water reactors</a> (PWRs) use a combination of a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_shim" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical shim">chemical shim</a>, typically <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, in the moderator/coolant, control rod manipulation, and turbine speed control (see <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear reactor technology">nuclear reactor technology</a>) to modify power levels. For PWRs not explicitly designed with load following in mind, load following operation isn't quite as common as it is with BWRs. Modern PWRs are generally designed to handle extensive regular load following, and both French and German PWRs in particular have historically been designed with varying degrees of enhanced load following capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-LFNPP_report_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LFNPP_report-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France in particular has a long history of utilizing aggressive load following with their PWRs, which are capable of, and used for, both primary and secondary frequency control, in addition to load following. French PWRs use so called "grey" <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rods</a> which have lower neutron absorption capability and are used for fine-tuning reactor power, as opposed to "black" control rods in order to maneuver power more rapidly than chemical shim control or conventional control rods allow.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These reactors have the capability to regularly vary their output between 30–100% of rated power, to maneuver power up or down by 2–5%/minute during load following activities, and to participate in primary and secondary frequency control at ±2–3% (primary frequency control) and ±3–5% (secondary frequency control, ≥5% for N4 reactors in Mode X). Depending on the exact design and operating mode, their ability to handle low power operation or fast ramping may be partially limited during the very late stages of the fuel cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-LFNPP_report_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LFNPP_report-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pressurized_heavy_water_reactors">Pressurized heavy water reactors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pressurized heavy water reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern CANDU designs have extensive steam bypass capabilities that allow for a different method of load following that does not necessarily involve changes in reactor power output. <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Bruce Nuclear Generating Station">Bruce Nuclear Generating Station</a> is a CANDU pressurized heavy water reactor that regularly utilizes its ability to partially bypass steam to the condenser for extended periods of time while the turbine is operating to provide 300 MW per unit (2400 MW total for the eight-unit plant) of flexible (load following) operation capabilities. Reactor power is maintained at the same level during steam bypass operations, which completely avoids xenon poisoning and other concerns associated with maneuvering reactor power output.<sup id="cite_ref-NECG_NF_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NECG_NF-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OSPE_WEG_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OSPE_WEG-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BP_BPRIA_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BP_BPRIA-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_thermal_power_plants">Solar thermal power plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Solar thermal power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated solar power</a> plants with thermal storage are emerging as an option for load-following power plants.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can cater the load demand and work as base load power plants when the extracted solar energy is found excess in a day.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proper mix of solar thermal storage and <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">solar PV</a> can fully match the load fluctuations without the need of costly battery storage.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fuel_cell_power_plants">Fuel cell power plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Fuel cell power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hydrogen based fuel cell power plants are perfect load-following power plants like emergency DG sets or battery storage systems. They can be run from zero to full load within few minutes. As the transportation of hydrogen to the far away industrial consumers is costly, the surplus hydrogen produced as byproduct from various chemical plants are used for power generation by the fuel cell power plants.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also they do not cause air and water pollution. In fact they clean the ambient air by extracting <a href="/wiki/PM2.5" class="mw-redirect" title="PM2.5">PM2.5</a> particulates and also generate pure water for drinking and industrial applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Solar_PV_and_wind_power_plants">Solar PV and wind power plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Solar PV and wind power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Availability-based_tariff" title="Availability-based tariff">Availability-based tariff</a></div> <p>The variable power from renewable energy such as solar and wind power plants can be used to follow the load or stabilize the grid frequency with the help of various means of storage. For countries that are trending <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out#Coal" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">away from coal fired</a> baseload plants and towards <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_energy_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermittent energy source">intermittent energy sources</a> such as wind and solar, that have not yet fully implemented <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grid</a> measures such as <a href="/wiki/Demand_side_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Demand side management">demand side management</a> to rapidly respond to changes in this supply, there may be a need for dedicated peaking or load-following power plants and the use of a grid intertie, at least until the peak blunting and load shifting mechanisms are implemented widely enough to match supply. <i>See smart grid alternatives below.</i> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Rechargeable battery</a> storage as of 2018, when custom-built new for this purpose without re-using <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicle</a> batteries, cost $209 per kWh on average in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the grid frequency is below the desired or rated value, the power being generated, if any, and the stored battery power is fed to the grid to raise the grid frequency. When the grid frequency is above the desired or rated value, the power being generated is fed or surplus grid power is drawn, in case cheaply available, to the battery units for energy storage. The grid frequency keeps on fluctuating 50 to 100 times in a day above and below the rated value depending on the type of load encountered and the type of generating plants in the electrical grid.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently, the cost of battery units, solar power plants, etc. have come down drastically to utilise secondary power for power grid stabilization as an on line <a href="/wiki/Operating_reserve" title="Operating reserve">spinning reserve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stab_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stab-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New studies have also evaluated both wind and solar plants to follow fast load changes. A study by Gevorgian et al has shown the ability of solar plants to provide load following and fast reserves in both island power systems like Puerto Rico<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and large power systems in California.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_and_wind_intensive_smart_grids">Solar and wind intensive smart grids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Solar and wind intensive smart grids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The decentralized and intermittent nature of solar and wind generation entails building signalling networks across vast areas. These include large consumers with discretionary uses, and increasingly include much smaller users. Collectively, these signalling and communication technologies are called the "<a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grid</a>". When these technologies reach into most grid-connected devices the term Energy Internet is sometimes used, though this is more commonly considered to be an aspect of the <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_Things" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet of Things">Internet of Things</a>. </p><p>In 2010, US <a href="/wiki/FERC" class="mw-redirect" title="FERC">FERC</a> Chairman Jon Wellinghof outlined the <a href="/wiki/Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Obama administration">Obama administration</a>'s view that strongly preferred <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grid</a> signalling over dedicated load-following power plants, describing following as inherently inefficient. In <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> he listed some such measures: </p> <ul><li>"turning off the defrost cycle on the refrigerator at a given time...the grid could signal...As long as that refrigerator got defrosted at the end of the day, you, as a consumer, wouldn't care but ultimately the grid could operate more efficiently."</li> <li>"...if you didn't do that with the refrigerator you would have do that with the coal plant or combustion turbine running up and down, and doing that makes that unit run much more inefficiently."</li></ul> <p>At the time, <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicle</a> battery integration into the grid was beginning. Wellinghof referred (ibid) to "these cars now getting paid in Delaware: $7 to $10 a day per car. They are getting paid over $3,000 a year to use these cars to simply control regulation service on the grid when they are charged". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electric_vehicle_batteries_as_distributed_load_following_or_storage">Electric vehicle batteries as distributed load following or storage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Electric vehicle batteries as distributed load following or storage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the very high cost of dedicated battery storage, use of <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicle</a> batteries both while charging in vehicles (see <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grid</a>), and in stationary <a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">grid energy storage</a> arrays as an end-of-life re-use once they no longer hold enough charge for road use, has become the preferred method of <a href="/wiki/Load_following" class="mw-redirect" title="Load following">load following</a> over dedicated power plants. Such stationary arrays act as a true load-following power plant, and their deployment can "improve the affordability of purchasing such vehicles...Batteries that reach the end of their useful lifespan within the automotive industry can still be considered for other applications as between 70-80% of their original capacity still remains."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such batteries are often repurposed in home arrays which primarily serve as backup, so can participate much more readily in grid stabilizing. The number of such batteries doing nothing is increasing rapidly, e.g. in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> where <a href="/wiki/Tesla_Powerwall" title="Tesla Powerwall">Tesla Powerwall</a> demand rose 30 times after major power outages.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Home and vehicle batteries are always and necessarily charged responsively when supply is available, meaning they all participate in a <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grid</a>, because the high load (one Japanese estimate was over 7 GW for half the cars in Kanto)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="removed citation to predatory publisher content (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> simply cannot be managed on an analog grid, lest "The uncoordinated charging can result in creation of a new peak-load" (ibid). </p><p>Given the charging must be managed, there is no incremental cost to delay charging or discharge these batteries as required for <a href="/wiki/Load_following" class="mw-redirect" title="Load following">load following</a>, merely a software change and in some cases a payment for the inconvenience of less than complete charging or for battery wear (e.g. "$7 to $10 a day per car" paid in Delaware). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocky Mountain Institute">Rocky Mountain Institute</a> in 2015 listed the applications of such distributed networks of batteries<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as (for "ISOs / RTOs") including "energy storage can bid into wholesale electricity markets" or for utility services including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency regulation">Frequency regulation</a></li> <li>Spinning and non-spinning reserves</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_following" class="mw-redirect" title="Load following">Load following</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_arbitrage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy arbitrage (page does not exist)">energy arbitrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Voltage_support&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Voltage support (page does not exist)">Voltage support</a></li></ul> <p>RMI claimed "batteries can provide these services more reliably and at a lower cost than the technology that currently provides a majority of them thermal power plants (see above re coal and gas)", and also that "storage systems installed behind the customer meter can be dispatched to provide deferral or adequacy services to utilities", such as: </p> <ul><li>"Transmission and distribution upgrade deferral. When load forecasts indicate transmission or distribution nodes will exceed their rated load carrying capacity, incremental investments in energy storage can be used to effectively increase the node’s capacity and avoid large, overbuilt, expensive upgrades to the nodes themselves."</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Transmission_congestion" title="Transmission congestion">Transmission congestion</a> relief. At certain times of the day, ISOs charge utilities to use congested transmission lines. Discharging energy storage systems located downstream of congested lines can avoid these charges."</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Resource_adequacy" title="Resource adequacy">Resource adequacy</a>. Instead of using or investing in combustion turbines to meet peak generation requirements, utilities can call upon other assets like energy storage instead."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics of nuclear power plants</a> (for more cost comparisons)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_load_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Base load power plant">Base load power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaking_power_plant" title="Peaking power plant">Peaking power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">Dispatchable generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_power_system" title="Emergency power system">Emergency power system</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Load-following_power_plant&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMasters2005" class="citation book cs1">Masters, Gilbert M. (3 January 2005). <i>Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems</i>. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471668831" title="Special:BookSources/9780471668831"><bdi>9780471668831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renewable+and+Efficient+Electric+Power+Systems&rft.pages=140&rft.date=2005-01-03&rft.isbn=9780471668831&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoad-following+power+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-power/reactor-physics/reactor-operation/normal-operation-reactor-control/load-following-power-plant/">"Load Following Power Plant"</a>. <i>Nuclear Power</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Power&rft.atitle=Load+Following+Power+Plant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuclear-power.net%2Fnuclear-power%2Freactor-physics%2Freactor-operation%2Fnormal-operation-reactor-control%2Fload-following-power-plant%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoad-following+power+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150524081145/http://www.nldc.in/attachments/article/265/Monthly%20Report%20March%202015.pdf">"page 13, Operational Performance Report for the Month of March 2015, NLDC"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nldc.in/attachments/article/265/Monthly%20Report%20March%202015.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 24 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="Base load">Base load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_factor" title="Demand factor">Demand factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droop_speed_control" title="Droop speed control">Droop speed control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_quality" title="Electric power quality">Electric power quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_fault" title="Electrical fault">Electrical fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Energy demand management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" title="Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_code" title="Grid code">Grid code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid strength">Grid strength</a></li> <li><a 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2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Abspannportal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt"><img alt="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/120px-Abspannportal.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/180px-Abspannportal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/240px-Abspannportal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology" title="Category:Power station technology">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_power_plant" title="Combined cycle power plant">Combined cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">Induction generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro CHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_power_plant" title="Virtual power plant">Virtual power plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Transmission</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)" title="Dynamic demand (electric power)">Dynamic demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">Electric power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_system" title="Electric power system">Electric power system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_busbar_system" title="Electrical busbar system">Electrical busbar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical substation">Electrical substation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_retailing" title="Electricity retailing">Electricity retailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_shore_connection" title="High-voltage shore connection">High-voltage shore connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interconnector" title="Interconnector">Interconnector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_management" title="Load management">Load management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country" title="Mains electricity by country">Mains electricity by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">Power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-wire_earth_return" title="Single-wire earth return">Single-wire earth return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">Super grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_system_operator" title="Transmission system operator">Transmission system operator</a> (TSO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">Transmission tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">Utility pole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Failure modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">Brownout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascading_failure" title="Cascading failure">Cascading failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Power outage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_blackout" title="Rolling blackout">Rolling blackout</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Protective<br />devices</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupter" title="Arc-fault circuit interrupter">Arc-fault circuit interrupter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth-leakage_circuit_breaker" title="Earth-leakage circuit breaker">Earth-leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride_circuit_breaker" title="Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker">Sulfur hexafluoride</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generator_interlock_kit" title="Generator interlock kit">Generator interlock kit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_relay" title="Numerical relay">Numerical relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_system_protection" title="Power system protection">Power system protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_relay" title="Protective relay">Protective relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual-current_device" title="Residual-current device">Residual-current device</a> (GFI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Economics<br />and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">Availability factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">Energy subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_tax" title="Environmental tax">Environmental tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_factor_(electrical)" title="Load factor (electrical)">Load factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigouvian tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificate_(United_States)" title="Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)">Renewable Energy Certificates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Payments" title="Renewable Energy Payments">Renewable Energy Payments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_spread" title="Spark spread">Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Statistics and<br />production</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">Electric energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_sectors" title="List of electricity sectors">List of electricity sectors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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