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data-attr-layout_facebook="inactive" data-attr-layout_twitter="inactive" data-attr-layout_linkedin="inactive" data-attr-layout_copylink="active" data-attr-layout_all_sections="top" data-attr-layout_photo_caption="bottom" data-attr-layout_photo_credit="bottom" data-attr-layout_time_to_read="top" data-attr-layout_all_headline_tag="h1" data-attr-layout_all_subheadline_tag="h2" data-attr-layout_snark_line="top" data-attr-filters="section,post_body_pager" data-attr-section_url="" data-attr-source="" data-attr-format="posts-custom" data-attr-is_current_post="true"><div class="posts-wrapper clearfix"><div class="widget post-partial tag-ge tag-ibm tag-ieee-history tag-ieee-milestone tag-laser tag-mit-lincoln-lab tag-semiconductor-laser tag-type-ti post-section--topic/the-institute" data-category="The Institute"><article elid="2668735492" data-frozen-sections="[]" class="clearfix image-article sm-mb-1 quality-HD post-2668735492" data-category="The Institute"><div class="row px10"><div class="rm-col-center col sm-mb-1" style="width:100.0%;"><div class="widget__body clearfix sm-mt-1"><div class="all-related-sections"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/topic/the-institute/">The Institute</a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/topic/tech-history/">History of Technology</a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-institute/collections/ieee-history/">IEEE History</a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/type/article/">Article</a></div><h1 class="widget__headline h1"><span class="widget__headline-text custom-post-headline" data-type="text"> Inside the Three-Way Race to Create the Most Widely Used Laser </span></h1><div class="widget__subheadline"><h2 class="widget__subheadline-text h2" data-type="text"><p>GE, IBM, and MIT’s Lincoln Lab announced the advance days apart</p></h2></div><div class="social-author clearfix"><div class="social-author__avatar image"><div class="cover-all image" style="background-image: url("https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNjkxNzM4NC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTc4ODE4MDY3Nn0.zGanWFWZJafIpwTAgWdDRQB4db8aZl7f54bn2CwPzfo/image.png?width=210")"></div></div><a class="social-author__name" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/u/julianne-pepitone" data-type="text">Julianne Pepitone</a></div><div class="social-date"><span class="social-date__text">14 Jul 2024</span></div><div class="time-to-read">6 min read</div><div class="like-button" data-post-likes="4"></div><div class="snark-line"><div class="minibios-group"><p>Julianne Pepitone is a contributing editor covering consumer tech, cybersecurity, and business.</p></div></div></div><div class="widget__head"><picture><source srcset="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/the-original-semiconductor-laser-team-at-ibm-research-from-left-to-right-gerald-burns-marshall-i-nathan-gordon-lasher-fred.jpg?id=52677232&width=3600&height=2250 3x, https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/the-original-semiconductor-laser-team-at-ibm-research-from-left-to-right-gerald-burns-marshall-i-nathan-gordon-lasher-fred.jpg?id=52677232&width=2400&height=1500 2x, https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/the-original-semiconductor-laser-team-at-ibm-research-from-left-to-right-gerald-burns-marshall-i-nathan-gordon-lasher-fred.jpg?id=52677232&width=1200&height=750 1x"/><img fetchpriority="high" role="img" alt="The original semiconductor laser team at IBM Research, from left to right: Gerald Burns, Marshall I. Nathan, Gordon Lasher, Frederick H. Dill Jr., and William P. Dumke. " aria-label="The original semiconductor laser team at IBM Research, from left to right: Gerald Burns, Marshall I. Nathan, Gordon Lasher, Frederick H. Dill Jr., and William P. Dumke. " src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/the-original-semiconductor-laser-team-at-ibm-research-from-left-to-right-gerald-burns-marshall-i-nathan-gordon-lasher-fred.jpg?id=52677232&width=1200&height=750" style="object-fit: cover;" class="rm-lazyloadable-image rm-hero-media" width="1843" height="1152"/></picture></div><div class="widget__body clearfix sm-mt-1"><div class="photo-caption"><p>IBM researchers [from left] Gerald Burns, Marshall I. Nathan, Gordon Lasher, Frederick H. Dill Jr., and William P. Dumke developed the gallium arsenide laser in October 1962. </p></div><div class="photo-credit"> IBM </div></div></div></div><script type="application/json" id="post-context-2668735492" class="post-context post-context-2668735492"> {"customDimensions": {"5":"Julianne Pepitone","11":2668735492,"7":"ge, ibm, ieee history, ieee milestone, laser, mit lincoln lab, semiconductor laser, type:ti","10":"ieee history","6":"the-institute","8":"07/14/2024"}, "post": {"id": 2668735492, "providerId": 0, "sections": [0, 497728257, 539619441, 539626938, 560561003, 544175596, 544169516], "authors": [21080998], "streams": [], "split_testing": {}} } </script></article></div></div></div></div><div id="sSS_Default_Post_0_0_22_0_0_1_2_0_1" class=" row-wrapper clearfix "><div class="row "><div id="sSS_Default_Post_0_0_22_0_0_1_2_0_1_0" class="tag_column col sm-mb-2 md-mb-4 s12 m12 l3"><div class="wrapper-lazy-loading rm-lazy-load-post-lcp-wrapper next-page-wrapper" 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id="utm_campaign"></div><div class="body js-expandable clearfix js-listicle-body css-listicle-body-2668735492" data-headline="Inside the Three-Way Race to Create the Most Widely Used Laser"><div class="body-description"><p>The semiconductor laser, invented more than 60 years ago, is the foundation of many of today’s technologies including barcode scanners, fiber-optic communications, medical imaging, and remote controls. The tiny, versatile device is now an <a href="https://ethw.org/Milestones:Semiconductor_Laser,_1962" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">IEEE Milestone</a>.</p><p> The possibilities of laser technology had set the scientific world alight in 1960, when the laser, long described in theory, was first demonstrated. <a href="https://ethw.org/w/images/2/2f/NYT_semiconductor_laser_article_621101.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Three U.S. research centers</a> unknowingly began racing each other to create the first semiconductor version of the technology. The three—<a href="https://www.ge.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">General Electric</a>, IBM’s <a href="https://research.ibm.com/labs/yorktown-heights" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Thomas J. Watson Research Center</a>, and <a href="https://www.ll.mit.edu/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">the MIT Lincoln Laboratory</a>—independently reported the first demonstrations of a semiconductor laser, all within a matter of days in 1962.</p><p>The semiconductor laser was dedicated as an IEEE Milestone at three ceremonies, with a plaque marking the achievement installed at each facility. The Lincoln Lab event is <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g2QulaKqIuE" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">available to watch on demand</a>.</p><h2>Invention of the laser spurs a three-way race</h2><p>The core concept of the<a href="https://ethw.org/Laser" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> laser</a> dates back to 1917, when <a href="https://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001817.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Albert Einstein</a> theorized about “stimulated emission.” Scientists already knew electrons could absorb and emit light spontaneously, but Einstein posited that <a href="https://www.iop.org/explore-physics/big-ideas-physics/laser" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">electrons could be manipulated</a> to emit at a particular wavelength. It took decades for engineers to turn his theory into reality.</p><p>In the late 1940s, physicists were working to improve the design of a vacuum tube used by the U.S. military in World War II to detect enemy planes by amplifying their signals. <a href="https://ethw.org/Charles_Townes" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Charles Townes</a>, a researcher at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Bell Labs</a> in Murray Hill, N.J., was one of them. He proposed creating a more powerful amplifier that passed a beam of electromagnetic waves through a cavity containing gas molecules. The beam would stimulate the atoms in the gas to release their energy exactly in step with the beam’s waves, creating energy that allowed it to exit the cavity as a much more powerful beam.</p><p><div class="rblad-ieee_in_content"></div></p><p>In 1954 Townes, then a physics professor at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Columbia</a>, <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1964/townes/biographical/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">created the device</a>, which he called a “maser” (short for <em><em>microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation</em></em>). It would prove an important precursor to the laser.</p><p>Many theorists had told Townes his device couldn’t possibly work, according to an <a href="https://physics.aps.org/story/v15/st4" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">article</a> published by the <a href="https://www.aps.org/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">American Physical Society</a>. Once it did work, the article says, other researchers quickly replicated it and began inventing variations.</p><p>Townes and other engineers figured that by harnessing higher-frequency energy, they could create an optical version of the maser that would generate beams of light. Such a device potentially could generate more powerful beams than were possible with microwaves, but it also could create beams of varied wavelengths, from the infrared to the visible. In 1958 Townes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3257993/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">published a theoretical outline</a> of the “laser.”</p><p class="pull-quote">“It’s amazing what these … three organizations in the Northeast of the United States did 62 years ago to provide all this capability for us now and into the future.”</p><p>Several teams worked to fabricate such a device, and in May 1960 <a href="https://ethw.org/Theodore_H._Maiman" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Theodore Maiman</a>, a researcher at <a href="https://www.hrl.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Hughes Research Lab</a>, in Malibu, Calif., built the<a href="https://ethw.org/Milestones:First_Working_Laser,_1960" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> first working laser</a>. Maiman’s paper, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/187493a0" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em><em>Nature</em></em></a> three months later, described the invention as a high-power lamp that flashed light onto a ruby rod placed between two mirrorlike silver-coated surfaces. The optical cavity created by the surfaces oscillated the light produced by the ruby’s fluorescence, achieving Einstein’s stimulated emission.</p><p>The basic laser was now a reality. Engineers quickly began creating variations.</p><p>Many perhaps were most excited by the potential for a semiconductor laser. Semiconducting material can be manipulated to conduct electricity under the right conditions. By its nature, a laser made from semiconducting material could pack all the required elements of a laser—a source of light generation and amplification, lenses, and mirrors—into a micrometer-scale device.</p><p>“These desirable attributes attracted the imagination of scientists and engineers” across disciplines, according to the <a href="https://ethw.org/Main_Page" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Engineering and Technology History Wiki</a>.</p><p>A pair of researchers discovered in 1962 that an existing material was a great laser semiconductor: gallium arsenide.</p><h2>Gallium-arsenide was ideal for a semiconductor laser</h2><p>On <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1073455" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">9 July 1962,</a><a href="https://www.ll.mit.edu/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> MIT Lincoln Laboratory</a> researchers <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/online/10350/Robert-J-Keyes" target="_blank">Robert Keyes</a> and <a href="https://archive.ll.mit.edu/publications/journal/pdf/vol02_no1/2.1.1.earlywork.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Theodore Quist</a> told the audience at the <a href="https://www.mrs.org/drc-2023/about/history" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Solid State Device Research Conference</a> that they were developing an experimental semiconductor laser, IEEE Fellow <a href="https://www.ll.mit.edu/biographies/paul-w-juodawlkis" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Paul W. Juodawlkis</a> said during his speech at the IEEE Milestone dedication ceremony at<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g2QulaKqIuE" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> MIT</a>. Juodawlkis is director of the MIT Lincoln Laboratory’s<a href="https://www.ll.mit.edu/r-d/advanced-technology/quantum-information-and-integrated-nanosystems" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> quantum information and integrated nanosystems group</a>.</p><p><a href="https://ethw.org/w/images/1/13/Quist_SemiconductorMASERofGaAs_APL1p91_1962.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">The laser</a> wasn’t yet emitting a coherent beam, but the work was advancing quickly, Keyes said. And then Keyes and Quist shocked the audience: They said they could prove that nearly 100 percent of the electrical energy injected into a gallium-arsenide semiconductor could be converted into light.</p><p><div class="rblad-ieee_in_content"></div></p><p class="shortcode-media shortcode-media-rebelmouse-image"><img alt="A group of men next to devices. " class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image" data-rm-shortcode-id="cd38afee45de36f654d9fdf59ae8bf15" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/a-group-of-men-next-to-devices.jpg?id=52677234&width=980" height="750" id="0509f" lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%201200%20750'%3E%3C/svg%3E" width="1200"/><small class="image-media media-caption" placeholder="Add Photo Caption..."> MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory’s [from left] Robert Keyes, Theodore M. Quist, and Robert Rediker testing their laser on a TV set.</small><small class="image-media media-photo-credit" placeholder="Add Photo Credit...">MIT Lincoln Laboratory</small></p><p>No one had made such a claim before. The audience was incredulous—and vocally so.</p><p>“When Bob [Keyes] was done with his talk, one of the audience members stood up and said, ‘Uh, that violates the second law of thermodynamics,’” Juodawlkis said.</p><p>The audience erupted into laughter. But physicist <a href="https://ethw.org/Robert_N._Hall" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Robert N. Hall</a>—a semiconductor expert working at GE’s research laboratory in Schenectady, N.Y.—silenced them.</p><p>“Bob Hall stood up and explained why it didn’t violate the second law,” Juodawlkis said. “It created a real buzz.”</p><p>Several teams raced to develop a working semiconductor laser. The margin of victory ultimately came down to a few days.</p><h2>A ‘striking coincidence’</h2><p class="shortcode-media shortcode-media-rebelmouse-image rm-resized-container rm-resized-container-25 rm-float-left" data-rm-resized-container="25%" style="float: left;"><img alt="A photo of a man in glasses looking at a glass container." class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image rm-resized-image" data-rm-shortcode-id="cf9be1634a0f6cc056afa8843f3844ad" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/a-photo-of-a-man-in-glasses-looking-at-a-glass-container.jpg?id=52677240&width=980" height="2601" id="c55d3" lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%201950%202601'%3E%3C/svg%3E" style="max-width: 100%" width="1950"/><small class="image-media media-caption" placeholder="Add Photo Caption...">A semiconductor laser is made with a tiny semiconductor crystal that is suspended inside a glass container filled with liquid nitrogen, which helps keep the device cool. </small><small class="image-media media-photo-credit" placeholder="Add Photo Credit...">General Electric Research and Development Center/AIP Emilio Segrè Visual Archives</small></p><p>Hall returned to GE, inspired by Keyes and Quist’s speech, certain that he could lead a team to build an efficient, effective gallium arsenide laser.</p><p>He had already spent years working with <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/topic/semiconductors/">semiconductors</a> and invented what is known as a <em><em>“p-i-n” diode rectifier</em></em>. Using a crystal made of purified germanium, a semiconducting material, the rectifier could convert AC to DC—a crucial development for solid-state semiconductors used in electrical transmission.</p><p>That experience helped accelerate the development of semiconductor <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/lasers">lasers</a>. Hall and his team used a similar setup to the “p-i-n” rectifier. They built a diode laser that generated coherent light from a gallium arsenide crystal one-third of one millimeter in size, sandwiched into a cavity between two mirrors so the light bounced back and forth repeatedly. The news of the invention came out in the<a href="https://ethw.org/w/images/d/d5/Hall_CoherentLightEmissionFromGaAsJunctions_PhysRevLett9p366_1962.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> November 1, 1962, <em><em>Physical Review Letters</em></em></a>.</p><p>As Hall and his team worked, so did researchers at the Watson Research Center, in Yorktown Heights, N.Y. In February 1962<a href="https://ethw.org/w/images/5/5c/Nathan_Invention_of_the_injection_laser_at_IBM_JQE23p679_1987.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> Marshall I. Nathan</a>, an <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/ibm">IBM</a> researcher who previously worked with gallium arsenide, received a <a href="https://ethw.org/Semiconductor_Laser" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">mandate</a> from his department director, according to ETHW: Create the first gallium arsenide laser.</p><p>Nathan led a team of researchers including William P. Dumke, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Gerald-Burns-74735763" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Gerald Burns</a>,<a href="https://ethw.org/Frederick_H._Dill" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> Frederick H. Dill</a>, and Gordon Lasher, to develop the laser. They completed the task in October and hand-delivered a paper outlining their work to <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/apl" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em><em>Applied Physics Letters</em></em></a>,<a href="https://ethw.org/w/images/3/3e/Nathan_StimulatedLightEmissionfFromGaAsJunctions_APL1p62_1962.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> which published it</a> on 1 November 1962.</p><p>Over at MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory, Quist, Keyes, and their colleague <a href="https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Robert_Rediker" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Robert Rediker</a> published <a href="https://ethw.org/w/images/1/13/Quist_SemiconductorMASERofGaAs_APL1p91_1962.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">their findings</a> in<a href="https://ethw.org/w/images/1/13/Quist_SemiconductorMASERofGaAs_APL1p91_1962.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"></a><em><em>Applied Physics Letters</em></em> on 1 December1962.</p><p>It had all happened so quickly that a <a href="https://ethw.org/w/images/2/2f/NYT_semiconductor_laser_article_621101.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em><em>New York Times </em></em>article</a> marveled about the “striking coincidence,” noting that IBM officials didn’t know about GE’s success until GE sent invitations to a news conference. An MIT spokesperson told the <em><em>Times </em></em>that GE had achieved success “a couple days or a week” before its own team.</p><p>Both IBM and GE had applied for U.S. patents in October, and both were ultimately awarded.</p><p>All three facilities now have been honored by IEEE for their work.</p><p>“Perhaps nowhere else has the semiconductor laser had greater impact than in communications,” according to an <a href="https://ethw.org/Milestones:Semiconductor_Laser,_1962" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ETHW entry</a>, “where every second, a semiconductor laser quietly encodes the sum of human knowledge into light, enabling it to be shared almost instantaneously across oceans and space.”</p><p class="shortcode-media shortcode-media-rebelmouse-image"><img alt="A photo of fingers holding a device with light coming out. " class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image" data-rm-shortcode-id="bee324fe4a0f00381f3ca0ef8d256251" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/a-photo-of-fingers-holding-a-device-with-light-coming-out.jpg?id=52677247&width=980" height="1140" id="14c57" lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%201825%201140'%3E%3C/svg%3E" width="1825"/><small class="image-media media-caption" placeholder="Add Photo Caption...">IBM Research’s semiconductor laser used a gallium arsenide p-n diode, which was patterned into a small optical cavity with an etched mesa structure.</small><small class="image-media media-photo-credit" placeholder="Add Photo Credit...">IBM</small></p><p>Juodawlkis, speaking at the Lincoln Lab ceremony, noted that semiconductor lasers are used “every time you make a cellphone call” or “Google silly cat videos.”</p><p>“If we look in the broader world,” he said, “semiconductor lasers are really one of the founding pedestals of the information age.”</p><p>He concluded his speech with a <a href="https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,830136,00.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">quote summing up a 1963 <em><em>Time </em></em>magazine article</a>: “If the world is ever afflicted with a choice between thousands of different TV programs, a few diodes with their feeble beams of infrared light might carry them all at once.”</p><p>That was a “prescient foreshadowing of what semiconductor lasers have enabled,” Juodawlkis said. “It’s amazing what these … three organizations in the Northeast of the United States did 62 years ago to provide all this capability for us now and into the future.”</p><p>Plaques recognizing the technology are now displayed at GE, the Watson Research Center, and the Lincoln Laboratory. They read:</p><p><em><em>In the autumn of 1962, General Electric’s Schenectady and Syracuse facilities, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, and MIT Lincoln Laboratory each independently reported the first demonstrations of the semiconductor laser. Smaller than a grain of rice, powered using direct current injection, and available at wavelengths spanning the ultraviolet to the infrared, the semiconductor laser became ubiquitous in modern communications, data storage, and precision measurement systems.</em></em></p><p>The IEEE <a href="https://ieeeboston.org/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Boston</a>,<a href="https://ewh.ieee.org/r1/new_york/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> New York</a>, and <a href="https://ethw.org/IEEE_Schenectady_Section_History" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Schenectady</a> sections as well as the <a href="https://ieeephotonics.org/" target="_blank">IEEE Photonics Society</a> sponsored the nomination.</p>Administered by the <a href="https://www.ieee.org/about/history-center/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">IEEE History Center</a> and supported by donors, the Milestone program recognizes outstanding technical developments around the world.<div class="around-the-web"><div class="from-your-site__headline">From Your Site Articles</div><ul class="around-the-web__list"><li class="from-your-site__item"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/edith-clarke-modern-power-distribution" class="from-your-site__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Edith Clarke: Architect of Modern Power Distribution ›</a></li><li class="from-your-site__item"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/story-behind-pixars-cgi-software" class="from-your-site__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Story Behind Pixar’s RenderMan CGI Software ›</a></li><li class="from-your-site__item"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/how-dec-engineers-saved-ethernet" class="from-your-site__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">How Engineers at Digital Equipment Corp. Saved Ethernet ›</a></li></ul></div></div></div><span class="" data-elid="2668735492" data-post-url="https://spectrum.ieee.org/invention-semiconductor-laser" data-authors="Julianne Pepitone" data-headline="Inside the Three-Way Race to Create the Most Widely Used Laser" data-page-title="semiconductor laser - IEEE Spectrum"></span></div><div class="widget__head"></div><div class="widget__body clearfix sm-mt-1"><div class="tags"><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/ge">ge</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/ibm">ibm</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/ieee-history">ieee history</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/ieee-milestone">ieee milestone</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/laser">laser</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/mit-lincoln-lab">mit lincoln lab</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/semiconductor-laser">semiconductor laser</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/type-ti">type:ti</a></div></div></div></div><script type="application/json" id="post-context-2668735492" class="post-context post-context-2668735492"> {"customDimensions": {"5":"Julianne Pepitone","11":2668735492,"7":"ge, ibm, ieee history, ieee milestone, laser, mit lincoln lab, semiconductor laser, type:ti","10":"ieee history","6":"the-institute","8":"07/14/2024"}, "post": {"id": 2668735492, "providerId": 0, "sections": [0, 497728257, 539619441, 539626938, 560561003, 544175596, 544169516], "authors": [21080998], "streams": [], "split_testing": {}} } </script></article></div></div></div></div><div class="" id="sOpen_Current_Default_Post_0_0_14_0_0_1"><div class="mb-2 post-author-list" id="sOpen_Current_Default_Post_0_0_14_0_0_1_0"><div class="posts-custom posts-custom-section section-holder clearfix" data-block="None" data-format="posts-custom" 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url("https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNjkxNzM4NC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTc4ODE4MDY3Nn0.zGanWFWZJafIpwTAgWdDRQB4db8aZl7f54bn2CwPzfo/image.png?width=210")"></div></div><a class="social-author__name" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/u/julianne-pepitone" data-type="text">Julianne Pepitone</a><div class="social-author__bio"><p><a href="http://juliannepepitone.com/">Julianne Pepitone</a> is a freelance journalist who reports via text, video, and television. She spent years on staff at CNN Business and then at NBC News, covering consumer tech, cybersecurity, and business. Now a freelancer, she works with an eclectic roster of clients. Beyond <em>Spectrum</em>, CNN, and NBC, her bylines can also be found at <em>HGTV Magazine</em>, Memorial Sloan Kettering, NYMag.com, Glassdoor, <em>Popular Mechanics</em>, <em>Cosmopolitan</em>, <em>Town & Country</em>, Thrillist, MagnifyMoney, <em>The Village Voice</em>, and more.</p></div></div></div><div class="widget__head"></div></div></div><script type="application/json" id="post-context-2668735492" class="post-context post-context-2668735492"> {"customDimensions": {"5":"Julianne Pepitone","11":2668735492,"7":"ge, ibm, ieee history, ieee milestone, laser, mit lincoln lab, semiconductor laser, type:ti","10":"ieee history","6":"the-institute","8":"07/14/2024"}, "post": {"id": 2668735492, "providerId": 0, "sections": [0, 497728257, 539619441, 539626938, 560561003, 544175596, 544169516], "authors": [21080998], "streams": [], "split_testing": {}} } </script></article></div></div></div></div></div><div class="" id="sOpen_Current_Default_Post_0_0_14_0_0_2_1_0"><div class="post-partial article__comments"><div class="article-content__comments-wrapper"><div id="comments-widget"><div class="talk-comments-wrp community-native-wrp " data-talk_id="post:2668735492:comments" data-limit="3" data-order="best" data-is_amp="" data-count_top_level="2" data-count_featured="0" data-show_rating="False" data-all_element_order="avatar,title,date,site_field_member_badges,site_field_grade,message,update_avatar,follow,bio,review" data-words-per-message="{"min": 1, "max": 100}" data-inactive_layout_attributes="update_avatar,follow,bio,review" data-active_layout_attributes="site_field_member_badges,site_field_grade"><div class="editmode-section-title"></div><a href="#" class="hidden new-comments-notification" aria-label="New coments notification"></a><div class="comment-headline">The Conversation (2)</div><div class="add-comment"><div class="comment_placeholder-wrp"><div class="animated-background"><div class="placeholder__textarea_top"></div><div class="placeholder__textarea_botmiddle_left"></div><div class="placeholder__textarea_botmiddle_right"></div><div class="placeholder__textarea_bottom"></div><div class="placeholder__button_b"></div><div class="placeholder__button_i"></div><div class="placeholder__button_publish"></div></div><div class="comment-login-wrp"></div></div></div><div class="comment-header"></div><div class="talk--messages"><div class="talk--messages__featured"></div><div class="talk--messages__top_level"><div id="comment-669fc45c1796088330be9c84" class="comment--item approved-comment" data-talk_id="post:2668735492:comments" data-message_id="669fc45c1796088330be9c84" data-parents=""><div class="comment--item-avatar"><img src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/res/avatars/default" title="Thomas Sciacca" alt="Thomas Sciacca" loading="lazy" width="38" height="38"/></div><div class="comment--item-text"><span class="comment--item-username">Thomas Sciacca</span><span class="comment--item-date" title="July 23 2024, 14:55:24">23 Jul, 2024</span><div class="comment--custom-field-grade" data-value="LM"> LM </div><div class="comment--item-message"><p>Wow. In the early 60’s as a high school kid from Long Island I attended a program at Columbia on Saturday mornings for science nerds. One thing I remember the professor who was babysitting us blathering on about was “optical pumping”. As I later learned at MIT, the smartest profs are not the best communicators. I didn’t have a clue what he was talking about. I later figured out it was lasers, but never knew why a Columbia prof would be talking about it at that particular time. Thanks.</p></div><div class="comment--item--action"><div><a href="javascript: void(0);" title="reply" class="comment--item__reply disabled" data-message_id="669fc45c1796088330be9c84" aria-label="reply"><svg class="comment-action-icon" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="17" height="17" viewbox="0 0 24 24" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M10 9V5l-7 7 7 7v-4.1c5 0 8.5 1.6 11 5.1-1-5-4-10-11-11z"></path><path d="M0 0h24v24H0z" fill="none"></path></svg></a><a href="javascript: void(0);" title="share" class="comment--item__share disabled" data-message_id="669fc45c1796088330be9c84" aria-label="share"><svg class="comment-action-icon" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="17" height="17" viewbox="0 0 24 24" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M0 0h24v24H0z" fill="none"></path><path d="M18 16.08c-.76 0-1.44.3-1.96.77L8.91 12.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.54.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.47.09.7L8.04 9.81C7.5 9.31 6.79 9 6 9c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.12 4.16c-.05.21-.08.43-.08.65 0 1.61 1.31 2.92 2.92 2.92 1.61 0 2.92-1.31 2.92-2.92s-1.31-2.92-2.92-2.92z"></path></svg></a><a href="javascript: void(0);" title="like" class="comment--item__like disabled" data-action="like" data-message_id="669fc45c1796088330be9c84" aria-label="like"><svg class="comment-action-icon" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="17" height="17" viewbox="0 0 24 24" aria-hidden="true"><path fill="none" d="M0 0h24v24H0V0z"></path><path d="M1 21h4V9H1v12zm22-11c0-1.1-.9-2-2-2h-6.31l.95-4.57.03-.32c0-.41-.17-.79-.44-1.06L14.17 1 7.59 7.59C7.22 7.95 7 8.45 7 9v10c0 1.1.9 2 2 2h9c.83 0 1.54-.5 1.84-1.22l3.02-7.05c.09-.23.14-.47.14-.73v-2z"></path></svg></a><a href="javascript: void(0);" title="unlike" class="comment--item__dislike disabled" data-action="dislike" data-message_id="669fc45c1796088330be9c84" aria-label="unlike"><svg class="comment-action-icon" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="17" height="17" viewbox="0 0 24 24" aria-hidden="true"><path fill="none" d="M0 0h24v24H0z"></path><path d="M15 3H6c-.83 0-1.54.5-1.84 1.22l-3.02 7.05c-.09.23-.14.47-.14.73v2c0 1.1.9 2 2 2h6.31l-.95 4.57-.03.32c0 .41.17.79.44 1.06L9.83 23l6.59-6.59c.36-.36.58-.86.58-1.41V5c0-1.1-.9-2-2-2zm4 0v12h4V3h-4z"></path></svg></a></div></div><div class="comment-login-wrp"></div></div><div class="replies level-two "><a href="javascript: void(0);" class="comment--show--replies" data-message_id="669fc45c1796088330be9c84" aria-label="show replies"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="16" height="16" viewbox="0 0 24 24" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M16.59 8.59L12 13.17 7.41 8.59 6 10l6 6 6-6z"></path><path d="M0 0h24v24H0z" fill="none"></path></svg><span class="comment--count">1</span> Reply </a><a href="javascript: void(0);" class="comment--hide--replies hidden" data-message_id="669fc45c1796088330be9c84" aria-label="hide replies"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="16" height="16" viewbox="0 0 24 24" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M12 8l-6 6 1.41 1.41L12 10.83l4.59 4.58L18 14z"></path><path d="M0 0h24v24H0z" fill="none"></path></svg> Hide replies </a><div class="reply-items hidden"></div><div class="talk--load_more__replies hidden" data-message_id="669fc45c1796088330be9c84">Show More Replies</div></div></div></div></div><script type="rm-preact-state">{"authors": {"23604757": {"id": 25283313, "path": "u/thomas-sciacca", "title": "Thomas Sciacca", "image": "https://spectrum.ieee.org/res/avatars/default", "about": "", "rating": 0, "owner_id": 23604757, "site_specific_data": {"Twitter": null, "grade": "LM", "Facebook": null, "mini_bio": null, "works_for": null, "member_of": null, "Instagram": null, "first_name": "Thomas", "LinkedIn": null, "last_name": "Sciacca", "alumni_of": null, "member_badges": null, "job_title": null, "affiliation": null}}}, "forcedComments": [], "topLevelComments": [{"id": "669fc45c1796088330be9c84", "html": "\u003cp\u003eWow. In the early 60\u2019s as a high school kid from Long Island I attended a program at Columbia on Saturday mornings for science nerds. One thing I remember the professor who was babysitting us blathering on about was \u201coptical pumping\u201d. As I later learned at MIT, the smartest profs are not the best communicators. I didn\u2019t have a clue what he was talking about. I later figured out it was lasers, but never knew why a Columbia prof would be talking about it at that particular time. Thanks.\u003c/p\u003e", "data": null, "payload": {"review_score": 5}, "status": "approved", "rating": 0, "author_id": 23604757, "created_ts": 1721746524, "updated_ts": 1721746524, "parents": "", "counts": {"replies": {"total": 1, "direct": 1, "public": {"total": 1, "direct": 1, "total_eq_1": true}}, "reports": 0}}], "featuredComments": []} </script><div class="talk--load_more-wrp "></div></div></div></div></div><script> var clickeableItems = [ ".talk-comments-wrp .add-comment", ".talk-comments-wrp .comment-item--publish", ".talk-comments-wrp .comment--item__reply", ".talk-comments-wrp .comment--item__like", ".talk-comments-wrp .comment--item__dislike", ".talk-comments-wrp .replies"]; var talkItems = document.querySelectorAll(clickeableItems.join(",")) || []; talkItems.forEach(function(item) { item.addEventListener("click", function(event){ event.preventDefault(); event.stopPropagation(); openGatedPopup('for_comments'); }, true); }); </script></div><div class="mb-2 read_also_posts" id="sOpen_Current_Default_Post_0_0_14_0_0_3_1_0"><div class="posts-custom posts-custom-section section-holder clearfix" data-block="section_1" data-format="posts-custom" data-source="filtered_parent_site" data-source-type="page" data-source-unique="true" data-section-id="" data-is-reordable="false" data-using-stickers="false" data-has-more="true" data-attr-v="2" data-attr-posts_id="sOpen_Current_Default_Post_0_0_14_0_0_3_1_0" data-attr-source_unique="true" data-attr-without_current="true" data-attr-layout_quality="1" data-attr-node_id="/root/blocks/block[open_current_default_post]/abtests/abtest[1]/choose[3]/otherwise/posts-" data-attr-use_tag_image_for_lead_media="true" data-attr-source="filtered" data-attr-from_regular_sections_of_current_post="true" data-attr-from_regular_sections_other_than="webinar,whitepaper,sponsored,podcast,video,tests,issue-cover-posts,paper" data-attr-all_element_order="all_sections,headline,date,time_to_read,like_button,custom_field_TimeofRead,section,primary_tag,author,badges,badges_sponsored,photo_credit,community_name,subheadline,snark_line,page_views,photo_caption,follow_button,community_comments,body,collection_button,tags,source_link,main_author,post_shares,custom_field_contact-person-phone,custom_field_event-performer,custom_field_event-street-address,custom_field_job-type,custom_field_event-postal-code,custom_field_contact-person-title,custom_field_event-start,custom_field_company_name,custom_field_event-end,custom_field_hiring-organization,custom_field_event-price,custom_field_job-tags,custom_field_event-city,custom_field_contact_email,custom_field_posted-on-date,custom_field_job-title,custom_field_job-location,custom_field_event-region,custom_field_event-currency,custom_field_base-salary,custom_field_event-country,custom_field_contact_person,custom_field_expire-date,date_modified,custom_field_ContentType,custom_field_CustomFieldTestEG,custom_field_Issue,custom_field_FullwidthCardColor,custom_field_FullwidthCardPosition,product_prices,product_vendor,product_buy_link,site_field_Twitter,site_field_Facebook,site_field_Instagram,site_field_LinkedIn,custom_field_PodcastVideoTime,custom_field_Editor,custom_field_PodcastEpisode,custom_field_FeaturePostColor,custom_field_due_date,custom_field_FeaturePostImgPosition,custom_field_access,site_field_member_badges,custom_field_publication_date,words_count,site_field_first_name,site_field_last_name,site_field_grade,custom_field_pdf_version,custom_field_fullwidthbackgroundposition,custom_field_copy_editor,custom_field_lightbox_img_shortcode_ids,custom_field_disable_comments,custom_field_is_updated_post,custom_field_youtube_video" data-attr-limit="3" data-attr-layout_headline="right" data-attr-data-rm-device-crops="true" data-attr-layout_desktop_image_crop="original" data-attr-layout_image_column_width="28" data-attr-data-rm-advanced="true" data-attr-element_classes="read_also_posts" data-attr-layout_date="right" data-attr-layout_all_date_format="%d %b %Y" data-attr-layout_all_date_full_format="false" data-attr-layout_all_image_crop="original" data-attr-layout_like_button="right" data-attr-layout_all_sections="right" data-attr-layout_time_to_read="right" data-attr-format="posts-custom" data-attr-source_site="parent_site"><div class="posts-wrapper clearfix"><div class="widget tag-artificial-intelligence tag-driving tag-advanced-driver-assistance-systems tag-monitoring post-section--topic/transportation" elid="2669871843" data-category="Transportation"><article elid="2669871843" data-frozen-sections="[]" class="clearfix image-article sm-mb-1 quality-HD post-2669871843"><div class="row px10"><div class="rm-col-center col sm-mb-1" style="width:28.0%;"><div class="widget__head"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/driver-drowsiness-detection" aria-label="AI Dash Cams Give Wake-Up Calls to Drowsy Drivers"><img role="img" type="lazy-image" alt="Dashboard camera footage of a driver yawning as data generates about his behavior behind the wheel. 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var currentPosition; stickyEl.style.height = stickyEl.offsetHeight + 'px'; document.addEventListener("scroll", createIdleScrollListener(function B() { currentPosition = stickyEl.getBoundingClientRect().top + darkTopbarHeight; if( currentPosition < startPosition ) { if( !stickyEl.classList.contains('active') ) { stickyEl.classList.add('active'); } } else { if( stickyEl.classList.contains('active') ) { stickyEl.classList.remove('active'); } } })); }); window.REBELMOUSE_LOWEST_TASKS_QUEUE.push(function(){ const lightboxesArray = Array.from(document.querySelectorAll('.lightbox_icon')) const fullWidth = function(){ const lightbox = this const windowWidth = window.innerWidth let imageSource = lightbox.querySelector('img').src const initialWidth = imageSource.match(/width=([^&]+)/)[1]; const result = imageSource.replace(initialWidth, windowWidth); return lightbox.querySelector('img').setAttribute('src', `${result}`) } lightboxesArray.map(lightbox => { lightbox.addEventListener('click', fullWidth) }) }); window.REBELMOUSE_LOWEST_TASKS_QUEUE.push(function(){ let scnt=1; let options = { // threshhold for intersection observer, so it triggers before or after element in viewport dependinng upon value rootMargin: '0px 0px 400px 0px' } function handleIntersection(entries) { entries.map((entry) => { if (entry.isIntersecting) { if(!entry.target.classList.contains('sidebar_sticky_parent')){ processAd(entry.target) //your call back here with the element that is intersected or in viewport } else { sidebar_ad_repeat(entry.target) } observer.unobserve(entry.target); // if you want to run it only once unobserve it } }); } window.IcreateElementChangeListener=function(selector, callback) { // look for elements that are injected later in the page. const initializedNodes = new Set([]); document.querySelectorAll(selector).forEach((node) => { callback(node); initializedNodes.add(node); }); const mutationObserver = new MutationObserver(() => { const nodes = document.querySelectorAll(selector); nodes.forEach((node) => { if (!initializedNodes.has(node)) { callback(node); initializedNodes.add(node); } }); }); mutationObserver.observe(document.body, { childList: true, subtree: true, }); } const observer = new IntersectionObserver(handleIntersection,options); IcreateElementChangeListener(".sidebar_sticky_parent",function(item){ //looks for item in the dom even if they are lazy laoded observer.observe(item); // observe item }) function sidebar_ad_repeat(sidebar_div){ let ad_id="ieee_sidebar_"+scnt; rblbid.cmd.push(function() { sidebar_div.querySelector(".sidebar_repeat_ad").id=ad_id; sidebar_div.style.height="1800px"; scnt++; sidebar_div.insertAdjacentHTML('afterend','<div class="sidebar_sticky_parent"><div class="stick_in_parent"><div class="sidebar_repeat_ad rblad-ieee_sidebar"></div></div></div>') }); } });</script></body></html>