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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origins of the modern concept</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_modern_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Implementation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Implementation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eli_Whitney_and_an_early_attempt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eli_Whitney_and_an_early_attempt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> 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href="#North_and_Hall:_success_in_metal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>North and Hall: success in metal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_and_Hall:_success_in_metal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_19th_and_early_20th_centuries:_dissemination_throughout_manufacturing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_19th_and_early_20th_centuries:_dissemination_throughout_manufacturing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Late 19th and early 20th centuries: dissemination throughout manufacturing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_19th_and_early_20th_centuries:_dissemination_throughout_manufacturing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%B9_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84" title="قطع قابلة للاستبدال – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قطع قابلة للاستبدال" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qar%C5%9F%C4%B1l%C4%B1ql%C4%B1_%C9%99v%C9%99zolunma" title="Qarşılıqlı əvəzolunma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qarşılıqlı əvəzolunma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peces_intercanviables" title="Peces intercanviables – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Peces intercanviables" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normteil" title="Normteil – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Normteil" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezas_intercambiables" title="Piezas intercambiables – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Piezas intercambiables" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B6" title="قطعات قابل تعویض – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قطعات قابل تعویض" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ce_interchangeable" title="Pièce interchangeable – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pièce interchangeable" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savstarp%C4%93j%C4%81_apmain%C4%81m%C4%ABba" title="Savstarpējā apmaināmība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Savstarpējā apmaināmība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csereszabatos_alkatr%C3%A9sz" title="Csereszabatos alkatrész – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csereszabatos alkatrész" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uitwisselbare_onderdelen" title="Uitwisselbare onderdelen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Uitwisselbare onderdelen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe%C3%A7as_intercambi%C3%A1veis" title="Peças intercambiáveis – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Peças intercambiáveis" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Взаимозаменяемость – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Взаимозаменяемость" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Interchangeable parts" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%94%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Взаємозамінність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Взаємозамінність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masasaliwanan_it_mga_pyesa" title="Masasaliwanan it mga pyesa – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Masasaliwanan it mga pyesa" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E4%BA%92%E6%8F%9B%E9%9B%B6%E4%BB%B6" title="可互換零件 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="可互換零件" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q871913#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Interchangeable_parts" title="Special:EditPage/Interchangeable parts">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Interchangeable_parts" title="Talk:Interchangeable parts">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Interchangeable_parts" title="Special:EditPage/Interchangeable parts">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Interchangeable+parts%22">"Interchangeable parts"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Interchangeable+parts%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Interchangeable+parts%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Interchangeable+parts%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Interchangeable+parts%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Interchangeable+parts%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/220px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/330px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/440px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3916" data-file-height="2826" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a> would often use interchangeable parts between car models to save costs, but slowly decreased after it lost market share to Chevrolet.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Interchangeable parts</b> are parts (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/component#Noun" class="extiw" title="wikt:component">components</a>) that are identical for practical purposes. They are made to <a href="/wiki/Specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Specification">specifications</a> that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they will fit into any assembly of the same type. One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting, such as <a href="/wiki/File_(tool)" title="File (tool)">filing</a>. This interchangeability allows easy assembly of new devices, and easier repair of existing devices, while minimizing both the time and skill required of the person doing the assembly or repair. </p><p>The concept of interchangeability was crucial to the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">assembly line</a> at the beginning of the 20th century, and has become an important element of some modern manufacturing but is missing from other important industries. </p><p>Interchangeability of parts was achieved by combining a number of innovations and improvements in machining operations and the invention of several <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay#Lathe_design" title="Henry Maudslay">slide rest lathe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Screw-cutting_lathe" title="Screw-cutting lathe">screw-cutting lathe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turret_lathe" title="Turret lathe">turret lathe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milling_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Milling machine">milling machine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planer_(metalworking)" title="Planer (metalworking)">metal planer</a>. Additional innovations included jigs for guiding the machine tools, fixtures for holding the workpiece in the proper position, and blocks and gauges to check the accuracy of the finished parts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a> allowed individual machine tools to be powered by electric motors, eliminating <a href="/wiki/Line_shaft" title="Line shaft">line shaft</a> drives from steam engines or water power and allowing higher speeds, making modern large-scale manufacturing possible.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern machine tools often have <a href="/wiki/Numerical_control" title="Numerical control">numerical control</a> (NC) which evolved into CNC (computerized numeric control) when microprocessors became available. </p><p>Methods for industrial production of interchangeable parts in the United States were first developed in the nineteenth century. The term <i><a href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American system of manufacturing</a></i> was sometimes applied to them at the time, in distinction from earlier methods. Within a few decades such methods were in use in various countries, so <i>American system</i> is now a term of historical reference rather than current industrial nomenclature. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_use">First use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: First use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence of the use of interchangeable parts can be traced back over two thousand years to <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> in the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a>. Carthaginian ships had standardized, interchangeable parts that even came with assembly instructions akin to "tab A into slot B" marked on them.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_modern_concept">Origins of the modern concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins of the modern concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late-18th century, French General <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Vaquette_de_Gribeauval" title="Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval">Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval</a> promoted standardized weapons in what became known as the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Gribeauval_system" title="Gribeauval system"> Système Gribeauval</a></i></span> after it was issued as a royal order in 1765. (At the time the system focused on <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> more than on <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">muskets</a> or <a href="/wiki/Handgun" title="Handgun">handguns</a>.) One of the accomplishments of the system was that solid-cast cannons were bored to precise tolerances, which allowed the walls to be thinner than cannons poured with hollow cores. However, because cores were often off-center, the wall thickness determined the size of the bore. Standardized boring made for shorter cannons without sacrificing accuracy and range because of the tighter fit of the <a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">shells</a>; it also allowed standardization of the shells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Before the 18th century, devices such as guns were made one at a time by <a href="/wiki/Gunsmith" title="Gunsmith">gunsmiths</a> in a unique manner. If one single component of a firearm needed a replacement, the entire firearm either had to be sent to an expert gunsmith for custom repairs, or discarded and replaced by another firearm. During the 18th and early-19th centuries, the idea of replacing these methods with a system of interchangeable manufacture gradually developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitch1882p4_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitch1882p4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hounshell1984pp25-46_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hounshell1984pp25-46-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development took decades and involved many people.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitch1882p4_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitch1882p4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hounshell1984pp25-46_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hounshell1984pp25-46-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gribeauval provided patronage to <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Blanc" title="Honoré Blanc">Honoré Blanc</a>, who attempted to implement the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Système Gribeauval</i></span> at the musket level. By around 1778, Honoré Blanc began producing some of the first firearms with interchangeable <a href="/wiki/Flintlock_mechanism" title="Flintlock mechanism">flintlock mechanisms</a>, although they were carefully made by craftsmen. Blanc demonstrated in front of a committee of scientists that his muskets could be fitted with flintlock mechanisms picked at random from a pile of parts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1785 muskets with interchangeable locks caught the attention of the United States' Ambassador to France, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, through the efforts of Honoré Blanc. Jefferson tried unsuccessfully to persuade Blanc to move to America, then wrote to the American Secretary of War with the idea, and when he returned to the USA he worked to fund its development. President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> approved of the concept, and in 1798 <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a> signed a contract to mass-produce 12,000 muskets built under the new system.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (February 2024)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 4th July 1793 and 25th November 1795, the London gunsmith <a href="/wiki/Henry_Nock" title="Henry Nock">Henry Nock</a> delivered 12,010 'screwless' or '<a href="/wiki/Charles_Lennox,_3rd_Duke_of_Richmond" title="Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond">Duke's</a>' locks to the British <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Ordnance" title="Board of Ordnance">Board of Ordnance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These locks were intended to be interchangeable, being manufactured in large volumes in a steam-powered factory using gauges and lathes. Subsequent experiments have suggested that the lock's components were interchangeable at a higher rate than those of the later British <a href="/wiki/Brown_Bess" title="Brown Bess">New Land Pattern musket</a> and the American <a href="/wiki/Model_1816_Musket" title="Model 1816 Musket">M1816 musket.</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Tousard" title="Louis de Tousard">Louis de Tousard</a>, who fled the French Revolution, joined the U.S. Corp of Artillerists in 1795 and wrote an influential artillerist's manual that stressed the importance of standardization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerous inventors began to try to implement the principle Blanc had described. The development of the machine tools and manufacturing practices required would be a great expense to the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordnance Department">Ordnance Department</a>, and for some years while trying to achieve interchangeability, the firearms produced cost more to manufacture. By 1853, there was evidence that interchangeable parts, then perfected by the Federal Armories, led to savings. The Ordnance Department freely shared the techniques used with outside suppliers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eli_Whitney_and_an_early_attempt">Eli Whitney and an early attempt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Eli Whitney and an early attempt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the US, <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a> saw the potential benefit of developing "interchangeable parts" for the firearms of the United States military. In July 1801 he built ten guns, all containing the same exact parts and mechanisms, then disassembled them before the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Congress of the United States">United States Congress</a>. He placed the parts in a mixed pile and, with help, reassembled all of the firearms in front of Congress, much as Blanc had done some years before.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Congress was captivated and ordered a standard for all United States equipment. The use of interchangeable parts removed the problems of earlier eras concerning the difficulty or impossibility of producing new parts for old equipment. If one firearm part failed, another could be ordered, and the firearm would not need to be discarded. The catch was that Whitney's guns were costly and handmade by skilled workmen. </p><p>Charles Fitch credited Whitney with successfully executing a firearms contract with interchangeable parts using the <a href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American System</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Fitch1882p4_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitch1882p4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but historians <a href="/wiki/Merritt_Roe_Smith" title="Merritt Roe Smith">Merritt Roe Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Gordon" title="Robert B. Gordon">Robert B. Gordon</a> have since determined that Whitney never actually achieved interchangeable parts manufacturing. His family's arms company, however, did so after his death. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brunel's_sailing_blocks"><span id="Brunel.27s_sailing_blocks"></span>Brunel's sailing blocks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Brunel's sailing blocks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PulleyShip.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/PulleyShip.JPG/220px-PulleyShip.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/PulleyShip.JPG/330px-PulleyShip.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/PulleyShip.JPG/440px-PulleyShip.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>A pulley block for rigging on a sailing ship</figcaption></figure> <p>Mass production using interchangeable parts was first achieved in 1803 by <a href="/wiki/Marc_Isambard_Brunel" title="Marc Isambard Brunel">Marc Isambard Brunel</a> in cooperation with <a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Henry Maudslay</a> and Simon Goodrich, under the management of (and with contributions by) Brigadier-General Sir <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Bentham" title="Samuel Bentham">Samuel Bentham</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper1984_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Inspector General of Naval Works at <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills" title="Portsmouth Block Mills">Portsmouth Block Mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Dockyard" class="mw-redirect" title="Portsmouth Dockyard">Portsmouth Dockyard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hampshire" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a>, England. At the time, the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic War">Napoleonic War</a> was at its height, and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Block_(sailing)" title="Block (sailing)">pulley blocks</a> to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery and reorganising the dockyard system. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/170px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/255px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/340px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="749" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Henry Maudslay</a>'s screw-cutting lathes (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800</span>) permitted the large-scale, industrial production of screws that were interchangeable.</figcaption></figure> <p>Marc Brunel, a pioneering engineer, and Maudslay, a founding father of <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tool</a> technology who had developed the first industrially practical <a href="/wiki/Screw-cutting_lathe" title="Screw-cutting lathe">screw-cutting lathe</a> in 1800 which standardized <a href="/wiki/Screw_thread" title="Screw thread">screw thread</a> sizes for the first time,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> collaborated on plans to manufacture block-making machinery; the proposal was submitted to the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">Admiralty</a> who agreed to commission his services. By 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, which could be made in three different sizes. The machines were almost entirely made of metal, thus improving their accuracy and durability. The machines would make markings and indentations on the blocks to ensure alignment throughout the process. One of the many advantages of this new method was the increase in labour <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> due to the less labour-intensive requirements of managing the machinery. Richard Beamish, assistant to Brunel's son and engineer, <a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a>, wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>So that ten men, by the aid of this machinery, can accomplish with uniformity, celerity and ease, what formerly required the uncertain labour of one hundred and ten.</p></blockquote> <p>By 1808, annual production had reached 130,000 blocks and some of the equipment was still in operation as late as the mid-twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert1965_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert1965-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cooper1982_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper1982-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cooper1984_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper1984-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terry's_clocks:_success_in_wood"><span id="Terry.27s_clocks:_success_in_wood"></span>Terry's clocks: success in wood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Terry's clocks: success in wood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wooden_Gear.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Wooden_Gear.jpg/220px-Wooden_Gear.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Wooden_Gear.jpg/330px-Wooden_Gear.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Wooden_Gear.jpg/440px-Wooden_Gear.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>A wooden gear from one of Terry's tall case clocks, showing the use of milled teeth</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Eli_Terry" title="Eli Terry">Eli Terry</a> was using interchangeable parts using a milling machine as early as 1800. Ward Francillon, a horologist, concluded in a study that Terry had already accomplished interchangeable parts as early as 1800. The study examined several of Terry's clocks produced between 1800–1807. The parts were labelled and interchanged as needed. The study concluded that all clock pieces were interchangeable. The very first mass production using interchangeable parts in America was <a href="/wiki/Eli_Terry" title="Eli Terry">Eli Terry</a>'s 1806 Porter Contract, which called for the production of 4000 clocks in three years.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this contract, Terry crafted four-thousand wooden gear tall case movements, at a time when the annual average was about a dozen.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a>, Terry manufactured his products without government funding. Terry saw the potential of clocks becoming a household object. With the use of a milling machine, Terry was able to mass-produce clock wheels and plates a few dozen at the same time. Jigs and templates were used to make uniform pinions, so that all parts could be assembled using an <a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">assembly line</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_and_Hall:_success_in_metal">North and Hall: success in metal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: North and Hall: success in metal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The crucial step toward interchangeability in metal parts was taken by <a href="/wiki/Simeon_North" title="Simeon North">Simeon North</a>, working only a few miles from <a href="/wiki/Eli_Terry" title="Eli Terry">Eli Terry</a>. North created one of the world's first true <a href="/wiki/Milling_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Milling machine">milling machines</a> to do metal shaping that had been done by hand with a file. Diana Muir believes that North's milling machine was online around 1816.<sup id="cite_ref-Muir2000_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muir2000-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muir, Merritt Roe Smith, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Gordon" title="Robert B. Gordon">Robert B. Gordon</a> all agree that before 1832 both Simeon North and <a href="/wiki/John_H._Hall_(soldier)" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Hall (soldier)">John Hall</a> were able to mass-produce complex machines with moving parts (guns) using a system that entailed the use of rough-forged parts, with a milling machine that milled the parts to near-correct size, and that were then "filed to gage by hand with the aid of filing jigs."<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon1989_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon1989-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians differ over the question of whether Hall or North made the crucial improvement. Merrit Roe Smith believes that it was done by Hall.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muir demonstrates the close personal ties and professional alliances between Simeon North and neighbouring mechanics mass-producing wooden clocks to argue that the process for manufacturing guns with interchangeable parts was most probably devised by North in emulation of the successful methods used in mass-producing clocks.<sup id="cite_ref-Muir2000_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muir2000-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may not be possible to resolve the question with absolute certainty unless documents now unknown should surface in the future. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_19th_and_early_20th_centuries:_dissemination_throughout_manufacturing">Late 19th and early 20th centuries: dissemination throughout manufacturing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Late 19th and early 20th centuries: dissemination throughout manufacturing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Skilled engineers and machinists, many with armoury experience, spread interchangeable manufacturing techniques to other American industries, including <a href="/wiki/Clockmaker" title="Clockmaker">clockmakers</a> and sewing machine manufacturers Wilcox and Gibbs and Wheeler and Wilson, who used interchangeable parts before 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Late to adopt the interchangeable system were <a href="/wiki/Singer_Corporation" title="Singer Corporation">Singer Corporation</a> sewing machine (1860s-70s), <a href="/wiki/Reaper" title="Reaper">reaper</a> manufacturer <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_McCormick" title="Cyrus McCormick">McCormick Harvesting Machine Company</a> (1870s–1880s)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and several large steam engine manufacturers such as <a href="/wiki/Corliss_steam_engine" title="Corliss steam engine">Corliss</a> (mid-1880s)<sup id="cite_ref-Hunter_1985_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunter_1985-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as locomotive makers. Typewriters followed some years later. Then large scale production of bicycles in the 1880s began to use the interchangeable system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During these decades, true interchangeability grew from a scarce and difficult achievement into an everyday capability throughout the manufacturing industries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the 1950s and 1960s, <a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">historians of technology</a> broadened the world's understanding of the history of the development. Few people outside that academic discipline knew much about the topic until as recently as the 1980s and 1990s, when the academic knowledge began finding wider audiences. As recently as the 1960s, when <a href="/wiki/Alfred_P._Sloan" title="Alfred P. Sloan">Alfred P. Sloan</a> published his famous memoir and management treatise, <i>My Years with General Motors</i>, even the long-time president and chair of the largest manufacturing enterprise that had ever existed knew very little about the history of the development, other than to say that: </p> <blockquote><p>[<a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Leland" title="Henry M. Leland">Henry M. Leland</a> was], I believe, one of those mainly responsible for bringing the technique of interchangeable parts into automobile manufacturing. […] It has been called to my attention that Eli Whitney, long before, had started the development of interchangeable parts in connection with the manufacture of guns, a fact which suggests a line of descent from Whitney to Leland to the automobile industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Sloan1964pp20-21_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sloan1964pp20-21-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>One of the better-known books on the subject, which was first published in 1984 and has enjoyed a readership beyond academia, has been <a href="/wiki/David_A._Hounshell" title="David A. Hounshell">David A. Hounshell</a>'s <i>From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allowance_(engineering)" title="Allowance (engineering)">Allowance (engineering)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">Configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_fit" title="Engineering fit">Engineering fit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_tolerance" title="Engineering tolerance">Engineering tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungibility" title="Fungibility">Fungibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_(business)" class="mw-redirect" title="Just-in-time (business)">Just-in-time (business)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Tousard" title="Louis de Tousard">Louis de Tousard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_design" title="Modular design">Modular design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preferred_number" title="Preferred number">Preferred numbers</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHounshell1984_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHounshell1984">Hounshell 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFordCrowther1930" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Ford, Henry</a>; Crowther, Samuel (1930), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121011222306/http://www.atomicacreative.com/images/ACG_EdisonAsIKnowHim.pdf"><i>Edison as I Know Him</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, New York: Cosmopolitan Book Company, p. 30, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicacreative.com/images/ACG_EdisonAsIKnowHim.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-10-11<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-29</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edison+as+I+Know+Him&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Cosmopolitan+Book+Company&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft.au=Crowther%2C+Samuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicacreative.com%2Fimages%2FACG_EdisonAsIKnowHim.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mmdtkw.org/ALRIAncRomUnit4Slides.html">Rome, Carthage, and the Punic Wars</a><br />Meanwhile Carthage was mass producing warships. And that's not an exaggeration either about numbers or about shipbuilding methods; Carthaginian warships were built up of standard interchangeable parts. We know this not only from contemporary accounts, but also from recovered Carthaginian ships like the half of a Carthaginian ship shown in (c), above, that was recovered off the coast of Marsala at the western tip of Sicily; it was brand new when it was sunk by the Romans, and it still retains marks giving assembly instructions ("tab a into slot b", etc.) Other recovered ships had identical parts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fitch1882p4-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fitch1882p4_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fitch1882p4_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fitch1882p4_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitch1882">Fitch 1882</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reportonmanufac00fitcgoog/page/n21">p. 4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hounshell1984pp25-46-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell1984pp25-46_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hounshell1984pp25-46_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHounshell1984">Hounshell 1984</a>, pp. 25–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Burke_(science_historian)" title="James Burke (science historian)">James Burke</a>, <i>Connections</i> (Little, Brown and Co.), 1978/1995 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-11672-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-11672-6">0-316-11672-6</a>, p. 150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoorstin2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Boorstin" title="Daniel J. Boorstin">Boorstin, Daniel J.</a> (7 July 2010) [1965]. "From Skill to Know-how: 'A Circulating Current'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YXVMTJMf9ZAC"><i>The Americans: The National Experience</i></a>. Americans Series (volume 2). New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 31, 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307756473" title="Special:BookSources/9780307756473"><bdi>9780307756473</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2024</span>. <q>[...] on May 1 [1798], Eli Whitney of Connecticut wrote the Secretary of the Treasury offering his machinery, water power, and workmen [...] for the manufacture of muskets. Whitney signed a contract for ten thousand muskets, a fantastic number in those days, to be delivered within twenty-eight months.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Skill+to+Know-how%3A+%27A+Circulating+Current%27&rft.btitle=The+Americans%3A+The+National+Experience&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Americans+Series+%28volume+2%29&rft.pages=31%2C+32&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2010-07-07&rft.isbn=9780307756473&rft.aulast=Boorstin&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYXVMTJMf9ZAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsHoodSpencerWilliams2024" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, David; Hood, Jamie; Spencer, Dawn; Williams, Alan; Harding, David (2024-09-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17416124.2024.2387930">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Duke's Lock': a study of the interchangeability of Henry Nock's Board of Ordnance 'Screwless' Lock. Part 1: materials, machines and measurements"</a>. <i>Arms & Armour</i>: 33, <span class="nowrap">19–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17416124.2024.2387930">10.1080/17416124.2024.2387930</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1741-6124">1741-6124</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arms+%26+Armour&rft.atitle=%E2%80%98The+Duke%E2%80%99s+Lock%E2%80%99%3A+a+study+of+the+interchangeability+of+Henry+Nock%E2%80%99s+Board+of+Ordnance+%E2%80%98Screwless%E2%80%99+Lock.+Part+1%3A+materials%2C+machines+and+measurements&rft.pages=33%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2024-09-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17416124.2024.2387930&rft.issn=1741-6124&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Hood%2C+Jamie&rft.au=Spencer%2C+Dawn&rft.au=Williams%2C+Alan&rft.au=Harding%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F17416124.2024.2387930&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_Dusen2003">Van Dusen 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper1984_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooper1984">Cooper 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quentin R. Skrabec, Jr. (2005). "The Metallurgic Age: The Victorian Flowering of Invention and Industrial Science". p. 169. McFarland</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/stories/enlightenment_and_measurement/05.ST.02/?scene=3&tv=true">"Making the Modern World – Rational manufacture"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Making+the+Modern+World+%E2%80%93+Rational+manufacture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.makingthemodernworld.org.uk%2Fstories%2Fenlightenment_and_measurement%2F05.ST.02%2F%3Fscene%3D3%26tv%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200226122038/https://portsmouthdockyard.org.uk/Page%206.htm">"PORTSMOUTH ROYAL DOCKYARD HISTORY"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.portsmouthdockyard.org.uk/Page%206.htm">the original</a> on 26 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PORTSMOUTH+ROYAL+DOCKYARD+HISTORY&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.portsmouthdockyard.org.uk%2FPage%25206.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010509194758/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/collections/exhiblets/block/start.asp">"Blockmaking - A new departure in manufacturing: Portsmouth blockmaking machinery"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/collections/exhiblets/block/start.asp">the original</a> on 2001-05-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blockmaking+-+A+new+departure+in+manufacturing%3A+Portsmouth+blockmaking+machinery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemuseum.org.uk%2Fcollections%2Fexhiblets%2Fblock%2Fstart.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilbert1965-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gilbert1965_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGilbert1965">Gilbert 1965</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cooper1982-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cooper1982_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooper1982">Cooper 1982</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cooper1984-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cooper1984_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooper1984">Cooper 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eli Terry and the Connecticut Shelf Clock; Tect</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eli Terry and the Connecticut Shelf Clock; Text</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muir2000-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Muir2000_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muir2000_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuir2000">Muir 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gordon1989-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gordon1989_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGordon1989">Gordon 1989</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1973">Smith 1973</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1977">Smith 1977</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1989" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, Ross (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathtomechanized00thom"><i>The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807818671" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807818671"><bdi>978-0807818671</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Path+to+Mechanized+Shoe+Production+in+the+United+States&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0807818671&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpathtomechanized00thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunter_1985-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hunter_1985_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1985" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Louis C. (1985). <i>A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power</i>. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730%E2%80%931930%2C+Vol.+2%3A+Steam+Power&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sloan1964pp20-21-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sloan1964pp20-21_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSloan1964">Sloan 1964</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantrellCookson2002" class="citation cs2">Cantrell, J.; Cookson, G., eds. (2002), <i>Henry Maudslay and the Pioneers of the Machine Age</i>, Stroud</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henry+Maudslay+and+the+Pioneers+of+the+Machine+Age&rft.pub=Stroud&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoad1989" class="citation cs2">Coad, Jonathan (1989), <i>The Royal Dockyards, 1690–1850</i>, Aldershot</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Royal+Dockyards%2C+1690%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Aldershot&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Coad&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoad2005" class="citation cs2">Coad, Jonathan (2005), <i>The Portsmouth Block Mills: Bentham, Brunel and the start of the Royal Navy's Industrial Revolution</i>, English Heritage, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-873592-87-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-873592-87-6"><bdi>1-873592-87-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Portsmouth+Block+Mills%3A+Bentham%2C+Brunel+and+the+start+of+the+Royal+Navy%27s+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=English+Heritage&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-873592-87-6&rft.aulast=Coad&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper1982" class="citation cs2">Cooper, C. C. (1982), "The production line at Portsmouth block mill", <i>Industrial Archaeology Review</i>, <b>VI</b>: <span class="nowrap">28–</span>44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=The+production+line+at+Portsmouth+block+mill&rft.volume=VI&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=C.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper1984" class="citation cs2">Cooper, C. C. (1984), "The Portsmouth system of manufacture", <i>Technology and Culture</i>, <b>25</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">182–</span>225, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3104712">10.2307/3104712</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3104712">3104712</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:111936139">111936139</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Portsmouth+system+of+manufacture&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E182-%3C%2Fspan%3E225&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A111936139%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3104712%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3104712&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=C.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitch1882" class="citation cs2">Fitch, Charles H. (1882), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gtZy4zvRRi0C&pg=PP10"><i>Extra Census Bulletin. Report on the manufacture of fire-arms and ammunition</i></a>, Washington, DC, USA: United States Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extra+Census+Bulletin.+Report+on+the+manufacture+of+fire-arms+and+ammunition&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC%2C+USA&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Fitch&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgtZy4zvRRi0C%26pg%3DPP10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrenchVierck1953" class="citation cs2">French, Thomas E.; Vierck, Charles J.; et al. (1953), <i>A manual of engineering drawing for students and draftsmen</i> (8th ed.), New York, New York, USA: McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/52013455">52013455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+manual+of+engineering+drawing+for+students+and+draftsmen&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York%2C+USA&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F52013455&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rft.au=Vierck%2C+Charles+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert1965" class="citation cs2">Gilbert, K. R. (1965), <i>The Portsmouth block-making machinery</i>, London, UK: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Portsmouth+block-making+machinery&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Her+Majesty%E2%80%99s+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=K.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1989" class="citation cs2">Gordon, Robert B. (1989), "Simeon North, John Hall, and mechanized manufacturing", <i>Technology and Culture</i>, <b>30</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">179–</span>188, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3105469">10.2307/3105469</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3105469">3105469</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:111632820">111632820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Simeon+North%2C+John+Hall%2C+and+mechanized+manufacturing&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E179-%3C%2Fspan%3E188&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A111632820%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3105469%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3105469&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHounshell1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_A._Hounshell" title="David A. Hounshell">Hounshell, David A.</a> (1984), <i>From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States</i>, Baltimore, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-2975-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83016269">83016269</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1104810110">1104810110</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+American+System+to+Mass+Production%2C+1800%E2%80%931932%3A+The+Development+of+Manufacturing+Technology+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1104810110&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83016269&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-2975-8&rft.aulast=Hounshell&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span> <i>Traces in detail the ideal of interchangeable parts, from its origins in 18th-century France, through the gradual development of its practical application via the <a href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">armory practice ("American system")</a> of the 19th century, to its apex in true <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> beginning in the early 20th century.</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Diana_Muir" class="mw-redirect" title="Diana Muir">Muir, Diana</a> (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reflectionsinbul00dian"><i>Reflections in Bullough's Pond: Economy and Ecosystem in New England</i></a>, University Press of New England, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-909-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-909-9"><bdi>978-0-87451-909-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+in+Bullough%27s+Pond%3A+Economy+and+Ecosystem+in+New+England&rft.pub=University+Press+of+New+England&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87451-909-9&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freflectionsinbul00dian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSloan1964" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_P._Sloan" title="Alfred P. Sloan">Sloan, Alfred P.</a> (1964), McDonald, John (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qHJEAAAAIAAJ"><i>My Years with General Motors</i></a>, Garden City, NY, US: Doubleday, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/64011306">64011306</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/802024">802024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Years+with+General+Motors&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+NY%2C+US&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F802024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F64011306&rft.aulast=Sloan&rft.aufirst=Alfred+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqHJEAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span> <i>Republished in 1990 with a new introduction by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385042352" title="Special:BookSources/978-0385042352">978-0385042352</a>).</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoe1916" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wickham_Roe" title="Joseph Wickham Roe">Roe, Joseph Wickham</a> (1916), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage"><i>English and American Tool Builders</i></a>, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/16011753">16011753</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+and+American+Tool+Builders&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16011753&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Wickham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-EJAAAAIAAJ%26printsec%3Dtitlepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span>. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (<a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/27024075">27-24075</a>); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7">978-0-917914-73-7</a>). <i>A seminal classic of machine tool history. Extensively cited by later works.</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1973" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Merritt_Roe_Smith" title="Merritt Roe Smith">Smith, Merritt Roe</a> (October 1973), "John Hall, Simeon North and the Milling Machine", <i>Technology and Culture</i>, <b>14</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">573–</span>591, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3102444">10.2307/3102444</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3102444">3102444</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:111427243">111427243</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=John+Hall%2C+Simeon+North+and+the+Milling+Machine&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E573-%3C%2Fspan%3E591&rft.date=1973-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A111427243%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3102444%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3102444&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Merritt+Roe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Merritt_Roe_Smith" title="Merritt Roe Smith">Smith, Merritt Roe</a> (1977), <i>Harper's Ferry Armory and the New Technology</i>, Cornell University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harper%27s+Ferry+Armory+and+the+New+Technology&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Merritt+Roe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Dusen2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Van Dusen, Albert E. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ctheritage.org/encyclopedia/ct1763_1818/whitney.htm">"Eli Whitney"</a>. <i>Laptop Encyclopedia of Connecticut History</i>. CTHeritage.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-02-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eli+Whitney&rft.btitle=Laptop+Encyclopedia+of+Connecticut+History&rft.pub=CTHeritage.org&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Van+Dusen&rft.aufirst=Albert+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctheritage.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Fct1763_1818%2Fwhitney.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkin1999" class="citation cs2">Wilkin, Susan (1999), <i>The application of emerging new technologies by Portsmouth Dockyard, 1790–1815 [PhD Thesis]</i>, The Open University</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+application+of+emerging+new+technologies+by+Portsmouth+Dockyard%2C+1790%E2%80%931815+%5BPhD+Thesis%5D&rft.pub=The+Open+University&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Wilkin&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span>. (Copies available from the British Thesis service of the British Library).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthNorth1913" class="citation cs2">North, Simon Newton Dexter; North, Ralph H. (1913), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjMxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1"><i>Simeon North: First Official Pistol Maker of the United States: A Memoir</i></a>, Concord, NH, USA: Rumford Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780598747723" title="Special:BookSources/9780598747723"><bdi>9780598747723</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Simeon+North%3A+First+Official+Pistol+Maker+of+the+United+States%3A+A+Memoir&rft.place=Concord%2C+NH%2C+USA&rft.pub=Rumford+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=9780598747723&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Simon+Newton+Dexter&rft.au=North%2C+Ralph+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjMxAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPR1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkhurst1901" class="citation cs2">Parkhurst, E.G. (January 3, 1901), "Manufacture by the system of interchangeable parts", <i><a href="/wiki/American_Machinist" title="American Machinist">American Machinist</a></i>, New York, New York, USA: Hill Publishing Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Machinist&rft.atitle=Manufacture+by+the+system+of+interchangeable+parts&rft.date=1901-01-03&rft.aulast=Parkhurst&rft.aufirst=E.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterchangeable+parts" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_parts&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1252.htm">Origins of interchangeable parts</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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