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id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Melanesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Melanesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Melanesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Melanesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micronesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micronesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Micronesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micronesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polynesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polynesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Polynesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polynesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_contact_and_exploration_(1500s–1700s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_contact_and_exploration_(1500s–1700s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>European contact and exploration (1500s–1700s)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-European_contact_and_exploration_(1500s–1700s)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle European contact and exploration (1500s–1700s) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-European_contact_and_exploration_(1500s–1700s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iberian_pioneers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iberian_pioneers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Iberian pioneers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iberian_pioneers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Iberian_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Iberian_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Early Iberian exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Iberian_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_large_expeditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_large_expeditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Other large expeditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_large_expeditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania_during_the_Golden_Age_of_Dutch_exploration_and_discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania_during_the_Golden_Age_of_Dutch_exploration_and_discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Oceania during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania_during_the_Golden_Age_of_Dutch_exploration_and_discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Dutch_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Dutch_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Early Dutch exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Dutch_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abel_Tasman's_exploratory_voyages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abel_Tasman's_exploratory_voyages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Abel Tasman's exploratory voyages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abel_Tasman's_exploratory_voyages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_exploration_and_Captain_James_Cook's_voyages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_exploration_and_Captain_James_Cook's_voyages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>British exploration and Captain James Cook's voyages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_exploration_and_Captain_James_Cook's_voyages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_voyage_(1768–1771)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_voyage_(1768–1771)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>First voyage (1768–1771)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_voyage_(1768–1771)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_voyage_(1772–1775)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_voyage_(1772–1775)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Second voyage (1772–1775)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_voyage_(1772–1775)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_voyage_(1776–1779)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_voyage_(1776–1779)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Third voyage (1776–1779)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_voyage_(1776–1779)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Colonialism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Colonialism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Colonialism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>British colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>French colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Spanish colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Dutch colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>German colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>American colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Japanese colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samoan_Crisis_1887–1889" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samoan_Crisis_1887–1889"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Samoan Crisis 1887–1889</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samoan_Crisis_1887–1889-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Solomon_Islands_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solomon_Islands_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Solomon Islands campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solomon_Islands_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kokoda_Track_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kokoda_Track_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Kokoda Track campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kokoda_Track_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_testing_in_Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_testing_in_Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Nuclear testing in Oceania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_testing_in_Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fijian_coups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fijian_coups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Fijian coups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fijian_coups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bougainville_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bougainville_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bougainville Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bougainville_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Modern age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Oceania</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="تاريخ أوقيانوسيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ أوقيانوسيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_d%27Ocean%C3%ADa" title="Historia d'Oceanía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia d'Oceanía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ওশেনিয়ার ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ওশেনিয়ার ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История на Океания – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Океания" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gschicht_vo_Australien_und_Ozeanien" title="Gschicht vo Australien und Ozeanien – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Gschicht vo Australien und Ozeanien" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_d%27Oceania" title="Història d'Oceania – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història d'Oceania" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Ozeaniens" title="Geschichte Ozeaniens – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Ozeaniens" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Ocean%C3%ADa" title="Historia de Oceanía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Oceanía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_Oceanio" title="Historio de Oceanio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Oceanio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozeaniako_historia" title="Ozeaniako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ozeaniako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87" title="تاریخ اقیانوسیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ اقیانوسیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Oc%C3%A9anie" title="Histoire de l'Océanie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Océanie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%84%B8%EC%95%84%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="오세아니아의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오세아니아의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%BE%D5%AF%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Օվկիանիայի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օվկիանիայի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Oceanije" title="Povijest Oceanije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Oceanije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_maeneo_ya_Pasifiki" title="Historia ya maeneo ya Pasifiki – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya maeneo ya Pasifiki" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Oceaniae" title="Historia Oceaniae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia Oceaniae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%93%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഓഷ്യാനിയയുടെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഓഷ്യാനിയയുടെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Oceani%C3%AB" title="Geschiedenis van Oceanië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Oceanië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odkrycia_i_badania_Australii_i_Oceanii" title="Odkrycia i badania Australii i Oceanii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Odkrycia i badania Australii i Oceanii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_Oceania" title="História da Oceania – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Oceania" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Oceaniei" title="Istoria Oceaniei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Oceaniei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" 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data-title="Oceaniens historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_ng_Oceania" title="Kasaysayan ng Oceania – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kasaysayan ng Oceania" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%93%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="ஓசியானியாவின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஓசியானியாவின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" 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</div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pacific_Islands" title="History of the Pacific Islands">History of the Pacific Islands</a></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg/330px-1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg/495px-1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg/660px-1852_Bocage_Map_of_Australia_and_Polynesia_-_Geographicus_-_Oceanie-bocage-1852.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2210" /></a><figcaption>1852 map of Oceania by J.G. Barbie du Bocage, including subregions of <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DanceMaori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/DanceMaori.jpg/260px-DanceMaori.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/DanceMaori.jpg/390px-DanceMaori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/DanceMaori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>Māori war dance, New Zealand, circa 1850</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png/340px-Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png/510px-Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png/680px-Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png 2x" data-file-width="3067" data-file-height="1678" /></a><figcaption>An exclusive economic zone map of the Pacific which excludes non-tropical islands</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:22.0em; border: 4px double #0099FF; background:#FFFFFF;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b><span style="color:#000000;">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_Oceania" title="Category:Culture of Oceania">a series</a> on</span></b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#2FAAB5; border: 1px double #75B2DD;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Oceania" title="Culture of Oceania"><span style="color:#FFFFFF;">Oceanian Culture</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceania_(centered_orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Oceania_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg/120px-Oceania_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Oceania_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg/180px-Oceania_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Oceania_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg/240px-Oceania_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#2FA3AA; color:#fff; border: 1px double #75B2DD;"> Society</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.6em;font-size:95%;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shared Histories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Religion</a><br /></li> <li>People <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Oceania" title="Europeans in Oceania">European</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#2FA3AA; color:#fff; border: 1px double #75B2DD;"> Arts and literature</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.6em;font-size:95%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Oceania">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_art" title="Oceanian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_literature" title="Oceanian literature">Literature</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#2FA3AA; color:#fff; border: 1px double #75B2DD;"> Other</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.6em;font-size:95%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_cuisine" title="Oceanian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Oceanian_films" title="List of Oceanian films">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Oceania" title="Mythology of Oceania">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Oceania" title="Sport in Oceania">Sports</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#2FA3AA; color:#fff; border: 1px double #75B2DD;"> Symbols</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.6em;font-size:95%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_Oceania" title="Flags of Oceania">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Oceania" title="Armorial of Oceania">Armorial </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Oceania" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Oceania">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%8B.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%8B.png/50px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%8B.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%8B.png/75px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%8B.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%8B.png/100px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%8B.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="617" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceania" title="Portal:Oceania">Oceania Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture_of_Oceania_sidebar" title="Template:Culture of Oceania sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_Oceania_sidebar" title="Template talk:Culture of Oceania sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_Oceania_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of Oceania sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of Oceania</b> includes the history of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Easter_Island" title="History of Easter Island">Easter Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Fiji" title="History of Fiji">Fiji</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="History of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_New_Guinea" title="History of Western New Guinea">Western New Guinea</a> and other <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pacific_Islands" title="History of the Pacific Islands">Pacific island nations</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a> of Oceania is divided into the prehistory of each of its major areas: <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Australia" title="Prehistory of Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melanesia#History" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micronesia#Prehistory" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polynesia#Origins_and_expansion" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a>, and these vary greatly as to when they were first inhabited by humans — from 70,000 years ago (<a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near Oceania</a>) to 3,000 years ago (<a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote Oceania</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a></div> <p>Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australian continent</a> and nearby islands.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indigenous Australians migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and arrived in Australia around 50,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-BBSRC_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBSRC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-illumina.com_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-illumina.com-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a> are indigenous to the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a>, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>. The term "Aboriginal" is traditionally applied to only the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">indigenous inhabitants</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">mainland Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, along with some of the adjacent islands, i.e.: the "first peoples". <i>Indigenous Australians</i> is an inclusive term used when referring to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders. </p><p>The earliest definite human remains found to date are that of <a href="/wiki/Mungo_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Mungo Man">Mungo Man</a>, which have been dated at about 40,000 years old, but the time of arrival of the ancestors of Indigenous Australians is a matter of debate among researchers, with estimates dating back as far as 125,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-uow2004_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uow2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is great diversity among different Indigenous communities and societies in Australia, each with its own unique mixture of cultures, customs and languages. In present-day Australia these groups are further divided into local communities.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Melanesia">Melanesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Melanesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a></div> <p>The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived between 50,000 and 30,000 years ago, when <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> still roamed Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-genome_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genome-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day <a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan</a>-speaking people. Migrating from Southeast Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_(archipelago)" title="Solomon Islands (archipelago)">Solomon Islands (archipelago)</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Makira" title="Makira">Makira</a> and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian peoples</a>, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-genome_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genome-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some academics proposed a long period of interaction that led to numerous complex changes in the peoples' genetics, languages, and cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking an Austronesian language) departed to the east to become the forebears of the <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesian people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vanuatu_blonde.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Vanuatu_blonde.jpg/170px-Vanuatu_blonde.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Vanuatu_blonde.jpg/255px-Vanuatu_blonde.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Vanuatu_blonde.jpg/340px-Vanuatu_blonde.jpg 2x" data-file-width="803" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Boy from <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></figcaption></figure> <p>However, the theory is contradicted by the findings of a <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic study</a> published by <a href="/wiki/Temple_University" title="Temple University">Temple University</a> in 2008; based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a wide variety of Pacific peoples, it found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians. Both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians, particularly <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_indigenous_peoples" title="Taiwanese indigenous peoples">Taiwanese aborigines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-genome_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genome-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appeared that, having developed their sailing outrigger canoes, the Polynesian ancestors migrated from East Asia, moved through the Melanesian area quickly on their way, and kept going to eastern areas, where they settled. They left little genetic evidence in Melanesia.<sup id="cite_ref-genome_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genome-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study found a high rate of genetic differentiation and diversity among the groups living within the Melanesian islands, with the peoples distinguished by island, language, topography, and geography among the islands. Such diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands. For instance, populations developed differently in coastal areas, as opposed to those in more isolated mountainous valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-genome_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genome-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additional DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more human species have been discovered since the late 20th century. Based on his genetic studies of the <a href="/wiki/Denisova_hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Denisova hominin">Denisova hominin</a>, an ancient human species discovered in 2010, <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Svante Pääbo</a> claims that ancient human ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a> interbred in Asia with these humans. He has found that people of New Guinea share 4–6% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals; both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on genetic evidence from a fossil found in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into south Asia, where ancestors of the Melanesians developed.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Micronesia">Micronesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Micronesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nan_Madol" title="Nan Madol">Nan Madol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saudeleur_dynasty" title="Saudeleur dynasty">Saudeleur dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="History of the Federated States of Micronesia">History of the Federated States of Micronesia</a></div> <p>Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirch2001167_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirch2001167-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELalFortune200062_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELalFortune200062-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of <a href="/wiki/Saipan" class="mw-redirect" title="Saipan">Saipan</a>, dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirch2001170_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirch2001170-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesians</a> settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on <a href="/wiki/Yap" title="Yap">Yap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pohnpei" title="Pohnpei">Pohnpei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USDOS_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDOS-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prehistory of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_FM-Nan_Madol.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Map_FM-Nan_Madol.PNG/220px-Map_FM-Nan_Madol.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Map_FM-Nan_Madol.PNG/330px-Map_FM-Nan_Madol.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Map_FM-Nan_Madol.PNG/440px-Map_FM-Nan_Madol.PNG 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Central <a href="/wiki/Nan_Madol" title="Nan Madol">Nan Madol</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nan_Madol_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Nan_Madol_5.jpg/220px-Nan_Madol_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Nan_Madol_5.jpg/330px-Nan_Madol_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Nan_Madol_5.jpg/440px-Nan_Madol_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nan_Madol" title="Nan Madol">Nan Madol</a>, capital of the Saudeleur Dynasty</figcaption></figure> <p>On <a href="/wiki/Pohnpei" title="Pohnpei">Pohnpei</a>, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras: <i>Mwehin Kawa</i> or <i>Mwehin Aramas</i> (Period of Building, or Period of Peopling, before c. 1100); <i>Mwehin Sau Deleur</i> (Period of the <a href="/wiki/Saudeleur" class="mw-redirect" title="Saudeleur">Lord of Deleur</a>, c. 1100<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to c. 1628);<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Mwehin <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">Nahnmwarki</a></i> (Period of the Nahnmwarki, c. 1628 to c. 1885).<sup id="cite_ref-Hanlon_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanlon-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PlaceNames_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlaceNames-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin. The Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment among <a href="/wiki/Pohnpeians" class="mw-redirect" title="Pohnpeians">Pohnpeians</a>. The Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Isokelekel" title="Isokelekel">Isokelekel</a>, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized <i><a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">nahnmwarki</a></i> system in existence today.<sup id="cite_ref-Ballinger_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ballinger-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Native_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Native-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Petersen1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petersen1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isokelekel is regarded as the creator of the modern Pohnpeian <i><a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">nahnmwarki</a></i> social system and the father of the Pompeian people.<sup id="cite_ref-Ballinger_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ballinger-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goetzfridt_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goetzfridt-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Construction of <a href="/wiki/Nan_Madol" title="Nan Madol">Nan Madol</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalithic</a> complex made from <a href="/wiki/Basalt#Columnar_basalt" title="Basalt">basalt lava logs</a> in Pohnpei began as early as 1200 CE. Nan Madol is offshore of <a href="/wiki/Temwen_Island" title="Temwen Island">Temwen Island</a> near <a href="/wiki/Pohnpei" title="Pohnpei">Pohnpei</a>, consists of a series of small <a href="/wiki/Artificial_island" title="Artificial island">artificial islands</a> linked by a network of canals, and is often called the <i><a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> of the Pacific</i>. It is located near the island of <a href="/wiki/Pohnpei" title="Pohnpei">Pohnpei</a> and was the ceremonial and political seat of the <a href="/wiki/Saudeleur_dynasty" title="Saudeleur dynasty">Saudeleur dynasty</a> that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until its centralized system collapsed amid the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Isokelekel" title="Isokelekel">Isokelekel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Petersen1_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petersen1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isokelekel and his descendants initially occupied the stone city, but later abandoned it.<sup id="cite_ref-PlaceNames_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlaceNames-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from Southeast Asia. They became known as the <a href="/wiki/Chamorro_people" title="Chamorro people">Chamorros</a>, and spoke an <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian language</a> called <a href="/wiki/Chamorro_language" title="Chamorro language">Chamorro</a>. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including <a href="/wiki/Latte_stone" title="Latte stone">Latte stone</a>. The Refaluwasch or <a href="/wiki/Carolinian_people" title="Carolinian people">Carolinian people</a> came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a>. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BCE, with inter-island navigation made possible using <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands_stick_chart" title="Marshall Islands stick chart">traditional stick charts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polynesia">Polynesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Polynesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polynesia#Origins_and_expansion" title="Polynesia">Polynesia § Origins and expansion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Tonga" title="Early history of Tonga">Early history of Tonga</a></div> <p>Linguistic, archaeological, and human genetic evidence identifies the <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesians</a> as a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian peoples, and tracing <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_languages" title="Polynesian languages">Polynesian languages</a> places their prehistoric origins in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>, and ultimately, in <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. Between about 3000 and 1000 BCE speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-matrilineality2003_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matrilineality2003-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kayser,_M._2006_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kayser,_M._2006-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese aborigines">tribes</a> thought to have travelled via South China about 8,000 years ago to the edges of western <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a> and on into <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>, although they differ from the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> who now comprise the majority of people in China and Taiwan. There are three theories regarding the prehistoric spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia. Kayser <i>et al.</i> (2000)<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> outline these well: </p> <ul><li>Express Train model: A recent (c. 3000–1000 BCE) expansion out of Taiwan, via the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and from the north-west (<a href="/wiki/Bird%27s_Head_Peninsula" title="Bird's Head Peninsula">"Bird's Head"</a>) of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, on to <a href="/wiki/Island_Melanesia" title="Island Melanesia">Island Melanesia</a> by roughly 1400 BCE, reaching western Polynesian islands about 900 BCE. This theory is supported by the majority of current human genetic data, <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">linguistic</a> data, and archaeological data</li> <li>Entangled Bank model: Emphasizes the long history of Austronesian speakers' cultural and genetic interactions with indigenous Island South-East Asians and Melanesians along the way to becoming the first Polynesians.</li> <li>Slow Boat model: Similar to the express-train model but with a longer hiatus in Melanesia along with admixture (genetically, culturally and linguistically) with the local population. This is supported by the Y-chromosome data of Kayser <i>et al.</i> (2000), which shows that all three <a href="/wiki/Haplotype" title="Haplotype">haplotypes</a> of Polynesian Y chromosomes can be traced back to Melanesia.<sup id="cite_ref-ANT_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANT-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion, allowing researchers to follow and date the path it took with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">"Lapita peoples"</a> (so-named after their pottery tradition) appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Bismarck_Archipelago" title="Bismarck Archipelago">Bismarck Archipelago</a> of northwest <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>. This culture is seen as having adapted and evolved through time and space since its emergence "Out of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>". The Lapita people had given up rice production, for instance, after encountering and adapting to breadfruit in the Bird's Head area of New Guinea. In the end, the most eastern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered so far has been through work on the <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Samoa" title="Archaeology of Samoa">archaeology</a> in Samoa. The site is at <a href="/wiki/Mulifanua" title="Mulifanua">Mulifanua</a> on <a href="/wiki/Upolu" title="Upolu">Upolu</a>. The Mulifanua site, where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied, has a "true" age of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 BCE based on <a href="/wiki/C14_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="C14 dating">C14 dating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-test_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2010 study places the beginning of the human archaeological sequences of Polynesia in <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> at 900 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-burley128_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-burley128-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the small differences in dates with Samoa being due to differences in radiocarbon-dating technologies between 1989 and 2010, the Tongan site apparently predating the Samoan site by some few decades in real time. </p><p>Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BCE, the Lapita <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">archaeological culture</a> spread 6,000 kilometres eastwards from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Belwood1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belwood1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The area of Tonga, Fiji, and Samoa served as a gateway into the rest of the Pacific region now known as Polynesia.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient Tongan mythologies, as recorded by early European explorers, report the islands of 'Ata and Tongatapu as the first islands hauled to the surface from the deep ocean by <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ui" title="Māui">Maui</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ha%CA%BBamonga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ha%CA%BBamonga.jpg/220px-Ha%CA%BBamonga.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ha%CA%BBamonga.jpg/330px-Ha%CA%BBamonga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ha%CA%BBamonga.jpg/440px-Ha%CA%BBamonga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><b><a href="/wiki/Ha%CA%BBamonga_%CA%BBa_Maui" title="Haʻamonga ʻa Maui">Haʻamonga ʻa Maui</a></b>, a stone <a href="/wiki/Trilithon" title="Trilithon">trilithon</a> on the Tongan island of <a href="/wiki/Tongatapu" title="Tongatapu">Tongatapu</a>, constructed of three coral limestone slabs each weighing at least 30–40 tons<sup id="cite_ref-wondermondo_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wondermondo-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was built at the beginning of the 13th century under the 11th <a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga" title="Tuʻi Tonga">Tuʻi Tonga</a> <a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi-t%C4%81-tui" title="Tuʻi-tā-tui">Tuʻi-tā-tui</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>"<a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tuʻi Tonga Empire</a>"</b> or "Tongan Empire" in <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> are descriptions sometimes given to Tongan expansionism and projected hegemony dating back to 950 CE, but at its peak during the period 1200–1500. While modern researchers and cultural experts attest to widespread Tongan influence and evidences of transoceanic trade and exchange of material and non-material cultural artifacts, <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> of a "political" empire ruled for any length of time by successive rulers is lacking.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Pacific_Islands_p._133_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Pacific_Islands_p._133-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern archeology, anthropology and linguistic studies confirm widespread Tongan cultural influence ranging widely<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through East 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa and Niue, parts of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and while some academics prefer the term "maritime chiefdom",<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others argue that, while very different from examples elsewhere, <i>..."empire" is probably the most convenient term.</i><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> art from Fijian towns shows that <b>Fiji</b> was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, although the details of Pacific migration remain vague. It is believed that the Lapita people or the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesians</a> settled the islands first but not much is known of what became of them after the <a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a> arrived; they may have had some influence on the new culture, and archaeological evidence shows that Polynesians would have then moved on to <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>, and even Hawai'i.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago. Lapita pottery shards have been found at numerous excavations around the country. Aspects of Fijian culture are similar to the Melanesian culture of the western <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> but have a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures. Stretching across 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from east to west, Fiji has been a nation of many languages. Fiji's history was one of settlement but also of mobility. </p><p>Over the centuries, a unique Fijian culture developed. Constant warfare and <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> between warring tribes were quite rampant and very much part of everyday life.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In later centuries, the reputation of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near Fijian waters, and Fiji acquired the name <i>Cannibal Isles</i>; as a result, Fiji remained unknown to the rest of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AhuTongariki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/AhuTongariki.jpg/220px-AhuTongariki.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/AhuTongariki.jpg/330px-AhuTongariki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/AhuTongariki.jpg/440px-AhuTongariki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="1026" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Moai" title="Moai">Moai</a> at Ahu Tongariki on <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Rapa Nui</a> (Easter Island)</figcaption></figure> <p>Early European visitors to <b>Easter Island</b> recorded local oral traditions about the original settlers. In these traditions, Easter Islanders claimed that a chief <a href="/wiki/Hotu_Matu%EA%9E%8Ca" title="Hotu Matuꞌa">Hotu Matuꞌa</a><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arrived on the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are believed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to have been <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesian</a>. There is considerable uncertainty about the accuracy of this legend as well as about the date of settlement. Published literature suggests the island was settled around 300–400 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>, or at about the time of the arrival of the earliest settlers in <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. </p><p>Some scientists say that Easter Island was not inhabited until 700–800 CE. This date-range is based on <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronological</a> calculations and on three <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dates</a> from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest-clearance activities.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was settled as recently as 1200 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This seems to be supported by a 2006 study of the island's deforestation, which could have started around the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-huntlipo2006_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huntlipo2006-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-huntlipo2011_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huntlipo2011-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large, now <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Paschalococos" title="Paschalococos">Paschalococos</a> disperta</i> (related to the <a href="/wiki/Chilean_wine_palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilean wine palm">Chilean wine palm</a> <i>(<a href="/wiki/Jubaea" title="Jubaea">Jubaea</a> chilensis)</i>), was one of the dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence; this species, unique to Easter Island, became extinct due to deforestation by the early Polynesian settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_contact_and_exploration_(1500s–1700s)"><span id="European_contact_and_exploration_.281500s.E2.80.931700s.29"></span>European contact and exploration (1500s–1700s)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: European contact and exploration (1500s–1700s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iberian_pioneers">Iberian pioneers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Iberian pioneers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Iberian_exploration">Early Iberian exploration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early Iberian exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Magellan%27s_circumnavigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Magellan's circumnavigation">Magellan's circumnavigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain in the Age of Discovery">Spain in the Age of Discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Portugal in the Age of Discovery">Portugal in the Age of Discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg/170px-Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg/255px-Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg/340px-Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="562" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magellan_Elcano_Circumnavigation-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Magellan_Elcano_Circumnavigation-en.svg/330px-Magellan_Elcano_Circumnavigation-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Magellan_Elcano_Circumnavigation-en.svg/495px-Magellan_Elcano_Circumnavigation-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Magellan_Elcano_Circumnavigation-en.svg/660px-Magellan_Elcano_Circumnavigation-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2246" data-file-height="1139" /></a><figcaption>The Magellan–Elcano voyage. <i><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(ship)" title="Victoria (ship)">Victoria</a></i>, one of the original five ships, circumnavigated the globe after the death of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the <a href="/wiki/Moluccas" class="mw-redirect" title="Moluccas">Moluccas</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Abreu" title="António de Abreu">António de Abreu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Serr%C3%A3o" title="Francisco Serrão">Francisco Serrão</a> in 1512), <a href="/wiki/Timor" title="Timor">Timor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aru_Islands_Regency" title="Aru Islands Regency">Aru Islands</a> (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the <a href="/wiki/Tanimbar_Islands" title="Tanimbar Islands">Tanimbar Islands</a>, some of the <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Gomes_de_Sequeira" title="Gomes de Sequeira">Gomes de Sequeira</a> in 1525), and west <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Jorge_de_Menezes" title="Jorge de Menezes">Jorge de Menezes</a> in 1526). In 1519 a <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castilian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">'Spanish'</a>) expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">strait that bears his name</a> and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains <a href="/wiki/Duarte_Barbosa" title="Duarte Barbosa">Duarte Barbosa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Serr%C3%A3o" title="João Serrão">João Serrão</a>, then sailed north and caught the <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by <a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a> returned west across the Indian Ocean and <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_(ship)" title="Trinidad (ship)">the other</a> went north in the hope of finding the <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">westerlies</a> and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Magellan%27s_circumnavigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Magellan's circumnavigation">Magellan-Elcano</a> expedition achieved the first <a href="/wiki/Circumnavigation" title="Circumnavigation">circumnavigation</a> of the world and reached the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>, and other islands of Oceania. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_large_expeditions">Other large expeditions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other large expeditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></div> <p>From 1527 to 1595 a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> in the North Pacific, as well as <a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marquesas_Islands" title="Marquesas Islands">Marquesas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_(archipelago)" title="Solomon Islands (archipelago)">Solomon Islands archipelago</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Islands" title="Admiralty Islands">Admiralty Islands</a> in the South Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-Fernandez-Armesto_2006_305–307_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fernandez-Armesto_2006_305–307-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1565, Spanish navigator <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a> found a wind system that would allow ships to sail eastward from Asia, back to the Americas. From then until 1815 the annual <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleons" class="mw-redirect" title="Manila galleons">Manila galleons</a> crossed the Pacific from Mexico to the Philippines and back, in the first transpacific trade route in history. Combined with the Spanish Atlantic or <a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="West Indies Fleet">West Indies Fleet</a>, the Manila galleons formed one of the first global maritime exchange in human history, linking Seville in Spain with Manila in the Philippines, via Mexico. </p><p>Later, in the quest for <a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a>, Spanish explorers in the 17th century discovered the <a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> archipelagos, and sailed the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait" title="Torres Strait">Torres Strait</a> between <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and New Guinea, named after navigator <a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Vaz_de_Torres" title="Luís Vaz de Torres">Luís Vaz de Torres</a>. In 1668, the Spaniards founded a colony on <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> as a resting place for west-bound galleons. For a long time this was the only non-coastal European settlement in the Pacific. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania_during_the_Golden_Age_of_Dutch_exploration_and_discovery">Oceania during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Oceania during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceania_UN_Geoscheme_Regions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Oceania_UN_Geoscheme_Regions.svg/330px-Oceania_UN_Geoscheme_Regions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Oceania_UN_Geoscheme_Regions.svg/495px-Oceania_UN_Geoscheme_Regions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Oceania_UN_Geoscheme_Regions.svg/660px-Oceania_UN_Geoscheme_Regions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Regions of <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>). "The Island Continent" <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a> was <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company#VOC-sponsored_inland_exploration_and_mapping_of_Southern_Africa" title="Dutch East India Company">the last human-inhabited continent to be largely known to the civilized world</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Dutch_exploration">Early Dutch exploration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Early Dutch exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_exploration_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery">Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery (category)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willem_Schouten" title="Willem Schouten">Willem Schouten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Le_Maire" title="Jacob Le Maire">Jacob Le Maire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_de_Houtman" title="Frederick de Houtman">Frederick de Houtman</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Australia" title="European exploration of Australia">European exploration of Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></div> <p>The Dutch were the first non-natives to undisputedly explore and chart coastlines of <a href="/wiki/European_maritime_exploration_of_Australia" title="European maritime exploration of Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tasmania" title="History of Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tonga" title="History of Tonga">Tonga</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Fiji" title="History of Fiji">Fiji</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Samoa" title="History of Samoa">Samoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Easter_Island" title="History of Easter Island">Easter Island</a>. <a href="/wiki/Verenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie" class="mw-redirect" title="Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie">Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie</a> (or VOC) was a major force behind the <a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_exploration_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery">Golden Age of Dutch exploration</a> (category; c. 1590s–1720s) and <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography#Dutch_and_Flemish_cartography" title="History of cartography">Netherlandish cartography</a> (c. 1570s–1670s). In the 17th century, the VOC's navigators and explorers <a href="/wiki/European_maritime_exploration_of_Australia" title="European maritime exploration of Australia">charted almost three-quarters of the Australian coastline</a>, except the east coast. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abel_Tasman's_exploratory_voyages"><span id="Abel_Tasman.27s_exploratory_voyages"></span>Abel Tasman's exploratory voyages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Abel Tasman's exploratory voyages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a> was the first known European explorer to reach the islands of <a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land" title="Van Diemen's Land">Van Diemen's Land</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>) and New Zealand, and to sight the <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> islands. His navigator François Visscher, and his merchant <a href="/wiki/Isaack_Gilsemans" title="Isaack Gilsemans">Isaack Gilsemans</a>, mapped substantial portions of Australia, New Zealand, Tonga and the Fijian islands. </p><p>On 24 November 1642 Abel Tasman sighted the west coast of Tasmania, north of Macquarie Harbour.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He named his discovery Van Diemen's Land after <a href="/wiki/Antonio_van_Diemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio van Diemen">Antonio van Diemen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies">Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies</a>. then claimed formal possession of the land on 3 December 1642. </p><p>After some exploration, Tasman had intended to proceed in a northerly direction but as the wind was unfavourable he steered east. On 13 December they sighted land on the north-west coast of the <a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Island</a>, New Zealand, becoming the first Europeans to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tasman named it <i>Staten Landt</i> on the assumption that it was connected to an island (<a href="/wiki/Staten_Island,_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Staten Island, Argentina">Staten Island, Argentina</a>) at the south of the tip of South America. Proceeding north and then east, he stopped to gather water, but one of his boats was attacked by <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> in a double hulled <a href="/wiki/Waka_(canoe)" title="Waka (canoe)">waka</a> (canoes) and four of his men were attacked and killed by <a href="/wiki/Mere_(weapon)" title="Mere (weapon)">mere</a>. As Tasman sailed out of the bay he was again attacked, this time by 11 waka. The waka approached the Zeehan which fired and hit one Māori who fell down. Canister shot hit the side of a waka.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archeological research has shown the Dutch had tried to land at a major agricultural area, which the Māori may have been trying to protect.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tasman named the bay <i>Murderers' Bay</i> (now known as <a href="/wiki/Golden_Bay_/_Mohua" title="Golden Bay / Mohua">Golden Bay</a>) and sailed north, but mistook <a href="/wiki/Cook_Strait" title="Cook Strait">Cook Strait</a> for a <a href="/wiki/Bight_(geography)" title="Bight (geography)">bight</a> (naming it <i><a href="/wiki/Zeehaen%27s_Bight" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeehaen's Bight">Zeehaen's Bight</a></i>). Two names he gave to New Zealand landmarks still endure, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Maria_van_Diemen" title="Cape Maria van Diemen">Cape Maria van Diemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three_Kings_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Kings Islands">Three Kings Islands</a>, but <i>Kaap Pieter Boreels</i> was renamed by Cook 125 years later to <a href="/wiki/Cape_Egmont" title="Cape Egmont">Cape Egmont</a>. En route back to Batavia, Tasman came across the <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tongan</a> archipelago on 20 January 1643. While passing the <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> islands, Tasman's ships came close to being wrecked on the dangerous reefs of the northeastern part of the Fiji group. He charted the eastern tip of <a href="/wiki/Vanua_Levu" title="Vanua Levu">Vanua Levu</a> and Cikobia before making his way back into the open sea. He eventually turned northwest to <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, and arrived at Batavia on 15 June 1643. For over a century after Tasman's voyages, until the era of <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>, Tasmania and New Zealand were not visited by Europeans—mainland Australia was visited, but usually only by accident. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thevenot_-_Hollandia_Nova_detecta_1644.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A typical map from the Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography. Australasia during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s): including Nova Guinea (New Guinea), Nova Hollandia (mainland Australia), Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and Nova Zeelandia (New Zealand)."><img alt="A typical map from the Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography. Australasia during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s): including Nova Guinea (New Guinea), Nova Hollandia (mainland Australia), Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and Nova Zeelandia (New Zealand)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Thevenot_-_Hollandia_Nova_detecta_1644.png/208px-Thevenot_-_Hollandia_Nova_detecta_1644.png" decoding="async" width="208" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Thevenot_-_Hollandia_Nova_detecta_1644.png/312px-Thevenot_-_Hollandia_Nova_detecta_1644.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Thevenot_-_Hollandia_Nova_detecta_1644.png/416px-Thevenot_-_Hollandia_Nova_detecta_1644.png 2x" data-file-width="2916" data-file-height="2310" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A typical map from the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Dutch_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Dutch cartography">Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a> during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s): including <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea#History" title="New Guinea">Nova Guinea</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>), <a href="/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)" title="New Holland (Australia)">Nova Hollandia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">mainland Australia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land" title="Van Diemen's Land">Van Diemen's Land</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>), and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_place_names" title="New Zealand place names">Nova Zeelandia</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a>).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EarleWarSpeech.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Waka taua (war canoes) at the Bay of Islands, 1827–1828."><img alt="Waka taua (war canoes) at the Bay of Islands, 1827–1828." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/EarleWarSpeech.jpg/208px-EarleWarSpeech.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/EarleWarSpeech.jpg/312px-EarleWarSpeech.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/EarleWarSpeech.jpg/416px-EarleWarSpeech.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Waka taua (war canoes) at the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Islands" title="Bay of Islands">Bay of Islands</a>, 1827–1828.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:AbelTasman.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Abel Tasman."><img alt="Abel Tasman." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/AbelTasman.jpg/201px-AbelTasman.jpg" decoding="async" width="201" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/AbelTasman.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="232" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tasmanroutes.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="The route of Abel Tasman's first and second voyage"><img alt="The route of Abel Tasman's first and second voyage" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tasmanroutes.PNG/208px-Tasmanroutes.PNG" decoding="async" width="208" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tasmanroutes.PNG/312px-Tasmanroutes.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tasmanroutes.PNG/416px-Tasmanroutes.PNG 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="455" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The route of <a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a>'s first and second voyage</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Modern_Asia_(1796).tif" class="mw-file-description" title="The continent of Australia (then known as New Holland) integrated within Asia in a 1796 map."><img alt="The continent of Australia (then known as New Holland) integrated within Asia in a 1796 map." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Modern_Asia_%281796%29.tif/lossy-page1-131px-Modern_Asia_%281796%29.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Modern_Asia_%281796%29.tif/lossy-page1-197px-Modern_Asia_%281796%29.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Modern_Asia_%281796%29.tif/lossy-page1-262px-Modern_Asia_%281796%29.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1287" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The continent of Australia (then known as <a href="/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)" title="New Holland (Australia)">New Holland</a>) integrated within <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> in a 1796 map.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Dutch East India Company"><img alt="The Dutch East India Company" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg/110px-Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg/165px-Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg/220px-Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4272" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a></div> </li> </ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerycaption">Map and drawings from <a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a>'s voyages</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tasmanmap1644.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Abel Tasman map 1644."><img alt="The Abel Tasman map 1644." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tasmanmap1644.jpg/208px-Tasmanmap1644.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tasmanmap1644.jpg/312px-Tasmanmap1644.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tasmanmap1644.jpg/416px-Tasmanmap1644.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3236" data-file-height="2516" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/history_nation/voyages/rich_lands/voya_tasman.html">Abel Tasman map</a> 1644.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gilsemans_1642.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The first European impression of Māori, at Murderers' Bay. Drawing by Isaack Gilsemans in Abel Tasman's travel journal (1642).[63]"><img alt="The first European impression of Māori, at Murderers' Bay. Drawing by Isaack Gilsemans in Abel Tasman's travel journal (1642).[63]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gilsemans_1642.jpg/208px-Gilsemans_1642.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gilsemans_1642.jpg/312px-Gilsemans_1642.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gilsemans_1642.jpg/416px-Gilsemans_1642.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2960" data-file-height="1924" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The first European impression of Māori, at <a href="/wiki/Golden_Bay_/_Mohua" title="Golden Bay / Mohua">Murderers' Bay</a>. Drawing by Isaack Gilsemans in <a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Travel_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Travel journal">travel journal</a> (1642).<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tasman-dagboek-b.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tongatapu, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans"><img alt="Tongatapu, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Tasman-dagboek-b.jpg/208px-Tasman-dagboek-b.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Tasman-dagboek-b.jpg/312px-Tasman-dagboek-b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Tasman-dagboek-b.jpg/416px-Tasman-dagboek-b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1022" data-file-height="644" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Tongatapu" title="Tongatapu">Tongatapu</a>, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 243px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 238px; height: 195px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The bay of Tongatapu with the two ships, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans"><img alt="The bay of Tongatapu with the two ships, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg/208px-Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg/312px-Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg/416px-Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="988" data-file-height="631" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The bay of <a href="/wiki/Tongatapu" title="Tongatapu">Tongatapu</a> with the two ships, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_exploration_and_Captain_James_Cook's_voyages"><span id="British_exploration_and_Captain_James_Cook.27s_voyages"></span>British exploration and Captain James Cook's voyages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: British exploration and Captain James Cook's voyages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_voyage_(1768–1771)"><span id="First_voyage_.281768.E2.80.931771.29"></span>First voyage (1768–1771)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: First voyage (1768–1771)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_voyage_of_James_Cook" title="First voyage of James Cook">First voyage of James Cook</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cook_new_zealand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Cook_new_zealand.jpg/280px-Cook_new_zealand.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Cook_new_zealand.jpg/420px-Cook_new_zealand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Cook_new_zealand.jpg/560px-Cook_new_zealand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="861" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Cook's map of New Zealand</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/170px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/255px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/340px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6131" data-file-height="7692" /></a><figcaption>Famous official portrait of Captain <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1766 the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> engaged <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> to travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe and record the <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">transit of Venus</a> across the Sun. The expedition sailed from England on 26 August 1768,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rounded <a href="/wiki/Cape_Horn" title="Cape Horn">Cape Horn</a> and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> on 13 April 1769, where the <a href="/wiki/1769_Transit_of_Venus_observed_from_Tahiti" class="mw-redirect" title="1769 Transit of Venus observed from Tahiti">observations of the Venus Transit</a> were made. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders which were additional instructions from the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">Admiralty</a> for the second part of his voyage: to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the help of a Tahitian named <a href="/wiki/Tupaia_(navigator)" title="Tupaia (navigator)">Tupaia</a>, who had extensive knowledge of Pacific <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, Cook managed to reach New Zealand on 6 October 1769, leading only the second group of <a href="/wiki/European_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="European ethnic groups">Europeans</a> to do so (after <a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a> over a century earlier, in 1642). Cook mapped the complete New Zealand coastline, making only some minor errors (such as calling <a href="/wiki/Banks_Peninsula" title="Banks Peninsula">Banks Peninsula</a> an island, and thinking <a href="/wiki/Stewart_Island_/_Rakiura" class="mw-redirect" title="Stewart Island / Rakiura">Stewart Island / Rakiura</a> was a peninsula of the <a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Island</a>). He also identified <a href="/wiki/Cook_Strait" title="Cook Strait">Cook Strait</a>, which separates the <a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North Island</a> from the South Island, and which Tasman had not seen. </p><p>Cook then voyaged west, reaching the south-eastern coast of Australia on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 23 April he made his first recorded direct observation of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">indigenous Australians</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brush_Island" title="Brush Island">Brush Island</a> near <a href="/wiki/Bawley_Point,_New_South_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Bawley Point, New South Wales">Bawley Point</a>, noting in his journal: "<i>…and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 29 April Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the <a href="/wiki/Cronulla_sand_dunes,_Kurnell_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Cronulla sand dunes, Kurnell Peninsula">Kurnell Peninsula</a>. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the <a href="/wiki/Gweagal" title="Gweagal">Gweagal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After his departure from Botany Bay he continued northwards. After a grounding mishap on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>, the voyage continued, sailing through <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait" title="Torres Strait">Torres Strait</a> before returning to England via <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jakarta" title="History of Jakarta">Batavia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MaoriChief1784.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/MaoriChief1784.jpg/170px-MaoriChief1784.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/MaoriChief1784.jpg/255px-MaoriChief1784.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/MaoriChief1784.jpg/340px-MaoriChief1784.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1995" data-file-height="2635" /></a><figcaption>A Māori chief with tattoos (<a href="/wiki/T%C4%81_moko" title="Tā moko">moko</a>). Drawn by Sydney Parkinson, the artist on Captain Cook's 1st voyage to New Zealand in 1769.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_voyage_(1772–1775)"><span id="Second_voyage_.281772.E2.80.931775.29"></span>Second voyage (1772–1775)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Second voyage (1772–1775)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_voyage_of_James_Cook" title="Second voyage of James Cook">Second voyage of James Cook</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Cook,_Waimea_Kauai.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/James_Cook%2C_Waimea_Kauai.JPG/170px-James_Cook%2C_Waimea_Kauai.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="362" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/James_Cook%2C_Waimea_Kauai.JPG/255px-James_Cook%2C_Waimea_Kauai.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/James_Cook%2C_Waimea_Kauai.JPG/340px-James_Cook%2C_Waimea_Kauai.JPG 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="1851" /></a><figcaption>A statue of James Cook stands in <a href="/wiki/Waimea,_Kauai_County,_Hawaii" title="Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii">Waimea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kauai" title="Kauai">Kauai</a> commemorating his first contact with the Hawaiian Islands at the town's harbour in January 1778</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1772 the Royal Society commissioned Cook to search for the hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a> again. On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south. Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed by the Royal Society to lie further south.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cook commanded <a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS <i>Resolution</i></a> on this voyage, while <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Furneaux" title="Tobias Furneaux">Tobias Furneaux</a> commanded its companion ship, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Adventure_(1771)" title="HMS Adventure (1771)">HMS <i>Adventure</i></a>. Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, becoming one of the first to cross the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circle" title="Antarctic Circle">Antarctic Circle</a> (17 January 1773). In the Antarctic fog, <i>Resolution</i> and <i>Adventure</i> became separated. Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a>, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.<sup id="cite_ref-G_Williams_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-G_Williams-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Cook,_English_navigator,_witnessing_human_sacrifice_in_Taihiti_(Otaheite)_c._1773.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/James_Cook%2C_English_navigator%2C_witnessing_human_sacrifice_in_Taihiti_%28Otaheite%29_c._1773.jpg/290px-James_Cook%2C_English_navigator%2C_witnessing_human_sacrifice_in_Taihiti_%28Otaheite%29_c._1773.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/James_Cook%2C_English_navigator%2C_witnessing_human_sacrifice_in_Taihiti_%28Otaheite%29_c._1773.jpg/435px-James_Cook%2C_English_navigator%2C_witnessing_human_sacrifice_in_Taihiti_%28Otaheite%29_c._1773.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/James_Cook%2C_English_navigator%2C_witnessing_human_sacrifice_in_Taihiti_%28Otaheite%29_c._1773.jpg/580px-James_Cook%2C_English_navigator%2C_witnessing_human_sacrifice_in_Taihiti_%28Otaheite%29_c._1773.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3946" data-file-height="2016" /></a><figcaption>James Cook witnessing human sacrifice in <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> c. 1773</figcaption></figure> <p>Cook almost encountered the mainland of <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage he brought a young Tahitian named <a href="/wiki/Omai" title="Omai">Omai</a>, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than <a href="/wiki/Tupaia_(navigator)" title="Tupaia (navigator)">Tupaia</a> had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Friendly Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a>. </p><p>Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Horn" title="Cape Horn">Cape Horn</a>. He then turned north to South Africa, and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_voyage_(1776–1779)"><span id="Third_voyage_.281776.E2.80.931779.29"></span>Third voyage (1776–1779)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Third voyage (1776–1779)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_voyage_of_James_Cook" title="Third voyage of James Cook">Third voyage of James Cook</a></div> <p>On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS <i>Resolution</i>, while Captain <a href="/wiki/Charles_Clerke" title="Charles Clerke">Charles Clerke</a> commanded <a href="/wiki/HMS_Discovery_(1774)" title="HMS Discovery (1774)">HMS <i>Discovery</i></a>. The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islander" title="Pacific Islander">Pacific Islander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omai" title="Omai">Omai</a> to Tahiti, or so the public were led to believe. The trip's principal goal was to locate a <a href="/wiki/North-West_Passage" class="mw-redirect" title="North-West Passage">North-West Passage</a> around the American continent.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to visit the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaiian Islands</a>. After his initial landfall in January 1778 at <a href="/wiki/Waimea,_Kauai_County,_Hawaii" title="Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii">Waimea</a> harbour, <a href="/wiki/Kauai" title="Kauai">Kauai</a>, Cook named the <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelago</a> the "Sandwich Islands" after the <a href="/wiki/John_Montagu,_4th_Earl_of_Sandwich" title="John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich">fourth Earl of Sandwich</a>—the acting <a href="/wiki/Lords_Commissioners_of_the_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty">First Lord of the Admiralty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the Sandwich Islands Cook sailed north and then north-east to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a>. Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a>, on the way identifying what came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Cook_Inlet" title="Cook Inlet">Cook Inlet</a> in Alaska. In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the West) and Spanish (from the South) exploratory probes of the Northern limits of the Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-G_Williams_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-G_Williams-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at <a href="/wiki/Kealakekua_Bay" title="Kealakekua Bay">Kealakekua Bay</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">'Hawaii Island'</a>, largest island in the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaiian Archipelago</a>. Cook's arrival coincided with the <i><a href="/wiki/Makahiki" title="Makahiki">Makahiki</a></i>, a Hawaiian <a href="/wiki/Harvest_festival" title="Harvest festival">harvest festival</a> of worship for the Polynesian god <a href="/wiki/Lono" title="Lono">Lono</a>. Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS <i>Resolution</i>, or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.<sup id="cite_ref-collingridge_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collingridge-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-seven_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seven-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a>) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial <a href="/wiki/Apotheosis" title="Apotheosis">deification</a> by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahlins1985_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahlins1985-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-seven_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seven-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2nd_ed_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2nd_ed-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zoffany_Death_of_Captain_Cook.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Zoffany_Death_of_Captain_Cook.jpg/220px-Zoffany_Death_of_Captain_Cook.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Zoffany_Death_of_Captain_Cook.jpg/330px-Zoffany_Death_of_Captain_Cook.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Zoffany_Death_of_Captain_Cook.jpg/440px-Zoffany_Death_of_Captain_Cook.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1876" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Captain_James_Cook_(Zoffany)" title="The Death of Captain James Cook (Zoffany)">The Death of Captain James Cook, 14 February 1779</a></i>, an unfinished painting by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Zoffany" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Zoffany">Johann Zoffany</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1795</span><sup id="cite_ref-NMM_–_The_Death_of_Captain_James_Cook_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NMM_–_The_Death_of_Captain_James_Cook-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>After a month's stay, Cook resumed his exploration of the Northern Pacific. Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island, however, the <i>Resolution</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'s</span> foremast broke, so the ships returned to <a href="/wiki/Kealakekua_Bay" title="Kealakekua Bay">Kealakekua Bay</a> for repairs. Tensions rose, and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians. On 14 February 1779, at Kealakekua Bay, some Hawaiians took one of Cook's small boats. As thefts were quite common in <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> and the other islands, Cook would have taken hostages until the stolen articles were returned.<sup id="cite_ref-collingridge_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collingridge-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attempted to take as hostage the <a href="/wiki/Alii_Aimoku_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Alii Aimoku of Hawaii">King of Hawaiʻi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalani%CA%BB%C5%8Dpu%CA%BBu" title="Kalaniʻōpuʻu">Kalaniʻōpuʻu</a>. The Hawaiians prevented this, and Cook's men had to retreat to the beach. As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hawaiian tradition says that he was killed by a chief named <a href="/wiki/Kalaimanokahoowaha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalaimanokahoowaha">Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hawaiians dragged his body away. Four of Cook's men were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation. </p><p>The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body. Following their practice of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society. The body was <a href="/wiki/Disembowelment" title="Disembowelment">disembowelled</a>, baked to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">religious icons</a> in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Some of Cook's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal <a href="/wiki/Burial_at_sea" title="Burial at sea">burial at sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the death of Clerke, <i>Resolution</i> and <i>Discovery</i> returned home in October 1780 commanded by <a href="/wiki/John_Gore_(Royal_Navy_captain)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Gore (Royal Navy captain)">John Gore</a>, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, and <a href="/wiki/James_King_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="James King (Royal Navy officer)">Captain James King</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cook_Three_Voyages_59.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Cook_Three_Voyages_59.png/500px-Cook_Three_Voyages_59.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Cook_Three_Voyages_59.png/750px-Cook_Three_Voyages_59.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Cook_Three_Voyages_59.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages. The first voyage is shown in <b><span style="color:red;">red</span></b>, second voyage in <b><span style="color:green;">green</span></b>, and third voyage in <b><span style="color:blue;">blue</span></b>. The route of Cook's crew following his death is shown as a dashed blue line.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonialism">Colonialism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pacific_Area_-_Imperial_Powers_1939_-_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pacific_Area_-_Imperial_Powers_1939_-_Map.svg/320px-Pacific_Area_-_Imperial_Powers_1939_-_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pacific_Area_-_Imperial_Powers_1939_-_Map.svg/480px-Pacific_Area_-_Imperial_Powers_1939_-_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pacific_Area_-_Imperial_Powers_1939_-_Map.svg/640px-Pacific_Area_-_Imperial_Powers_1939_-_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1039" data-file-height="814" /></a><figcaption>Political Map of the Asia-Pacific Region, 1939.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_colonialism">British colonialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: British colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1789 the <a href="/wiki/Mutiny_on_the_Bounty" title="Mutiny on the Bounty">Mutiny on the Bounty</a> against <a href="/wiki/William_Bligh" title="William Bligh">William Bligh</a> led to several of the mutineers escaping the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> and settling on <a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a>, which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Fiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Fiji">Fiji</a> in 1872, with much of Oceania being annexed by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Islands" title="Gilbert Islands">Gilbert Islands</a> (now known as <a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a>) and the Ellice Islands (now known as <a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a>) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century. The Ellice Islands were administered as British <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Resident_Commissioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Resident Commissioner">Resident Commissioner</a> from 1892 to 1916 as part of the <a href="/wiki/British_Western_Pacific_Territories" title="British Western Pacific Territories">British Western Pacific Territories</a> (BWPT), and later as part of the <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Ellice_Islands" title="Gilbert and Ellice Islands">Gilbert and Ellice Islands</a> colony from 1916 to 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-TAHNPT_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAHNPT-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the last islands in Oceania to be colonised was <a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niue</a> (1900). In 1887, <a href="/wiki/Fata-a-iki" title="Fata-a-iki">King Fata-a-iki</a>, who reigned Niue from 1887 to 1896, offered to cede sovereignty to the British Empire, fearing the consequences of annexation by a less benevolent colonial power. The offer was not accepted until 1900. Niue was a British protectorate, but the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK's</a> direct involvement ended in 1901 when New Zealand annexed the island. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_colonialism">French colonialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: French colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Society_kingdoms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Society_kingdoms.svg/320px-Society_kingdoms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Society_kingdoms.svg/480px-Society_kingdoms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Society_kingdoms.svg/640px-Society_kingdoms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Society Island kingdoms</figcaption></figure> <p>French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and <a href="/wiki/Tahuata" title="Tahuata">Tahuata</a> were declared a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">French protectorate</a>, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of <a href="/wiki/Papeete" title="Papeete">Papeetē</a> was founded in 1843. In 1880, France annexed Tahiti, changing the status from that of a protectorate to that of a <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonial empires">colony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KMLA1889_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KMLA1889-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 24 September 1853, under orders from <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Febvrier_Despointes" title="Auguste Febvrier Despointes">Febvrier Despointes</a> took formal possession of New Caledonia and <a href="/wiki/Port-de-France" class="mw-redirect" title="Port-de-France">Port-de-France</a> (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-ped_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ped-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years.<sup id="cite_ref-ped_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ped-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New Caledonia became a <a href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">penal colony</a>, and from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia, among them many <a href="/wiki/Communards" title="Communards">Communards</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Victor_Henri_Rochefort,_Marquis_de_Rochefort-Lu%C3%A7ay" title="Victor Henri Rochefort, Marquis de Rochefort-Luçay">Henri de Rochefort</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louise_Michel" title="Louise Michel">Louise Michel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gb-1_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb-1-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1873 and 1876, 4,200 political prisoners were "relegated" in New Caledonia.<sup id="cite_ref-ped_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ped-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only forty of them settled in the colony, the rest returned to France after being granted amnesty in 1879 and 1880.<sup id="cite_ref-ped_89-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ped-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1880s, France claimed the <a href="/wiki/Tuamotu_Archipelago" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuamotu Archipelago">Tuamotu Archipelago</a>, which formerly belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Pomare_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomare Dynasty">Pōmare Dynasty</a>, without formally annexing it. Having declared a protectorate over Tahuata in 1842, the French regarded the entire <a href="/wiki/Marquesas_Islands" title="Marquesas Islands">Marquesas Islands</a> as French. In 1885, France appointed a governor and established a general council, thus giving it the proper administration for a colony. The islands of <a href="/wiki/Rimatara" title="Rimatara">Rimatara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rurutu" title="Rurutu">Rūrutu</a> unsuccessfully lobbied for British protection in 1888, so in 1889 they were annexed by France. Postage stamps were first issued in the colony in 1892. The first official name for the colony was <i>Établissements de l'Océanie</i> (Settlements in Oceania); in 1903 the general council was changed to an advisory council and the colony's name was changed to <i>Établissements Français de l'Océanie</i> (French Settlements in Oceania).<sup id="cite_ref-KMLA1918_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KMLA1918-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_colonialism">Spanish colonialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Spanish colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Spanish_explorers_of_the_Pacific" title="Category:Spanish explorers of the Pacific">Category:Spanish explorers of the Pacific</a></div> <p>The Spanish explorer <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a> landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were later named by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Johann_von_Krusenstern" title="Adam Johann von Krusenstern">Krusenstern</a>, after English <a href="/wiki/Explorer" class="mw-redirect" title="Explorer">explorer</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(British_captain)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Marshall (British captain)">John Marshall</a>, who visited them together with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gilbert_(captain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Gilbert (captain)">Thomas Gilbert</a> in 1788, en route from <a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay" title="Botany Bay">Botany Bay</a> to <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a> (two ships of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EasterIsland_1772.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EasterIsland_1772.JPG/220px-EasterIsland_1772.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EasterIsland_1772.JPG/330px-EasterIsland_1772.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EasterIsland_1772.JPG/440px-EasterIsland_1772.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3750" data-file-height="5308" /></a><figcaption>Map of <i>Isla de San Carlos</i> after the 1770 exploration.</figcaption></figure> <p>In November 1770, <a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a> commanded an expedition from the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Viceroyalty of Peru</a> that searched for <a href="/wiki/Davis_Land" title="Davis Land">Davis Land</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madre_de_Dios_Island" title="Madre de Dios Island">Madre de Dios Island</a> and looked for foreign naval activities. This expedition landed on <i>Isla de San Carlos</i> (<a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a>) and signed a treaty of annexation with <a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_people" title="Rapa Nui people">Rapa Nui</a> king <a href="/wiki/Atamu_Tekena" title="Atamu Tekena">Atamu Tekena</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dutch_colonialism">Dutch colonialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Dutch colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1606 <a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Vaz_de_Torres" title="Luís Vaz de Torres">Luís Vaz de Torres</a> explored the southern coast of New Guinea from <a href="/wiki/Milne_Bay" title="Milne Bay">Milne Bay</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Papua" title="Gulf of Papua">Gulf of Papua</a> including Orangerie Bay which he named <i>Bahía de San Lorenzo</i>. His expedition also discovered <a href="/wiki/Basilaki_Island" title="Basilaki Island">Basilaki Island</a> naming it <i>Tierra de San Buenaventura</i>, which he claimed for Spain in July 1606.<sup id="cite_ref-Torres_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torres-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 18 October his expedition reached the western part of the island in present-day <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and also claimed the territory for the King of Spain. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_Guinea_(1884-1919).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/New_Guinea_%281884-1919%29.png/220px-New_Guinea_%281884-1919%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/New_Guinea_%281884-1919%29.png/330px-New_Guinea_%281884-1919%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/New_Guinea_%281884-1919%29.png/440px-New_Guinea_%281884-1919%29.png 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>New Guinea from 1884 to 1919. <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">The Netherlands</a> controlled the western half of New Guinea, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a> the north-eastern part, and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a> the south-eastern part.</figcaption></figure> <p>A successive European claim occurred in 1828, when the Netherlands formally claimed the western half of the island as <a href="/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea" title="Dutch New Guinea">Dutch New Guinea</a>. In 1883, following a short-lived French annexation of <a href="/wiki/New_Ireland_(island)" title="New Ireland (island)">New Ireland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_colony" class="mw-redirect" title="British colony">British colony</a> of <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> annexed south-eastern New Guinea. However, the Queensland government's superiors in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> revoked the claim, and (formally) assumed direct responsibility in 1884, when <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a> claimed north-eastern New Guinea as the protectorate of <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Kaiser-Wilhelmsland" title="Kaiser-Wilhelmsland">Kaiser-Wilhelmsland</a>). </p><p>The first Dutch government posts were established in 1898 and in 1902: Manokwari on the north coast, Fak-Fak in the west and Merauke in the south at the border with <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Papua" title="Territory of Papua">British New Guinea</a>. The German, Dutch and British colonial administrators each attempted to suppress the still-widespread practices of inter-village warfare and <a href="/wiki/Headhunting" title="Headhunting">headhunting</a> within their respective territories.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "<a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Papua" title="Territory of Papua">Territory of Papua</a>"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. During World War I, Australian forces seized German New Guinea, which in 1920 became the <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_New_Guinea" title="Territory of New Guinea">Territory of New Guinea</a>, to be administered by Australia under a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a>. The territories under Australian administration became collectively known as The Territories of Papua and New Guinea (until February 1942). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_colonialism">German colonialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: German colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Germany established colonies in <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">New Guinea</a> in 1884 and <a href="/wiki/German_Samoa" title="German Samoa">Samoa</a> in 1900. </p><p>Following <a href="/wiki/Papal" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal">papal</a> mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain recognized a German claim in 1885. Germany established a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> and set up trading stations on the islands of <a href="/wiki/Jaluit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaluit">Jaluit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ebon_Atoll" title="Ebon Atoll">Ebon</a> to carry out the flourishing <a href="/wiki/Copra" title="Copra">copra</a> (dried <a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">coconut</a> meat) trade. Marshallese <a href="/wiki/Iroij" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroij">Iroij</a> (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect German colonial rule. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_colonialism">American colonialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: American colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Guano_Islands_Act" title="Guano Islands Act">Guano Islands Act</a></div> <p>The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Baker_Island" title="Baker Island">Baker Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howland_Island" title="Howland Island">Howland Island</a> in 1857, and with Hawaii becoming a <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">U.S. territory</a> in 1898. Territorial disputes between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Convention_(1899)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripartite Convention (1899)">Tripartite Convention of 1899</a>. </p><p>Samoa aligned its interests with the United States in a Deed of Succession, signed by the <i><a href="/wiki/Tui_Manua_Elisala" class="mw-redirect" title="Tui Manua Elisala">Tui Manúʻa</a></i> (supreme chief of Manúʻa) on 16 July 1904 at the Crown residence of the Tuimanuʻa called the <i>Faleula</i> in the place called Lalopua (from Official documents of the Tuimanuʻa government, 1893; Office of the Governor, 2004). </p><p>Cession followed the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Convention_(1899)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripartite Convention (1899)">Tripartite Convention of 1899</a> that partitioned the eastern islands of <a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a> (including Tutuila and the Manúʻa Group) from the western islands of Samoa (including ʻUpolu and Savaiʻi). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_colonialism">Japanese colonialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Japanese colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the beginning of World War I, Japan assumed control of the <a href="/wiki/South_Seas_Mandate" title="South Seas Mandate">South Seas Mandate</a> after annexing it from Germany. The Japanese headquarters was established at the German center of administration, <a href="/wiki/Jaluit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaluit">Jaluit</a>. On 31 January 1944, during World War II, American forces landed on <a href="/wiki/Kwajalein" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwajalein">Kwajalein</a> <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">atoll</a> and U.S. Marines and Army troops later took control of the islands from the Japanese on 3 February, following intense fighting on Kwajalein and <a href="/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll" title="Enewetak Atoll">Enewetak</a> atolls. In 1947, the United States, as the occupying power, entered into an agreement with the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a> to administer much of <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, including the Marshall Islands, as the <a href="/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_the_Pacific_Islands" title="Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands">Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands</a>. </p><p>During World War II, Japan occupied many Oceanic colonies by wresting control from western powers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Samoan_Crisis_1887–1889"><span id="Samoan_Crisis_1887.E2.80.931889"></span>Samoan Crisis 1887–1889</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Samoan Crisis 1887–1889"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Samoan_Civil_War" title="Samoan Civil War">Samoan Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Samoan_Civil_War" title="Second Samoan Civil War">Second Samoan Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Apia" title="Siege of Apia">Siege of Apia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/German_Samoa" title="German Samoa">German Samoa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samoan_Crisis_wrecks_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Samoan_Crisis_wrecks_2.jpg/220px-Samoan_Crisis_wrecks_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Samoan_Crisis_wrecks_2.jpg/330px-Samoan_Crisis_wrecks_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Samoan_Crisis_wrecks_2.jpg/440px-Samoan_Crisis_wrecks_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>Wrecked vessels at Apia, 1889</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SMS_Adler_1889_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/SMS_Adler_1889_1.jpg/220px-SMS_Adler_1889_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/SMS_Adler_1889_1.jpg/330px-SMS_Adler_1889_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/SMS_Adler_1889_1.jpg/440px-SMS_Adler_1889_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>SMS <i>Adler</i> wrecked at Apia, 1889</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Samoan Crisis</b> was a confrontation standoff between the United States, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Imperial Germany</a>, and the British Empire from 1887 to 1889 over control of the <a href="/wiki/Samoan_Islands" title="Samoan Islands">Samoan Islands</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Samoan_Civil_War" title="Samoan Civil War">Samoan Civil War</a>. </p><p>The prime minister of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Hawaii">Kingdom of Hawaii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_M._Gibson" title="Walter M. Gibson">Walter M. Gibson</a>, had long aimed to establishing an empire in the Pacific. In 1887 his government sent the "homemade battleship" <a href="/wiki/Kaimiloa" title="Kaimiloa">Kaimiloa</a> to Samoa looking for an alliance against colonial powers. It ended in suspicions from the German Navy and embarrassment for the conduct of the crew.<sup id="cite_ref-McBride_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBride-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1889 incident involved three American warships, <a href="/wiki/USS_Vandalia_(1876)" title="USS Vandalia (1876)">USS <i>Vandalia</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Trenton_(1876)" title="USS Trenton (1876)">USS <i>Trenton</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Nipsic" title="USS Nipsic">USS <i>Nipsic</i></a> and three German warships, <a href="/wiki/SMS_Adler" title="SMS Adler">SMS <i>Adler</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/SMS_Olga" title="SMS Olga">SMS <i>Olga</i></a>, and <a href="/wiki/SMS_Eber_(1887)" title="SMS Eber (1887)">SMS <i>Eber</i></a>, keeping each other at bay over several months in <a href="/wiki/Apia" title="Apia">Apia</a> harbor, which was monitored by the British warship <a href="/wiki/HMS_Calliope_(1884)" title="HMS Calliope (1884)">HMS <i>Calliope</i></a>. </p><p>The standoff ended on 15 and 16 March when a <a href="/wiki/1889_Apia_cyclone" title="1889 Apia cyclone">cyclone</a> wrecked all six warships in the harbor. <i>Calliope</i> was able to escape the harbor and survived the storm. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson" title="Robert Louis Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</a> witnessed the storm and its aftermath at Apia and later wrote about what he saw.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Samoan Civil War <a href="/wiki/Second_Samoan_Civil_War" title="Second Samoan Civil War">continued</a>, involving Germany, United States, and Britain, eventually resulting, via the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Convention" title="Tripartite Convention">Tripartite Convention of 1899</a>, in the partition of the Samoan Islands into <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_Samoa" title="German Samoa">German Samoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I">World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bita_paka_location_1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Colour map depicting the location of the Bita Paka within New Guinea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Bita_paka_location_1914.jpg/290px-Bita_paka_location_1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Bita_paka_location_1914.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Location of Bita Paka, 1914.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Asian and Pacific Theatre</b> of World War I was a conquest of <a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German colonial possession</a> in the Pacific Ocean and China. The most significant military action was the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Siege of Tsingtao</a> in what is now China, but smaller actions were also fought at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bita_Paka" title="Battle of Bita Paka">Battle of Bita Paka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toma" title="Siege of Toma">Siege of Toma</a> in <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a>. </p><p>All other German and Austrian possessions in Asia and the Pacific fell without bloodshed. Naval warfare was common; all of the colonial powers had naval squadrons stationed in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian</a> or Pacific Oceans. These fleets operated by supporting the invasions of German held territories and by destroying the <a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Squadron" title="East Asia Squadron">East Asia Squadron</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_Reservists_New_Britain_1914_(AWM_A02543).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Soldiers marching through the jungle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/German_Reservists_New_Britain_1914_%28AWM_A02543%29.jpg/220px-German_Reservists_New_Britain_1914_%28AWM_A02543%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/German_Reservists_New_Britain_1914_%28AWM_A02543%29.jpg/330px-German_Reservists_New_Britain_1914_%28AWM_A02543%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/German_Reservists_New_Britain_1914_%28AWM_A02543%29.jpg/440px-German_Reservists_New_Britain_1914_%28AWM_A02543%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>A platoon of German reservists at Bita Paka in 1914.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the first land offensives in the Pacific theatre was the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_German_Samoa" title="Occupation of German Samoa">Occupation of German Samoa</a> in August 1914 by New Zealand forces. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colony</a>, supported by an Australian and French naval squadron. </p><p>Australian forces attacked <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a> in September 1914: 500 Australians encountered 300 Germans and native policemen at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bita_Paka" title="Battle of Bita Paka">Battle of Bita Paka</a>; the Allies won the day and the Germans retreated to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toma" title="Siege of Toma">Toma</a>. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-awm.gov.au_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-awm.gov.au-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the fall of Toma, only minor German forces were left in New Guinea and these generally capitulated once met by Australian forces. In December 1914, one German officer near Angorum attempted resist the occupation with thirty native police but his force deserted him after they fired on an Australian scouting party and he was subsequently captured.<sup id="cite_ref-awm.gov.au_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-awm.gov.au-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/German_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="German Micronesia">German Micronesia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Marianas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Carolines</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> also fell to Allied forces during the war. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg/290px-Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg/435px-Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg/580px-Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6404" data-file-height="4543" /></a><figcaption>Photograph from a Japanese plane of <a href="/wiki/Battleship_Row" title="Battleship Row">Battleship Row</a> at the beginning of the attack. The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the <a href="/wiki/USS_West_Virginia_(BB-48)" title="USS West Virginia (BB-48)">USS <i>West Virginia</i></a>. Two attacking Japanese planes can be seen: one over the <a href="/wiki/USS_Neosho_(AO-23)" title="USS Neosho (AO-23)">USS <i>Neosho</i></a> and one over the Naval Yard.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Oceania#World_War_II" title="Military history of Oceania">Pacific front</a> saw major action during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, mainly between the belligerents <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. </p><p>The <b>attack on Pearl Harbor</b><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a surprise <a href="/wiki/Military_strike" title="Military strike">military strike</a> conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a> against the United States <a href="/wiki/Naval_base" title="Naval base">naval base</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, on the morning of 7 December 1941 (8 December in Japan). The attack led to the <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States' entry into World War II</a>. </p><p>The attack was intended as a <a href="/wiki/Preventive_war" title="Preventive war">preventive</a> action in order to keep the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Pacific Fleet">U.S. Pacific Fleet</a> from interfering with military actions the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> was planning in South-East Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. There were simultaneous Japanese attacks on the U.S.-held <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines" title="Commonwealth of the Philippines">Philippines</a> and on the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, and Hong Kong. </p><p>The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a> before they were finally defeated in 1945. </p><p>Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Darwin" title="Bombing of Darwin">Air raids on Darwin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokada Track</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo campaign</a>. </p><p>In 1940 the administration of French Polynesia recognized the Free French Forces and many Polynesians served in World War II. Unknown at the time to French and Polynesians, the Konoe Cabinet in Imperial Japan on 16 September 1940 included French Polynesia among the many territories which were to become Japanese possessions in the post-war world—though in the course of the war in the Pacific the Japanese were not able to launch an actual invasion of the French islands. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NZ_3rd_Division_(USMC_photo).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/NZ_3rd_Division_%28USMC_photo%29.jpg/220px-NZ_3rd_Division_%28USMC_photo%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/NZ_3rd_Division_%28USMC_photo%29.jpg/330px-NZ_3rd_Division_%28USMC_photo%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/NZ_3rd_Division_%28USMC_photo%29.jpg/440px-NZ_3rd_Division_%28USMC_photo%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="484" /></a><figcaption>New Zealand troops land on <a href="/wiki/Vella_Lavella" title="Vella Lavella">Vella Lavella</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Enterprise_(CV-6)_under_attack_and_burning_during_the_Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons_on_24_August_1942_(NH_97778).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/USS_Enterprise_%28CV-6%29_under_attack_and_burning_during_the_Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons_on_24_August_1942_%28NH_97778%29.jpg/220px-USS_Enterprise_%28CV-6%29_under_attack_and_burning_during_the_Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons_on_24_August_1942_%28NH_97778%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/USS_Enterprise_%28CV-6%29_under_attack_and_burning_during_the_Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons_on_24_August_1942_%28NH_97778%29.jpg/330px-USS_Enterprise_%28CV-6%29_under_attack_and_burning_during_the_Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons_on_24_August_1942_%28NH_97778%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/USS_Enterprise_%28CV-6%29_under_attack_and_burning_during_the_Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons_on_24_August_1942_%28NH_97778%29.jpg/440px-USS_Enterprise_%28CV-6%29_under_attack_and_burning_during_the_Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons_on_24_August_1942_%28NH_97778%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="2051" /></a><figcaption>The aircraft carrier <a href="/wiki/USS_Enterprise_(CV-6)" title="USS Enterprise (CV-6)">USS <i>Enterprise</i> (CV-6)</a> under aerial attack during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons" title="Battle of the Eastern Solomons">Battle of the Eastern Solomons</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solomon_Islands_campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Solomon Islands campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Guadalcanal Campaign">Guadalcanal Campaign</a></div> <p>Some of the most intense fighting of the Second World War occurred in the Solomons. The most significant of the Allied Forces' operations against the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Imperial" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Imperial">Japanese Imperial</a> Forces was launched on 7 August 1942, with simultaneous naval bombardments and amphibious landings on the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Islands">Florida Islands</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tulagi" title="Tulagi">Tulagi</a><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Red Beach on <a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal" title="Guadalcanal">Guadalcanal</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Guadalcanal Campaign">Guadalcanal Campaign</a> became an important and bloody campaign fought in the Pacific War as the Allies began to repulse Japanese expansion. Of strategic importance during the war were the <a href="/wiki/Coastwatchers" title="Coastwatchers">coastwatchers</a> operating in remote locations, often on Japanese held islands, providing early warning and intelligence of Japanese naval, army and aircraft movements during the campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"The Slot" was a name for <a href="/wiki/New_Georgia_Sound" title="New Georgia Sound">New Georgia Sound</a>, when it was used by the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Express" title="Tokyo Express">Tokyo Express</a> to supply the Japanese garrison on Guadalcanal. Of more than 36,000 Japanese on Guadalcanal, about 26,000 were killed or missing, 9,000 died of disease, and 1,000 were captured.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kokoda_casualties_(AWM_013286).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Papuan men in native dress carry a wounded soldier on a stretcher up a steep track surrounded by dense jungle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Kokoda_casualties_%28AWM_013286%29.jpg/220px-Kokoda_casualties_%28AWM_013286%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Kokoda_casualties_%28AWM_013286%29.jpg/330px-Kokoda_casualties_%28AWM_013286%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Kokoda_casualties_%28AWM_013286%29.jpg/440px-Kokoda_casualties_%28AWM_013286%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>Papuan carriers evacuate Australian casualties on 30 August 1942</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kokoda_Track_campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Kokoda Track campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>Kokoda Track campaign</b> was a campaign consisting of a series of battles fought between July and November 1942 between <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Japan#Showa_Period_–_World_War_II" title="Military history of Japan">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a>—primarily Australian—forces in what was then the Australian territory of <a href="/wiki/Papua_(Australian_territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Papua (Australian territory)">Papua</a>. Following a landing near Gona, on the north coast of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, Japanese forces attempted to advance south overland through the mountains of the <a href="/wiki/Owen_Stanley_Range" title="Owen Stanley Range">Owen Stanley Range</a> to seize <a href="/wiki/Port_Moresby" title="Port Moresby">Port Moresby</a> as part of a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States. Initially only limited Australian forces were available to oppose them, and after making rapid progress the Japanese <a href="/wiki/South_Seas_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="South Seas Force">South Seas Force</a> clashed with under strength Australian forces at Awala, forcing them back to Kokoda. A number of Japanese attacks were subsequently fought off by the Australian <a href="/wiki/Australian_Army_Reserve" title="Australian Army Reserve">Militia</a>, yet they began to withdraw over the Owen Stanley Range, down the <a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track" title="Kokoda Track">Kokoda Track</a>. </p><p> In sight of Port Moresby itself, the Japanese began to run out of momentum against the Australians who began to receive further reinforcements. Having outrun their supply lines and following the reverses suffered by the Japanese at <a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Guadalcanal Campaign">Guadalcanal</a>, the Japanese were now on the defensive, marking the limit of the Japanese advance southwards. The Japanese subsequently withdrew to establish a defensive position on the north coast, but they were followed by the Australians who recaptured Kokoda on 2 November. Further fighting continued into November and December as the Australian and <a href="/wiki/US_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="US Army">United States</a> forces assaulted the Japanese beachheads, in what later became known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buna%E2%80%93Gona" title="Battle of Buna–Gona">Battle of Buna–Gona</a>.</p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_testing_in_Oceania">Nuclear testing in Oceania</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Nuclear testing in Oceania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg/220px-Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg/330px-Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg/440px-Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="629" /></a><figcaption>A 21 kiloton underwater <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> test, known as Operation CROSSROADS (Event Baker), conducted at <a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a> (1946)</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to its low population, Oceania was a popular location for atmospheric and <a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground nuclear testing">underground nuclear tests</a>. Tests were conducted in various locations by the United Kingdom (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Grapple" title="Operation Grapple">Operation Grapple</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_tests_at_Maralinga#Operation_Antler" title="British nuclear tests at Maralinga">Operation Antler</a>), the United States (<a href="/wiki/Bikini_atomic_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Bikini atomic experiments">Bikini atoll</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Grounds" title="Pacific Proving Grounds">Marshall Islands</a>) and France (<a href="/wiki/Moruroa" title="Moruroa">Moruroa</a>), often with devastating consequences for the inhabitants. </p><p>From 1946 to 1958, the Marshall Islands served as the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Grounds" title="Pacific Proving Grounds">Pacific Proving Grounds</a> for the United States, and was the site of 67 <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear tests">nuclear tests</a> on various atolls. The world's first <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a>, codenamed "<a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Mike</a>", was tested at the <a href="/wiki/Enewetak" class="mw-redirect" title="Enewetak">Enewetak</a> atoll in the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> on 1 November (local date) in 1952, by the United States. </p><p>In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">fallout</a> from the American <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> test in the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> was such that the inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Rongelap" class="mw-redirect" title="Rongelap">Rongelap</a> Atoll were forced to abandon their island. Three years later the islanders were allowed to return, but suffered abnormally high levels of cancer. They were evacuated again in 1985 and in 1996 given $45 million in compensation. </p><p>A series of British tests were also conducted in the 1950s at <a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_tests_at_Maralinga" title="British nuclear tests at Maralinga">Maralinga</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a>, forcing the removal of the <a href="/wiki/Pitjantjatjara_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitjantjatjara people">Pitjantjatjara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yankunytjatjara" title="Yankunytjatjara">Yankunytjatjara</a> peoples from their ancestral homelands. </p><p>In 1962, France's early nuclear testing ground of Algeria became independent and the atoll of <a href="/wiki/Moruroa" title="Moruroa">Moruroa</a> in the Tuamotu Archipelago was selected as the new testing site. Moruroa atoll became notorious as a site of French nuclear testing, primarily because tests were carried out there after most Pacific testing had ceased. These tests were opposed by most other nations in Oceania. The last atmospheric test was conducted in 1974, and the last underground test in 1996. </p><p>French <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear testing</a> in the Pacific was controversial in the 1980s, in 1985 French agents caused the <a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_Rainbow_Warrior" title="Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior">Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior</a> in <a href="/wiki/Auckland" title="Auckland">Auckland</a> to prevent it from arriving at the test site in <a href="/wiki/Moruroa" title="Moruroa">Moruroa</a>. In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing at Fangataufa atoll after a three-year moratorium. The last test was on 27 January 1996. On 29 January 1996, France announced that it would accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and no longer test nuclear weapons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fijian_coups">Fijian coups</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Fijian coups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a>, <a href="/wiki/2000_Fijian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="2000 Fijian coup d'état">2000 Fijian coup d'état</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2006_Fijian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="2006 Fijian coup d'état">2006 Fijian coup d'état</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fiji-0050.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fiji-0050.JPG/220px-Fiji-0050.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fiji-0050.JPG/330px-Fiji-0050.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fiji-0050.JPG/440px-Fiji-0050.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3557" data-file-height="2321" /></a><figcaption>The burnt out remains of Govinda's Restaurant in Suva: over 100 shops and businesses were ransacked in Suva's central business district on 19 May 2000</figcaption></figure> <p>Fiji has suffered several <a href="/wiki/Coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="Coups d'état">coups d'état</a>: military in 1987 and 2006 and civilian in 2000. All were ultimately due to ethnic tension between <a href="/wiki/Fijians" title="Fijians">indigenous Fijians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indians_in_Fiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Indians in Fiji">Indo-Fijians</a>, who originally came to the islands as indentured labor in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The 1987 coup followed the election of a multi-ethnic coalition, which <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel">Lieutenant Colonel</a> <a href="/wiki/Sitiveni_Rabuka" title="Sitiveni Rabuka">Sitiveni Rabuka</a> overthrew, claiming racial discrimination against ethnic Fijians. The coup was denounced by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and Fiji was expelled from the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>. </p><p>The 2000 coup was essentially a repeat of the 1987 affair, although it was led by civilian <a href="/wiki/George_Speight" title="George Speight">George Speight</a>, apparently with military support. <a href="/wiki/Commodore_(rank)" title="Commodore (rank)">Commodore</a> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Bainimarama" title="Frank Bainimarama">Frank Bainimarama</a>, who was opposed to Speight, then took over and appointed a new Prime Minister. Speight was later tried and convicted for <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>. Many indigenous Fijians were unhappy at the treatment of Speight and his supporters, feeling that the coup had been legitimate. In 2006 the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Fiji" title="Parliament of Fiji">Fijian parliament</a> attempted to introduce a series of bills which would have, amongst other things, pardoned those involved in the 2000 coup. Bainimarama, concerned that the legal and racial injustices of the previous coups would be perpetuated, staged his own coup. It was internationally condemned, and Fiji again suspended from the Commonwealth. </p><p>In 2006 the then Australia Defence Minister, <a href="/wiki/Brendan_Nelson" title="Brendan Nelson">Brendan Nelson</a>, warned Fijian officials of an Australian Naval fleet within proximity of Fiji that would respond to any attacks against its citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bougainville_Civil_War">Bougainville Civil War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Bougainville Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bougainville" title="History of Bougainville">History of Bougainville</a></div> <p>The Australian government estimated that anywhere between 15,000 and 20,000 people could have died in the <a href="/wiki/Bougainville_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Bougainville Civil War">Bougainville Civil War</a>. More conservative estimates put the number of combat deaths as 1–2,000.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1975, there were attempts by the <a href="/wiki/Bougainville_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Bougainville Province">Bougainville Province</a> to secede from <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>. These were resisted by Papua New Guinea primarily because of the presence in Bougainville of the Panguna mine, which was vital to Papua New Guinea's economy. The <a href="/wiki/Bougainville_Revolutionary_Army" title="Bougainville Revolutionary Army">Bougainville Revolutionary Army</a> began attacking the mine in 1988, forcing its closure the following year. Further BRA activity led to the declaration of a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a> and the conflict continued until about 2005, when successionist leader and self-proclaimed King of Bougainville <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ona" title="Francis Ona">Francis Ona</a> died of malaria. Peacekeeping troops led by Australia have been in the region since the late 1990s, and a referendum on independence will be held in the 2010s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_age">Modern age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Modern age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SH_60F_Sea_Hawk_helicopter_in_the_Solomon_Islands.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/SH_60F_Sea_Hawk_helicopter_in_the_Solomon_Islands.jpg/220px-SH_60F_Sea_Hawk_helicopter_in_the_Solomon_Islands.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/SH_60F_Sea_Hawk_helicopter_in_the_Solomon_Islands.jpg/330px-SH_60F_Sea_Hawk_helicopter_in_the_Solomon_Islands.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/SH_60F_Sea_Hawk_helicopter_in_the_Solomon_Islands.jpg/440px-SH_60F_Sea_Hawk_helicopter_in_the_Solomon_Islands.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>New Zealand and Australian military personnel boarding a Sea Hawk helicopter as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands in 2007</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1946, French Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia). </p><p>Australia and New Zealand became <a href="/wiki/British_Dominions" class="mw-redirect" title="British Dominions">dominions</a> in the 20th century, adopting the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster Act</a> in 1942 and 1947 respectively, marking their legislative independence from the United Kingdom. Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. </p><p>Samoa became the first pacific nation to gain independence in 1962. Nauru became second in 1968, followed by Fiji and Tonga in 1970 and numerous other nations in the 1970s and 1980s. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a> in 2000. <a href="/wiki/Bougainville_Island" title="Bougainville Island">Bougainville Island</a>, geographically part of the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_(archipelago)" title="Solomon Islands (archipelago)">Solomon Islands archipelago</a> but politically part of <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, tried unsuccessfully to <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_North_Solomons" title="Republic of the North Solomons">become independent</a> in 1975, and a civil war followed in the early 1990s, with it later being granted autonomy. </p><p>On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of the Marshall Islands">Republic of the Marshall Islands</a>. The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts. </p><p>In 1852, French Polynesia was granted partial internal autonomy; in 1984, the autonomy was extended. French Polynesia became a full overseas collectivity of France in 2004. </p><p>Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Solution" title="Pacific Solution">Pacific Solution</a> policy transferred asylum seekers to several Pacific nations, including the <a href="/wiki/Nauru_detention_centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauru detention centre">Nauru detention centre</a>. Australia, New Zealand and other nations took part in the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Assistance_Mission_to_Solomon_Islands" title="Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands">Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands</a> from 2003 after a request for aid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Oceania" title="Europeans in Oceania">Europeans in Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">History of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bougainville" title="History of Bougainville">History of Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">History of New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solomon_Islands" title="History of Solomon Islands">History of Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pacific_Islands" title="History of the Pacific Islands">History of the Pacific Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_islands_by_first_human_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries and islands by first human settlement">List of countries and islands by first human settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Oceanian_cuisines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Oceanian cuisines">List of Oceanian cuisines</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Saudeleur era lasted around 500 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanlon_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanlon-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legend generally dates their downfall to the 1500s,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however archaeologists date Saudeleur ruins to c. 1628.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PlaceNames_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlaceNames-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UG_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UG-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">At this time, the <a href="/wiki/International_Date_Line" title="International Date Line">International Date Line</a> had yet to be established, so the dates in Cook's journal are a day earlier than those accepted today.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <b>Hawaii Operation</b> or <b>Operation AI</b> by the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters" title="Imperial General Headquarters">Imperial General Headquarters</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <b>Operation Z</b> during planning.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227080043/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country">"About Australia:Our Country"</a>. Australian Government. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country">the original</a> on 27 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2014</span>. <q>Australia's first inhabitants, the Aboriginal people, are believed to have migrated from some unknown point in Asia to Australia between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+Australia%3AOur+Country&rft.pub=Australian+Government&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faustralia.gov.au%2Fabout-australia%2Four-country&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasmussenGuoWangLohmueller2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rasmussen, M.; Guo, X.; Wang, Y.; Lohmueller, K. 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University of Texas Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-78621-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-78621-9"><bdi>978-0-292-78621-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Architecture+in+Micronesia&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-292-78621-9&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=William+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB3Z-aH7govUC%26q%3D%2522micronesia%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flood-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Flood_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFloodStrongFlood2002" class="citation book cs1">Flood, Bo; Strong, Beret E.; Flood, William (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVVQ46epBqwC"><i>Micronesian Legends</i></a>. Bess Press. pp. 145–47, 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57306-129-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-57306-129-8"><bdi>1-57306-129-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Micronesian+Legends&rft.pages=145-47%2C+160&rft.pub=Bess+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-57306-129-8&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Bo&rft.au=Strong%2C+Beret+E.&rft.au=Flood%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIVVQ46epBqwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanlon-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanlon_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanlon_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanlon1988" class="citation book cs1">Hanlon, David L (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OzgF5vZByVoC"><i>Upon a Stone Altar: A History of the Island of Pohnpei to 1890</i></a>. Pacific Islands Monograph. Vol. 5. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 13–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1124-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1124-0"><bdi>0-8248-1124-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Upon+a+Stone+Altar%3A+A+History+of+the+Island+of+Pohnpei+to+1890&rft.series=Pacific+Islands+Monograph&rft.pages=13-25&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-8248-1124-0&rft.aulast=Hanlon&rft.aufirst=David+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOzgF5vZByVoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCordy1993" class="citation book cs1">Cordy, Ross H (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hQMNAQAAMAAJ"><i>The Lelu Stone Ruins (Kosrae, Micronesia): 1978–1981 Historical and Archaeological Research</i></a>. Asian and Pacific Archaeology. Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii at Manoa. pp. 14, 254, 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1134-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1134-8"><bdi>0-8248-1134-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lelu+Stone+Ruins+%28Kosrae%2C+Micronesia%29%3A+1978%E2%80%931981+Historical+and+Archaeological+Research&rft.series=Asian+and+Pacific+Archaeology&rft.pages=14%2C+254%2C+258&rft.pub=Social+Science+Research+Institute%2C+University+of+Hawaii+at+Manoa&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8248-1134-8&rft.aulast=Cordy&rft.aufirst=Ross+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhQMNAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1988" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, William N (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B3Z-aH7govUC"><i>Prehistoric Architecture in Micronesia</i></a>. University of Texas Press. pp. 60, 63, 76, 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-76506-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-76506-1"><bdi>0-292-76506-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Architecture+in+Micronesia&rft.pages=60%2C+63%2C+76%2C+85&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-292-76506-1&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=William+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB3Z-aH7govUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PlaceNames-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PlaceNames_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PlaceNames_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PlaceNames_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanholzerRufino2003" class="citation book cs1">Panholzer, Tom; Rufino, Mauricio (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h2EWUggiuQIC"><i>Place Names of Pohnpei Island: Including And (Ant) and Pakin Atolls</i></a>. Bess Press. pp. xiii, xii, 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57306-166-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-57306-166-2"><bdi>1-57306-166-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Place+Names+of+Pohnpei+Island%3A+Including+And+%28Ant%29+and+Pakin+Atolls&rft.pages=xiii%2C+xii%2C+101&rft.pub=Bess+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-57306-166-2&rft.aulast=Panholzer&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft.au=Rufino%2C+Mauricio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh2EWUggiuQIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UG-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UG_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LgAcAAAAMAAJ"><i>Micronesica</i></a>. University of Guam. 1990. pp. 92, 203, 277<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Micronesica&rft.pages=92%2C+203%2C+277&rft.pub=University+of+Guam&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLgAcAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ballinger-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ballinger_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ballinger_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallinger1978" class="citation book cs1">Ballinger, Bill Sanborn (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l6oSAQAAIAAJ"><i>Lost City of Stone: The Story of Nan Madol, the "Atlantis" of the Pacific</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. pp. 45–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-24030-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-24030-7"><bdi>0-671-24030-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+City+of+Stone%3A+The+Story+of+Nan+Madol%2C+the+%22Atlantis%22+of+the+Pacific&rft.pages=45-48&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-671-24030-7&rft.aulast=Ballinger&rft.aufirst=Bill+Sanborn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl6oSAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Native-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Native_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiesenberg1968" class="citation book cs1">Riesenberg, Saul H (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JV-0AAAAIAAJ"><i>The Native Polity of Ponape</i></a>. Contributions to Anthropology. Vol. 10. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 38–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780598442437" title="Special:BookSources/9780598442437"><bdi>9780598442437</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Native+Polity+of+Ponape&rft.series=Contributions+to+Anthropology&rft.pages=38-51&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9780598442437&rft.aulast=Riesenberg&rft.aufirst=Saul+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJV-0AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Petersen1-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Petersen1_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Petersen1_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersen1990" class="citation journal cs1">Petersen, Glenn (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/15545/OP35.pdf">"Lost in the Weeds: Theme and Variation in Pohnpei Political Mythology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Occasional Papers</i>. <b>35</b>. Center for Pacific Islands Studies, School of Hawaiian, Asian & Pacific Studies, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa: 34<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Occasional+Papers&rft.atitle=Lost+in+the+Weeds%3A+Theme+and+Variation+in+Pohnpei+Political+Mythology&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=34&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Petersen&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10125%2F15545%2FOP35.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goetzfridt-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goetzfridt_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoetzfridtPeacock2002" class="citation book cs1">Goetzfridt, Nicholas J; Peacock, Karen M (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oqqdbU0tBvAC"><i>Micronesian Histories: An Analytical Bibliography and Guide to Interpretations</i></a>. Bibliographies and Indexes in World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 3, 34–35, 102, 156–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29103-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-29103-9"><bdi>0-313-29103-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Micronesian+Histories%3A+An+Analytical+Bibliography+and+Guide+to+Interpretations&rft.series=Bibliographies+and+Indexes+in+World+History&rft.pages=3%2C+34-35%2C+102%2C+156-59&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-313-29103-9&rft.aulast=Goetzfridt&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J&rft.au=Peacock%2C+Karen+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoqqdbU0tBvAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/orientation.htm">The History of Mankind</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927110432/http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/orientation.htm">Archived</a> 27 September 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Professor Friedrich Ratzel, Book II, Section A, The Races of Oceania p. 165, picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands. MacMillan and Co., published 1896.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-matrilineality2003-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-matrilineality2003_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHageMarck2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hage, P.; Marck, J. (2003). 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University of Otago Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WRapfjQ_iTEC&pg=PA87">"Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology"</a>, Patrick Vinton Kirch; Roger C. Green (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xOlI8czLshIC&pg=PA233">"Geraghty, P., 1994. Linguistic evidence for the Tongan empire"</a>, Geraghty, P., 1994 in "Language Contact and Change in the Austronesian World: pp. 236–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkBurleyMurray2008" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, G.; Burley, D.; Murray, T. (2008). "Monumentality in the development of the Tongan maritime chiefdom". <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>82</b> (318): 994–1004. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0003598x00097738">10.1017/s0003598x00097738</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F39600">1885/39600</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160933194">160933194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Monumentality+in+the+development+of+the+Tongan+maritime+chiefdom&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=318&rft.pages=994-1004&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1885%2F39600&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160933194%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0003598x00097738&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Burley%2C+D.&rft.au=Murray%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Pacific voyaging after the exploration period", Neich, R. 2006 in K.R. Howe (ed.) <i>Vaka Moana, voyages of the ancestors: the discovery and settlement of the Pacific</i>: 198–245. Auckland: David Bateman. p. 230</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sanday, Peggy Reeves (1986) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SYW6EzB9rYkC&pg=PA151">Divine hunger: cannibalism as a cultural system</a></i>, Cambridge University Press, p. 151, IBNS 0521311144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050301062252/http://humanities.cqu.edu.au/history/52148/modules/pacific_peoplesA.html">Pacific Peoples, Melanesia/Micronesia/Polynesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Queensland_University" title="Central Queensland University">Central Queensland University</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Resemblance of the name to an early <a href="/wiki/Mangareva" title="Mangareva">Mangarevan</a> founder god <i>Atu Motua</i> ("Father Lord") has made some historians suspect that Hotu Matua was added to Easter Island mythology only in the 1860s, along with adopting the Mangarevan language. The "real" founder would have been <i>Tu'u ko Iho</i>, who became just a supporting character in Hotu Matu'a-centric legends. See Steven Fischer (1994). <i>Rapanui's Tu'u ko Iho Versus Mangareva's 'Atu Motua. Evidence for Multiple Reanalysis and Replacement in Rapanui Settlement Traditions, Easter Island.</i> The Journal of Pacific History, 29(1), 3–18. See also <i>Rapa Nui / Geography, History and Religion</i>. Peter H. Buck, Vikings of the Pacific, University of Chicago Press, 1938. pp. 228–36. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/rapa1.html">Online version</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/hotu.html">Summary of Thomas S. Barthel's version of Hotu Matu'a's arrival to Easter Island</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Collapse:_How_Societies_Choose_to_Fail_or_Succeed" title="Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed">Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed</a>.</i> Penguin Books: 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-303655-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-303655-6">0-14-303655-6</a>. Chapter 2: Twilight at Easter pp. 79–119. See p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hunt, T.L., Lipo, C.P., 2006. Science, 1121879. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1121879v1">"Late Colonization of Easter Island"</a> in <i>Science Magazine</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/projects/rapanui/hunt_lipo2006.pdf">Entire article</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080829124029/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/projects/rapanui/hunt_lipo2006.pdf">Archived</a> 29 August 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> is also hosted by the Department of Anthropology of the University of Hawaii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-huntlipo2006-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-huntlipo2006_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2006" class="citation magazine cs1">Hunt, Terry L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006110649/http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/id.1002,y.2006,no.5,content.true,css.print/issue.aspx">"Rethinking the Fall of Easter Island"</a>. <i>American Scientist</i>. Vol. 94, no. 5. pp. 412–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2006.61.412">10.1511/2006.61.412</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/id.1002,y.2006,no.5,content.true,css.print/issue.aspx">the original</a> on 6 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Fall+of+Easter+Island&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=412-19&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1511%2F2006.61.412&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Terry+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanscientist.org%2Fissues%2Fid.1002%2Cy.2006%2Cno.5%2Ccontent.true%2Ccss.print%2Fissue.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_magazine" title="Template:Cite magazine">cite magazine</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-huntlipo2011-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-huntlipo2011_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntLipo2011" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Terry; Lipo, Carl (2011). <i>The Statues that Walked: Unraveling the Mystery of Easter Island</i>. Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-5031-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-5031-3"><bdi>978-1-4391-5031-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Statues+that+Walked%3A+Unraveling+the+Mystery+of+Easter+Island&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-5031-3&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft.au=Lipo%2C+Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Michael Hogan (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=82831"><i>Chilean Wine Palm: Jubaea chilensis</i>, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121017013207/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=82831">Archived</a> 17 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fernandez-Armesto_2006_305–307-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fernandez-Armesto_2006_305–307_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernandez-Armesto2006" class="citation book cs1">Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern/page/305"><i>Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration</i></a></span>. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern/page/305">305–07</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-06259-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-06259-7"><bdi>0-393-06259-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pathfinders%3A+A+Global+History+of+Exploration&rft.pages=305-07&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-393-06259-7&rft.aulast=Fernandez-Armesto&rft.aufirst=Felipe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpathfindersgloba00fern%2Fpage%2F305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629165059/http://nla.gov.au/nla.map-ra265-s97">"Original map of Tasmania in December 1642"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.map-ra265-s97">the original</a> on 29 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Original+map+of+Tasmania+in+December+1642&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.map-ra265-s97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/2">"European discovery of New Zealand"</a>. Encyclopedia of New Zealand. 4 March 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101110165647/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/2">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+discovery+of+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+of+New+Zealand&rft.date=2009-03-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.teara.govt.nz%2Fen%2Feuropean-discovery-of-new-zealand%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Diary of Abel Tasman</i> pp. 21–22. Random House. 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10675488">"First contact violence linked to food"</a>. <i>The New Zealand Herald</i>. 23 September 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Zealand+Herald&rft.atitle=First+contact+violence+linked+to+food&rft.date=2010-09-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzherald.co.nz%2Fnz%2Fnews%2Farticle.cfm%3Fc_id%3D1%26objectid%3D10675488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/history/2/1">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'A view of the Murderers' Bay'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27A+view+of+the+Murderers%27+Bay%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.teara.govt.nz%2Fen%2Fhistory%2F2%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDancec._1776" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Dance" title="Nathaniel Dance">Dance, Nathaniel</a> (c. 1776). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/14102.html">"Captain James Cook, 1728–79"</a>. <i>Royal Museums Greenwich</i>. Commissioned by Sir <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2014</span>. <q>He holds his own chart of the <b>Southern Ocean</b> on the table and his right hand points to the east coast of Australia on it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+Museums+Greenwich&rft.atitle=Captain+James+Cook%2C+1728%E2%80%9379&rft.aulast=Dance&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcollections.rmg.co.uk%2Fcollections%2Fobjects%2F14102.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article16774546">"The Sydney Morning Herald"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald" title="The Sydney Morning Herald">The Sydney Morning Herald</a></i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=Once+were+warriors&rft.date=2002-11-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smh.com.au%2Farticles%2F2002%2F11%2F10%2F1036308574533.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHough1994">Hough 1994</a>, p. 182</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-G_Williams-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-G_Williams_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-G_Williams_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2011" class="citation web cs1">Williams, Glyn (17 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/captaincook_01.shtml">"Captain Cook: Explorer, Navigator and Pioneer"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Captain+Cook%3A+Explorer%2C+Navigator+and+Pioneer&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Glyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fempire_seapower%2Fcaptaincook_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHough1994">Hough 1994</a>, p. 263</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollingridge2003">Collingridge 2003</a>, p. 327</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollingridge2003">Collingridge 2003</a>, p. 380</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-collingridge-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-collingridge_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-collingridge_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollingridge2003">Collingridge 2003</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-seven-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-seven_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seven_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFObeyesekere1992">Obeyesekere 1992</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sahlins1985-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sahlins1985_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSahlins1985">Sahlins 1985</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2nd_ed-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2nd_ed_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFObeyesekere1997">Obeyesekere 1997</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NMM_–_The_Death_of_Captain_James_Cook-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NMM_–_The_Death_of_Captain_James_Cook_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/11916.html">"The Death of Captain James Cook, 14 February 1779 – National Maritime Museum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Maritime_Museum" title="National Maritime Museum">National Maritime Museum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Lahainaluna: Press of the Mission Seminary. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historysandwich00dibbgoog/page/n74">61</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Sandwich+Islands&rft.place=Lahainaluna&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Press+of+the+Mission+Seminary&rft.date=1843&rft.aulast=Dibble&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorysandwich00dibbgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollingridge2003">Collingridge 2003</a>, p. 413</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollingridge2003">Collingridge 2003</a>, p. 412</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollingridge2003">Collingridge 2003</a>, p. 423</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TAHNPT-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TAHNPT_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoatia_P._Teo1983" class="citation book cs1">Noatia P. Teo (1983). "Chapter 17, Colonial Rule". In Hugh Larcy (ed.). <i>Tuvalu: A History</i>. University of the South Pacific/Government of Tuvalu. pp. 127–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+17%2C+Colonial+Rule&rft.btitle=Tuvalu%3A+A+History&rft.pages=127-39&rft.pub=University+of+the+South+Pacific%2FGovernment+of+Tuvalu&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Noatia+P.+Teo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Macdonald, Barrie (2001) <i>Cinderellas of the Empire: towards a history of Kiribati and Tuvalu</i>, Institute of Pacific Studies, <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_South_Pacific" title="University of the South Pacific">University of the South Pacific</a>, Suva, Fiji, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/982-02-0335-X" title="Special:BookSources/982-02-0335-X">982-02-0335-X</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KMLA1889-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KMLA1889_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanse" class="citation web cs1">Ganse, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230062212/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn17971889.html">"History of French Polynesia, 1797 to 1889"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn17971889.html">the original</a> on 30 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+French+Polynesia%2C+1797+to+1889&rft.aulast=Ganse&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zum.de%2Fwhkmla%2Fregion%2Fpacific%2Ffrpolyn17971889.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ped-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ped_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ped_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ped_89-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ped_89-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf">"Rapport annuel 2010"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. IEOM Nouvelle-Calédonie<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rapport+annuel+2010&rft.pub=IEOM+Nouvelle-Cal%C3%A9donie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieom.fr%2FIMG%2Fpdf%2Fra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gb-1-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gb-1_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_AldrichJohn_Connell2006" class="citation book cs1">Robert Aldrich; John Connell (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vRB3woPa7LAC&pg=PA46"><i>France's Overseas Frontier: Départements et territoires d'outre-mer</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03036-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03036-6"><bdi>978-0-521-03036-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%27s+Overseas+Frontier%3A+D%C3%A9partements+et+territoires+d%27outre-mer&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-03036-6&rft.au=Robert+Aldrich&rft.au=John+Connell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvRB3woPa7LAC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KMLA1918-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KMLA1918_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanse" class="citation web cs1">Ganse, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230062217/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn18891918.html">"History of French Polynesia, 1889 to 1918"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn18891918.html">the original</a> on 30 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+French+Polynesia%2C+1889+to+1918&rft.aulast=Ganse&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zum.de%2Fwhkmla%2Fregion%2Fpacific%2Ffrpolyn18891918.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Torres-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Torres_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Translation of Torres' report to the king in Collingridge, G. (1895) <i>Discovery of Australia</i> pp. 229–37. Golden Press Edition 1983, Gladesville, NSW. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85558-956-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-85558-956-6">0-85558-956-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White, Osmar. <i>Parliament of a Thousand Tribes</i>, Heinemann, London, 1965</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McBride-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McBride_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcBride" class="citation web cs1">McBride, Spencer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1214&context=mphs">"Mormon Beginnings in Samoa: Kimo Belio, Samuela Manoa and Walter Murray Gibson"</a>. Brigham Young University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mormon+Beginnings+in+Samoa%3A+Kimo+Belio%2C+Samuela+Manoa+and+Walter+Murray+Gibson&rft.pub=Brigham+Young+University&rft.aulast=McBride&rft.aufirst=Spencer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1214%26context%3Dmphs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson,_Robert_Louis1892" class="citation book cs1">Stevenson, Robert Louis (1892). <i>A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa</i>. BiblioBazaar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4264-0754-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4264-0754-8"><bdi>1-4264-0754-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Footnote+to+History%3A+Eight+Years+of+Trouble+in+Samoa&rft.pub=BiblioBazaar&rft.date=1892&rft.isbn=1-4264-0754-8&rft.au=Stevenson%2C+Robert+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ryden, George Herbert. <i>The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa</i>. New York: Octagon Books, 1975. (Reprint by special arrangement with Yale University Press. Originally published at New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), p. 574; the Tripartite Convention (United States, Germany, Great Britain) was signed at Washington on 2 December 1899 with ratification exchanged on 16 February 1900</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-awm.gov.au-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-awm.gov.au_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-awm.gov.au_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJose1941" class="citation book cs1">Jose, Arthur Wilberforce (1941) [1928]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140203074454/http://static.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070027--1-.PDF">"Chapter V – Affairs in the Western Pacific"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bean" title="Charles Bean">Bean, Charles Edwin Woodrow</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Official_History_of_Australia_in_the_War_of_1914%E2%80%931918" title="Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918"><i>Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918: Volume IX – The Royal Australian Navy: 1914–1918</i></a>. Official Histories, Australian War Memorial (9th edition, 1941 ed.). Sydney, Australia: Angus and Robertson. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://static.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070027--1-.PDF">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 3 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+V+%E2%80%93+Affairs+in+the+Western+Pacific&rft.btitle=Official+History+of+Australia+in+the+War+of+1914%E2%80%931918%3A+Volume+IX+%E2%80%93+The+Royal+Australian+Navy%3A+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Sydney%2C+Australia&rft.series=Official+Histories%2C+Australian+War+Memorial&rft.edition=9th+edition%2C+1941&rft.pub=Angus+and+Robertson&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Jose&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Wilberforce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstatic.awm.gov.au%2Fimages%2Fcollection%2Fpdf%2FRCDIG1070027--1-.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorison2001">Morison 2001</a>, pp. 101, 120, 250</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prange, Gordon W., Goldstein, Donald, & Dillon, Katherine. <i>The Pearl Harbor Papers</i> (Brassey's, 2000), pp. 17ff; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q2pFnALHfykC&q=+Operation+AI&pg=PA1">Google Books entry</a> on Prange <i>et al</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the Japanese designator of Oahu. Wilford, Timothy. "Decoding Pearl Harbor", in <i>The Northern Mariner</i>, XII, #1 (January 2002), p. 32 fn 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fukudome, Shigeru, "Hawaii Operation". United States Naval Institute, <i>Proceedings</i>, 81 (December 1955), pp. 1315–31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mylescfoxdd829.net/TulagiBattle.htm">"The Tulagi Battle"</a>. Mylescfoxdd829.net. 7 August 1942<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Tulagi+Battle&rft.pub=Mylescfoxdd829.net&rft.date=1942-08-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmylescfoxdd829.net%2FTulagiBattle.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/programs/re/archivesdate/2002/aug/guadalcanal/index.html">The Battle for Guadalcanal</a>. NPR: National Public Radio.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elmer Belmont Potter, Roger Fredland, Henry Hitch Adams (1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zql2rWh6QAsC&pg=PA310">Sea power: a naval history</a>. Naval Institute Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87021-607-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87021-607-4">0-87021-607-4</a> p. 310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/hands-off-fiji-army-commander-warns/2006/11/24/1164341398059.html">"Hands off Fiji, army commander warns"</a>. <i>The Sydney Morning Herald</i>. 25 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=Hands+off+Fiji%2C+army+commander+warns&rft.date=2006-11-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smh.com.au%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fhands-off-fiji-army-commander-warns%2F2006%2F11%2F24%2F1164341398059.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraithwaiteCharlesworthReddyDunn2010" class="citation book cs1">Braithwaite, John; Charlesworth, Hilary; Reddy, Peter & Dunn, Leah (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml">"Chapter 7: The cost of the conflict"</a>. <i>Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing peace in Bougainville</i>. ANU E Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-921666-68-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-921666-68-1"><bdi>978-1-921666-68-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+The+cost+of+the+conflict&rft.btitle=Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville&rft.pub=ANU+E+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-921666-68-1&rft.aulast=Braithwaite&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Charlesworth%2C+Hilary&rft.au=Reddy%2C+Peter&rft.au=Dunn%2C+Leah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fepress.anu.edu.au%2Fapps%2Fbookworm%2Fview%2FReconciliation%2Band%2BArchitectures%2Bof%2BCommitment%253A%2BSequencing%2Bpeace%2Bin%2BBougainville%2F5301%2Fch07.xhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Oceania&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollingridge2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vanessa_Collingridge" title="Vanessa Collingridge">Collingridge, Vanessa</a> (2003). <i>Captain Cook: The Life, Death and Legacy of History's Greatest Explorer</i>. Ebury Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-188898-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-188898-0"><bdi>0-09-188898-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captain+Cook%3A+The+Life%2C+Death+and+Legacy+of+History%27s+Greatest+Explorer&rft.pub=Ebury+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-09-188898-0&rft.aulast=Collingridge&rft.aufirst=Vanessa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHough1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hough" title="Richard Hough">Hough, Richard</a> (1994). <i>Captain James Cook</i>. Hodder and Stoughton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-82556-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-82556-1"><bdi>0-340-82556-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captain+James+Cook&rft.pub=Hodder+and+Stoughton&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-340-82556-1&rft.aulast=Hough&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirch2001" class="citation book cs1">Kirch, Patrick Vinton (2001). <i>On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92896-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92896-1"><bdi>978-0-520-92896-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Road+of+the+Winds%3A+An+Archaeological+History+of+the+Pacific+Islands+Before+European+Contact&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92896-1&rft.aulast=Kirch&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Vinton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLalFortune2000" class="citation book cs1">Lal, Brij V.; Fortune, Kate (2000). <i>The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia</i>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2265-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2265-1"><bdi>978-0-8248-2265-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pacific+Islands%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2265-1&rft.aulast=Lal&rft.aufirst=Brij+V.&rft.au=Fortune%2C+Kate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorison2001" class="citation cs1">Morison, Samuel Eliot (2001). <i>History of United States Naval Operations in World War II: The rising sun in the Pacific, 1931 – April 1942</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-06973-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-06973-0"><bdi>0-252-06973-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+United+States+Naval+Operations+in+World+War+II%3A+The+rising+sun+in+the+Pacific%2C+1931+%E2%80%93+April+1942&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-252-06973-0&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Eliot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObeyesekere1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gananath_Obeyesekere" title="Gananath Obeyesekere">Obeyesekere, Gananath</a> (1992). <i>The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05752-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-05752-4"><bdi>0-691-05752-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Apotheosis+of+Captain+Cook%3A+European+Mythmaking+in+the+Pacific&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press.&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-691-05752-4&rft.aulast=Obeyesekere&rft.aufirst=Gananath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObeyesekere1997" class="citation book cs1">Obeyesekere, Gananath (1997). <i>The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05752-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05752-1"><bdi>978-0-691-05752-1</bdi></a>. <q>With new preface and afterword replying to criticism from Sahlins.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Apotheosis+of+Captain+Cook%3A+European+Mythmaking+in+the+Pacific&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05752-1&rft.aulast=Obeyesekere&rft.aufirst=Gananath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahlins1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_David_Sahlins" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshall David Sahlins">Sahlins, Marshall David</a> (1985). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islandsofhistory00sahl"><i>Islands of history</i></a></span>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73358-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73358-6"><bdi>978-0-226-73358-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islands+of+history&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-226-73358-6&rft.aulast=Sahlins&rft.aufirst=Marshall+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislandsofhistory00sahl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Oceania" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Oceania" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Oceania" title="Template:History of Oceania"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Oceania" title="Template talk:History of Oceania"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Oceania" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Oceania"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Oceania</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="History of the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Fiji" title="History of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kiribati" title="History of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="History of the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nauru" title="History of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palau" title="History of Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="History of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Samoa" title="History of Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solomon_Islands" title="History of Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tonga" title="History of Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tuvalu" title="History of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vanuatu" title="History of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cook_Islands" title="History of the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Niue" title="History of Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Easter_Island" title="History of Easter Island">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Caledonia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norfolk_Island" title="History of Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands" title="History of the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tokelau" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wallis_and_Futuna" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_by_continent" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_by_continent" title="Template:History by continent"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_by_continent" title="Template talk:History by continent"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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