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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purpose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Purpose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defining_Romanticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defining_Romanticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Defining Romanticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Defining_Romanticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Context_and_place_in_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Context_and_place_in_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Context and place in history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Context_and_place_in_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Great Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence_of_European_Romanticism_on_American_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_European_Romanticism_on_American_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10.1</span> <span>Influence of European Romanticism on American writers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_European_Romanticism_on_American_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Visual arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Music-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Music subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_the_term_in_musicology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_the_term_in_musicology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Evolution of the term in musicology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_the_term_in_musicology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_the_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_the_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Outside the arts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Outside_the_arts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Outside the arts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Outside_the_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chess" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chess"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Chess</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chess-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romantic_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romantic_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Romantic nationalism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Romantic_nationalism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Romantic nationalism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Romantic_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Polish_nationalism_and_messianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish_nationalism_and_messianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Polish nationalism and messianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polish_nationalism_and_messianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romantic_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romantic_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Romantic writers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romantic_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholars_of_Romanticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholars_of_Romanticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Scholars of Romanticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholars_of_Romanticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Related terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposing_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposing_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Opposing terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposing_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_subjects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_subjects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Related subjects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_subjects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Related movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Romanticism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" 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Available in 121 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-121" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">121 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantiek" title="Romantiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Romantiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantik" title="Romantik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Romantik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D9%81%D9%86)" title="رومانسية (فن) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رومانسية (فن)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismo" title="Romanticismo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Romanticismo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Վիպապաշտութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Վիպապաշտութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="ৰমন্যাসবাদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ৰমন্যাসবাদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismu" title="Romanticismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Romanticismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Py%27aitegua_reko" title="Py'aitegua reko – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Py'aitegua reko" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizm" title="Romantizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Romantizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="رومانتیزم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رومانتیزم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="রোমান্টিকতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রোমান্টিকতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B4-m%C3%A1n-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Lô-mán-chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lô-mán-chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Романтизм – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Романтизм" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Рамантызм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рамантызм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Рамантызм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рамантызм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisismo" title="Romantisismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Romantisismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Романтизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Романтизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizam" title="Romantizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Romantizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantelezh" title="Romantelezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Romantelezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticisme" title="Romanticisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Romanticisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Романтизм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Романтизм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisismo" title="Romantisismo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Romantisismo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantismus" title="Romantismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Romantismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhamantiaeth" title="Rhamantiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhamantiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantikken" title="Romantikken – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romantikken" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantik" title="Romantik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Romantik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantism" title="Romantism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Romantism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Ρομαντισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρομαντισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismo" title="Romanticismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Romanticismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantikismo" title="Romantikismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romantikismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismu" title="Romanticismu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Romanticismu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromantizismo" title="Erromantizismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromantizismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="رمانتیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رمانتیسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisme" title="Romantisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Romantisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantyk" title="Romantyk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Romantyk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3m%C3%A1nsachas" title="Rómánsachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Rómánsachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismo" title="Romanticismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Romanticismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%AA%E6%BC%AB%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="浪漫主義 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="浪漫主義" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9D%E0%AA%AE" title="રોમેન્ટિસિઝમ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="રોમેન્ટિસિઝમ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%AD%EB%A7%8C%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="낭만주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="낭만주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Romanticism" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ռոմանտիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռոմանտիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="स्वच्छन्दतावाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्वच्छन्दतावाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizam" title="Romantizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Romantizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantikismo" title="Romantikismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Romantikismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisisme" title="Romantisisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Romantisisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismo" title="Romanticismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Romanticismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticisme" title="Romanticisme – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Romanticisme" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mant%C3%ADkin" title="Rómantíkin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rómantíkin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismo" title="Romanticismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Romanticismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התנועה הרומנטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התנועה הרומנטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisisme" title="Romantisisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Romantisisme" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82(%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%86_%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5,%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4)" title="ರೊಮ್ಯಾಂಟಿಸಿಸಂ(ಭಾವಪ್ರಧಾನತೆ ತತ್ವ,ಸಿದ್ದಾಂತ) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರೊಮ್ಯಾಂಟಿಸಿಸಂ(ಭಾವಪ್ರಧಾನತೆ ತತ್ವ,ಸಿದ್ದಾಂತ)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="რომანტიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რომანტიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Романтизм ағымы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Романтизм ағымы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantism" title="Romantism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Romantism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romant%C3%AEzm" title="Romantîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Romantîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Романтизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Романтизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizism" title="Romantizism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Romantizism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismus" title="Romanticismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Romanticismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisms" title="Romantisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Romantisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizmas" title="Romantizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Romantizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantiek" title="Romantiek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Romantiek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticisme" title="Romanticisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Romanticisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantika" title="Romantika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Romantika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Романтизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Романтизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82" title="കാല്പനികത്വം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാല്പനികത്വം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanti%C4%8Bi%C5%BCmu" title="Romantiċiżmu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Romantiċiżmu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="რომანტიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რომანტიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الرومانسيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الرومانسيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisisme" title="Romantisisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Romantisisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Романтизм – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Романтизм" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantiek_(stroming)" title="Romantiek (stroming) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romantiek (stroming)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantiek" title="Romantiek – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Romantiek" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="स्वच्छन्दतावाद – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="स्वच्छन्दतावाद" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="ロマン主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロマン主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantik" title="Romantik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Romantik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantikken" title="Romantikken – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romantikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantikken" title="Romantikken – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Romantikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisme" title="Romantisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Romantisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizm" title="Romantizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Romantizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਰੋਮਾਂਸਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੋਮਾਂਸਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="رومانیت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رومانیت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismo" title="Romanticismo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Romanticismo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85_/_%D8%AE%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87" title="رومانتیزم / خیال پالنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="رومانتیزم / خیال پالنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruomantisizim" title="Ruomantisizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ruomantisizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Romanticism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantyzm" title="Romantyzm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Romantyzm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantismo" title="Romantismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Romantismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantism" title="Romantism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Romantism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantica" title="Romantica – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Romantica" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Романтізм – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Романтізм" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Романтизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Романтизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantik" title="Romantik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Romantik" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticizmi" title="Romanticizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Romanticizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumanticismu" title="Rumanticismu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Rumanticismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Romanticism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="رومانيت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="رومانيت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizmus" title="Romantizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Romantizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantika" title="Romantika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Romantika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="ڕۆمانتیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕۆمانتیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Романтизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Романтизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizam" title="Romantizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Romantizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantiikka" title="Romantiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Romantiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantiken" title="Romantiken – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Romantiken" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisismo" title="Romantisismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Romantisismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="புனைவியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புனைவியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="ศิลปะจินตนิยม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศิลปะจินตนิยม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Романтизм – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Романтизм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantizm" title="Romantizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Romantizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Романтизм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Романтизм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="رومانیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رومانیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticismo" title="Romanticismo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Romanticismo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_l%C3%A3ng_m%E1%BA%A1n" title="Chủ nghĩa lãng mạn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chủ nghĩa lãng mạn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisse" title="Romantisse – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Romantisse" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantiek" title="Romantiek – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Romantiek" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantisismo" title="Romantisismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Romantisismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%AA%E6%BC%AB%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="浪漫主义 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="浪漫主义" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%AA%E6%BC%AB%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="浪漫主義 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="浪漫主義" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%AA%E6%BC%AB%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="浪漫主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="浪漫主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rsk mw-list-item"><a href="https://rsk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0)" title="Романтизем (литература) – Pannonian Rusyn" lang="rsk" hreflang="rsk" data-title="Романтизем (литература)" data-language-autonym="Руски" data-language-local-name="Pannonian Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Руски</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Romantic_movement&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic movement">Romantic movement</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote 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#b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Content plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The relevance of particular information in (or previously in) this article or section is <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> The information may have been <b>removed</b> or <b>included</b> by an editor as a result. Please see discussion on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Romanticism#Mass_revert" title="Talk:Romanticism">talk page</a> considering whether its inclusion is warranted.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg/220px-Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg/330px-Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg/440px-Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2327" data-file-height="2980" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Caspar David Friedrich</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></i>, 1818</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_(1827).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg/220px-Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg/330px-Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg/440px-Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3873" data-file-height="3045" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Sardanapalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Sardanapalus">Death of Sardanapalus</a></i>, 1827, taking its <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalist</a> subject from a play by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philipp_Otto_Runge_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Philipp_Otto_Runge_001.jpg/220px-Philipp_Otto_Runge_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Philipp_Otto_Runge_001.jpg/330px-Philipp_Otto_Runge_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Philipp_Otto_Runge_001.jpg/440px-Philipp_Otto_Runge_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2666" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Philipp Otto Runge</a>, <i>The Morning</i>, 1808</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Romanticism</b> (also known as the <b>Romantic movement</b> or <b>Romantic era</b>) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">subjectivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a>, and appreciation of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> in <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> in response to the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. </p><p>Romanticists rejected the <a href="/wiki/Social_conventions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social conventions">social conventions</a> of the time in favour of a moral outlook known as <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>. They argued that <a href="/wiki/Passion_(emotion)" title="Passion (emotion)">passion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a> were crucial to understanding the world, and that <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a> is more than merely an <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">affair of form</a>, but rather something that evokes a strong emotional response. With this philosophical foundation, the Romanticists elevated several key themes to which they were deeply committed: a <a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">reverence</a> for nature and the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nostalgia" title="Nostalgia">an idealization of the past as a nobler era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exoticism" title="Exoticism">a fascination with the exotic and the mysterious</a>, and a celebration of the <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">heroic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">sublime</a>. </p><p>The Romanticist movement had a particular fondness for the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, which to them represented an era of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a>, heroism, and a more organic relationship between humans and their environment. This idealization contrasted sharply with the values of their contemporary industrial society, which they considered <a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">alienating</a> for its <a href="/wiki/Economic_materialism" title="Economic materialism">economic materialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>. The movement's illustration of the Middle Ages was a central theme in debates, with allegations that Romanticist portrayals often overlooked the downsides of medieval life. </p><p>The consensus is that Romanticism peaked from 1800 until 1850. However, a "Late Romantic" period and "<a href="/wiki/Neoromantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoromantic">Neoromantic</a>" revivals are also discussed. These extensions of the movement are characterized by a resistance to the increasingly <a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">experimental</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">abstract</a> forms that culminated in <a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">modern art</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Common_practice_period" title="Common practice period">traditional tonal harmony</a> in music. They continued the Romantic ideal, stressing depth of emotion in art and music while showcasing technical mastery in a mature Romantic style. By the time of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, though, the cultural and artistic climate had changed to such a degree that Romanticism essentially dispersed into subsequent movements. The final Late Romanticist figures to maintain the Romantic ideals died in the 1940s. Though they were still widely respected, they were seen as <a href="/wiki/Anachronisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Anachronisms">anachronisms</a> at that point. </p><p>Romanticism was a complex movement with a variety of viewpoints that permeated <a href="/wiki/Western_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Western civilization">Western civilization</a> across the globe. The movement and its opposing ideologies mutually shaped each other over time. After its end, Romantic thought and art exerted a sweeping influence on <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speculative_fiction" title="Speculative fiction">speculative fiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a> that has endured to the present day. </p><p>The movement is the reference for the modern notion of "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/romanticize" class="extiw" title="wikt:romanticize">romanticization</a>" and the act of "romanticizing" something. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For most of the Western world, Romanticism was at its peak from approximately 1800 to 1850. The first Romantic ideas arose from an earlier German <a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a> movement called <i><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i> (German: "Storm and Stress"). This movement directly criticized the Enlightenment's position that humans can fully comprehend the world through <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> alone, suggesting that <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a> are key components of <a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">insight</a> and understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Published in 1774, "<a href="/wiki/The_Sorrows_of_Young_Werther" title="The Sorrows of Young Werther">The Sorrows of Young Werther</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> began to shape the Romanticist movement and its ideals. The events and ideologies of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> were also direct influences on the movement; many early Romantics throughout Europe sympathized with the ideals and achievements of French revolutionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A confluence of circumstances led to Romanticism's decline in the mid-19th century, including (but not limited to) the rise of <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realism and Naturalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s publishing of the <i><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i>, the transition from <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">widespread revolution in Europe</a> to a more <a href="/wiki/Conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative">conservative</a> climate, and a shift in public consciousness to the immediate impact of technology and <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a>. By <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Romanticism was overshadowed by new cultural, social, and political movements, many of them hostile to the perceived <a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">illusions</a> and preoccupations of the Romantics. </p><p>However, Romanticism has had a lasting impact on Western civilization, and many works of art, music, and literature that embody the Romantic ideals have been made after the end of the Romantic Era. The movement's advocacy for nature appreciation is cited as an influence for current <a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">nature conservation</a> efforts. The majority of <a href="/wiki/Film_scores" class="mw-redirect" title="Film scores">film scores</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Hollywood" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Hollywood">Golden Age of Hollywood</a> were written in the lush <a href="/wiki/Orchestral" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchestral">orchestral</a> Romantic style, and this genre of orchestral cinematic music is still often seen in films of the 21st century. The philosophical underpinnings of the movement have influenced modern political theory, both among <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatives">conservatives</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purpose">Purpose</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Glorification" title="Glorification">glorification</a> of the past and nature, preferring the medieval over the classical. Romanticism was partly a reaction to the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the prevailing ideology of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, especially the scientific rationalization of Nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Casey_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casey-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The movement's ideals were embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature; it also had a major impact on <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> education,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Romantic_chess" title="Romantic chess">chess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romanticism had a significant and complex effect on politics: Romantic thinking influenced <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">radicalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-metafizika_journal_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metafizika_journal-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romanticism prioritized the artist's unique, individual imagination above the strictures of classical form. The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic">aesthetic</a> experience. It granted a new importance to experiences of <a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">sympathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Awe" title="Awe">awe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wonder_(emotion)" title="Wonder (emotion)">wonder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">terror</a>, in part by naturalizing such emotions as responses to the "beautiful" and the "sublime".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romantics stressed the nobility of <a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">folk art</a> and ancient cultural practices, but also championed <a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">radical politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unconventional" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional">unconventional</a> behavior, and authentic spontaneity. In contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">classicism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, Romanticism revived <a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">medievalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and juxtaposed a <a href="/wiki/Pastoral" title="Pastoral">pastoral</a> conception of a more "authentic" European past with a highly critical view of recent social changes, including <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, brought about by the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Romanticism lionized the achievements of "heroic" individuals—especially artists, who began to be represented as cultural leaders (one Romantic luminary, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</a>, described poets as the "unacknowledged legislators of the world" in his "<a href="/wiki/Defence_of_Poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence of Poetry">Defence of Poetry</a>"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defining_Romanticism">Defining Romanticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Defining Romanticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_characteristics">Basic characteristics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Basic characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Romanticism placed the highest importance on the <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a> of the artists to authentically express their sentiments and ideas. Romantics like the German painter <a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Caspar David Friedrich</a> believed that an artist's emotions should dictate their formal approach; Friedrich went as far as declaring that "the artist's feeling is his law".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romantic poet <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>, thinking along similar lines, wrote that poetry should begin with "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings", which the poet then "recollect[s] in tranquility", enabling the poet to find a suitably unique form for representing such feelings.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romantics never doubted that emotionally motivated art would find suitable, harmonious modes for expressing its vital content—if, that is, the artist steered clear of moribund conventions and distracting precedents. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> and others thought there were natural laws the imagination of born artists followed instinctively when these individuals were, so to speak, "left alone" during the creative process.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These "natural laws" could support a wide range of different formal approaches: as many, perhaps, as there were individuals making personally meaningful works of art. Many Romantics believed that works of artistic genius were created "<a href="/wiki/Ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex nihilo">ex nihilo</a>", "from nothing", without recourse to existing models.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruthven01p40_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruthven01p40-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spearing87_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spearing87-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eco94_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eco94-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea is often called "romantic originality".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The translator and prominent Romantic <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">August Wilhelm Schlegel</a> argued in his <i>Lectures on Dramatic Arts and Letters</i> that the most valuable quality of human nature is its tendency to diverge and diversify.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Blake_-_Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience,_Plate_35,_%22The_Little_Girl_Found%22_(Bentley_36)_-_Google_Art_Project_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/William_Blake_-_Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience%2C_Plate_35%2C_%22The_Little_Girl_Found%22_%28Bentley_36%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-William_Blake_-_Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience%2C_Plate_35%2C_%22The_Little_Girl_Found%22_%28Bentley_36%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/William_Blake_-_Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience%2C_Plate_35%2C_%22The_Little_Girl_Found%22_%28Bentley_36%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-William_Blake_-_Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience%2C_Plate_35%2C_%22The_Little_Girl_Found%22_%28Bentley_36%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/William_Blake_-_Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience%2C_Plate_35%2C_%22The_Little_Girl_Found%22_%28Bentley_36%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-William_Blake_-_Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience%2C_Plate_35%2C_%22The_Little_Girl_Found%22_%28Bentley_36%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="2455" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Little_Girl_Found" title="The Little Girl Found">The Little Girl Found</a></i>, from <i><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_Innocence_and_of_Experience" title="Songs of Innocence and of Experience">Songs of Innocence and Experience</a></i>, 1794</figcaption></figure> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>, Romanticism embodied "a new and restless spirit, seeking violently to burst through old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with perpetually changing inner states of consciousness, a longing for the unbounded and the indefinable, for perpetual movement and change, an effort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a passionate effort at self-assertion both individual and collective, a search after means of expressing an unappeasable yearning for unattainable goals".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romantic artists also shared a strong belief in the importance and inspirational qualities of Nature. Romantics were distrustful of cities and social conventions. They deplored <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Restoration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment Era">Enlightenment Era</a> artists who were largely concerned with depicting and critiquing social relations, thereby neglecting the relationship between people and Nature. Romantics generally believed a close connection with Nature was beneficial for human beings, especially for individuals who broke off from society in order to encounter the natural world by themselves. </p><p>Romantic literature was frequently written in a distinctive, personal "voice". As critic <a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">M. H. Abrams</a> has observed, "much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This quality in Romantic literature, in turn, influenced the approach and reception of works in other media; it has seeped into everything from critical evaluations of individual style in painting, fashion, and music, to the <a href="/wiki/Auteur" title="Auteur">auteur</a> movement in modern filmmaking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The group of words with the root "Roman" in the various European languages, such as "romance" and "Romanesque", has a complicated history. By the 18th century, European languages—notably German, French and Slavic languages—were using the term "Roman" in the sense of the English word "<a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a>", i.e. a work of popular narrative fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-Schellinger2014_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schellinger2014-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This usage derived from the term <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages#Name" title="Romance languages">"Romance languages"</a>, which referred to <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> (or popular) language in contrast to formal <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schellinger2014_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schellinger2014-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most such novels took the form of "<a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">chivalric romance</a>", tales of adventure, devotion and honour.<sup id="cite_ref-Saul2009_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saul2009-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The founders of Romanticism, critics (and brothers) <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">August Wilhelm Schlegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">Friedrich Schlegel</a>, began to speak of <i>romantische Poesie</i> ("romantic poetry") in the 1790s, contrasting it with "classic" but in terms of spirit rather than merely dating. Friedrich Schlegel wrote in his 1800 essay <i>Gespräch über die Poesie</i> ("Dialogue on Poetry"): </p> <dl><dd>I seek and find the romantic among the older moderns, in Shakespeare, in Cervantes, in Italian poetry, in that age of chivalry, love and fable, from which the phenomenon and the word itself are derived.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The modern sense of the term spread more widely in France by its persistent use by <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Germaine de Staël</a> in her <i><a href="/wiki/De_l%27Allemagne" class="mw-redirect" title="De l'Allemagne">De l'Allemagne</a></i> (1813), recounting her travels in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferber,_7_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferber,_7-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In England Wordsworth wrote in a preface to his poems of 1815 of the "romantic harp" and "classic lyre",<sup id="cite_ref-Ferber,_7_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferber,_7-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in 1820 <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a> could still write, perhaps slightly disingenuously, </p> <dl><dd>I perceive that in Germany, as well as in Italy, there is a great struggle about what they call 'Classical' and 'Romantic', terms which were not subjects of classification in England, at least when I left it four or five years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, and in 1824 the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a> took the wholly ineffective step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Period">Period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Drabble" title="Margaret Drabble">Margaret Drabble</a> described it in literature as taking place "roughly between 1770 and 1848",<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, <a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">M. H. Abrams</a> placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, perhaps a little later than some other critics.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have proposed 1780–1830.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other fields and other countries the period denominated as Romantic can be considerably different; <a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">musical Romanticism</a>, for example, is generally regarded as only having ceased as a major artistic force as late as 1910, but in an extreme extension the <i><a href="/wiki/Four_Last_Songs" title="Four Last Songs">Four Last Songs</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Richard Strauss</a> are described stylistically as "Late Romantic" and were composed in 1946–1948.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in most fields the Romantic period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier. </p><p>The early period of the Romantic era was a time of war, with the French Revolution (1789–1799) followed by the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> until 1815. These wars, along with the political and social turmoil that went along with them, served as the background for Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The key generation of French Romantics born between 1795 and 1805 had, in the words of one of their number, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Alfred de Vigny</a>, been "conceived between battles, attended school to the rolling of drums".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Jacques Barzun</a>, there were three generations of Romantic artists. The first emerged in the 1790s and 1800s, the second in the 1820s, and the third later in the century.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Context_and_place_in_history">Context and place in history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Context and place in history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The more precise characterization and specific definition of Romanticism has been the subject of debate in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">intellectual history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary history">literary history</a> throughout the 20th century, without any great measure of consensus emerging. That it was part of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a>, a reaction against the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, is generally accepted in current scholarship. Its relationship to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, which began in 1789 in the very early stages of the period, is clearly important, but highly variable depending on geography and individual reactions. Most Romantics can be said to be broadly progressive in their views, but a considerable number always had, or developed, a wide range of conservative views,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and nationalism was in many countries strongly associated with Romanticism, as discussed in detail below. </p><p> In philosophy and the history of ideas, Romanticism was seen by Isaiah Berlin as disrupting for over a century the classic Western traditions of rationality and the idea of moral absolutes and agreed values, leading "to something like the melting away of the very notion of objective truth",<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hence not only to nationalism, but also <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>, with a gradual recovery coming only after World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the Romantics, Berlin says, </p><blockquote><p>in the realm of ethics, politics, aesthetics it was the authenticity and sincerity of the pursuit of inner goals that mattered; this applied equally to individuals and groups—states, nations, movements. This is most evident in the aesthetics of romanticism, where the notion of eternal models, a Platonic vision of ideal beauty, which the artist seeks to convey, however imperfectly, on canvas or in sound, is replaced by a passionate belief in spiritual freedom, individual creativity. The painter, the poet, the composer do not hold up a mirror to nature, however ideal, but invent; they do not imitate (the doctrine of mimesis), but create not merely the means but the goals that they pursue; these goals represent the self-expression of the artist's own unique, inner vision, to set aside which in response to the demands of some "external" voice—church, state, public opinion, family friends, arbiters of taste—is an act of betrayal of what alone justifies their existence for those who are in any sense creative.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-John_William_Waterhouse_-_The_Lady_of_Shalott_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4180" data-file-height="3208" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_William_Waterhouse" title="John William Waterhouse">John William Waterhouse</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lady_of_Shalott_(painting)" title="The Lady of Shalott (painting)">The Lady of Shalott</a></i>, 1888, after a poem by <a href="/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson" title="Alfred, Lord Tennyson">Tennyson</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lovejoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Lovejoy">Arthur Lovejoy</a> attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of defining Romanticism in his seminal article "On the Discrimination of Romanticisms" in his <i>Essays in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ideas">History of Ideas</a></i> (1948); some scholars see Romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some like <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hughes_(critic)" title="Robert Hughes (critic)">Robert Hughes</a> see in it the inaugural moment of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while writers of the 19th Century such as <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a> and Samuel Taylor Coleridge saw it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> rationalism—a "Counter-Enlightenment"—<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to be associated most closely with <a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a>. Another early definition comes from <a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Charles Baudelaire</a>: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of the Romantic era is marked in some areas by a new style of <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realism</a>, which affected literature, especially the novel and drama, painting, and even music, through <a href="/wiki/Verismo" title="Verismo">Verismo</a> opera. This movement was led by France, with <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Balzac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert" title="Gustave Flaubert">Flaubert</a> in literature and <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Courbet" title="Gustave Courbet">Courbet</a> in painting; <a href="/wiki/Stendhal" title="Stendhal">Stendhal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a> were important precursors of Realism in their respective media. However, Romantic styles, now often representing the established and safe style against which Realists rebelled, continued to flourish in many fields for the rest of the century and beyond. In music such works from after about 1850 are referred to by some writers as "Late Romantic" and by others as "Neoromantic" or "Postromantic", but other fields do not usually use these terms; in English literature and painting the convenient term "Victorian" avoids having to characterise the period further. </p><p>In northern Europe, the Early Romantic visionary optimism and belief that the world was in the process of great change and improvement had largely vanished, and some art became more conventionally political and polemical as its creators engaged polemically with the world as it was. Elsewhere, including in very different ways the United States and Russia, feelings that great change was underway or just about to come were still possible. Displays of intense emotion in art remained prominent, as did the exotic and historical settings pioneered by the Romantics, but experimentation with form and technique was generally reduced, often replaced with meticulous technique, as in the poems of Tennyson or many paintings. If not realist, late 19th-century art was often extremely detailed, and pride was taken in adding authentic details in a way that earlier Romantics did not trouble with. Many Romantic ideas about the nature and purpose of art, above all the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often underlie modern views, despite opposition from theorists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chatterton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Chatterton.jpg/220px-Chatterton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Chatterton.jpg/330px-Chatterton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Chatterton.jpg/440px-Chatterton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1174" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wallis" title="Henry Wallis">Henry Wallis</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Chatterton" title="The Death of Chatterton">The Death of Chatterton</a></i> 1856, by suicide at 17 in 1770</figcaption></figure> <p>In literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the evocation or criticism of the past, the cult of "<a href="/wiki/Sensibility" title="Sensibility">sensibility</a>" with its emphasis on women and children, the isolation of the artist or narrator, and respect for nature. Furthermore, several romantic authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Charles Maturin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a>, based their writings on the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a>/<a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">occult</a> and human <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>. Romanticism tended to regard <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a> as something unworthy of serious attention, a view still influential today.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romantic movement in literature was preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Literary_realism" title="Literary realism">Realism</a>. </p><p>The precursors of Romanticism in English poetry go back to the middle of the 18th century, including figures such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Warton" title="Joseph Warton">Joseph Warton</a> (headmaster at <a href="/wiki/Winchester_College" title="Winchester College">Winchester College</a>) and his brother <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Warton" title="Thomas Warton">Thomas Warton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Professor_of_Poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Professor of Poetry">Professor of Poetry</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-John_Keats_page_106_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Keats_page_106-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseph maintained that invention and imagination were the chief qualities of a poet. The Scottish poet <a href="/wiki/James_Macpherson" title="James Macpherson">James Macpherson</a> influenced the early development of Romanticism with the international success of his <a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a> cycle of poems published in 1762, inspiring both <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a> and the young <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chatterton" title="Thomas Chatterton">Thomas Chatterton</a> is generally considered the first Romantic poet in English.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_Chatterton_1971,_page_11_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_Chatterton_1971,_page_11-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Chatterton and Macpherson's work involved elements of fraud, as what they claimed was earlier literature that they had discovered or compiled was, in fact, entirely their own work. The <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">Gothic novel</a>, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Horace_Walpole" title="Horace Walpole">Horace Walpole</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Castle_of_Otranto" title="The Castle of Otranto">The Castle of Otranto</a></i> (1764), was an important precursor of one strain of Romanticism, with a delight in horror and threat, and exotic picturesque settings, matched in Walpole's case by his role in the early <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic Revival">revival of Gothic architecture</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_and_Opinions_of_Tristram_Shandy,_Gentleman" title="The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman">Tristram Shandy</a></i>, a novel by <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Sterne" title="Laurence Sterne">Laurence Sterne</a> (1759–1767), introduced a whimsical version of the anti-rational <a href="/wiki/Sentimental_novel" title="Sentimental novel">sentimental novel</a> to the English literary public. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn_III_(1808).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn_III_%281808%29.jpg/220px-Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn_III_%281808%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn_III_%281808%29.jpg/330px-Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn_III_%281808%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn_III_%281808%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>Title page of Volume III of <i><a href="/wiki/Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn" title="Des Knaben Wunderhorn">Des Knaben Wunderhorn</a></i>, 1808</figcaption></figure> <p>An early German influence came from <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>, whose 1774 novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sorrows_of_Young_Werther" title="The Sorrows of Young Werther">The Sorrows of Young Werther</a></i> had young men throughout Europe emulating its protagonist, a young artist with a very sensitive and passionate temperament. At that time Germany was a multitude of small separate states, and Goethe's works would have a seminal influence in developing a unifying sense of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Another philosophic influence came from the German idealism of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a>, making <a href="/wiki/Jena" title="Jena">Jena</a> (where Fichte lived, as well as Schelling, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a> and the <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">brothers</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">Schlegel</a>) a centre for early <a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena Romanticism</a>). Important writers were <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Ludwig Tieck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Heinrich von Kleist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Friedrich Hölderlin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a> later became a centre of German Romanticism, where writers and poets such as <a href="/wiki/Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Clemens Brentano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">Achim von Arnim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Aus_dem_Leben_eines_Taugenichts" class="mw-redirect" title="Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts">Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts</a></i>) met regularly in literary circles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, nature, for example the <a href="/wiki/German_Forest" title="German Forest">German Forest</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Germanic myths</a>. The later German Romanticism of, for example <a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">E. T. A. Hoffmann</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Sandmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Der Sandmann">Der Sandmann</a></i> (<i>The Sandman</i>), 1817, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Marble_Statue" title="The Marble Statue">Das Marmorbild</a></i> (<i>The Marble Statue</i>), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">gothic</a> elements. The significance to Romanticism of childhood innocence, the importance of imagination, and racial theories all combined to give an unprecedented importance to <a href="/wiki/Folk_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk literature">folk literature</a>, non-classical <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">children's literature</a>, above all in Germany.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Brentano and von Arnim were significant literary figures who together published <i><a href="/wiki/Des_Knaben_Wunderhorn" title="Des Knaben Wunderhorn">Des Knaben Wunderhorn</a></i> ("The Boy's Magic Horn" or <a href="/wiki/Cornucopia" title="Cornucopia">cornucopia</a>), a collection of versified folk tales, in 1806–1808. The first collection of <i><a href="/wiki/Grimms%27_Fairy_Tales" title="Grimms' Fairy Tales">Grimms' Fairy Tales</a></i> by the <a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a> was published in 1812.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the much later work of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Hans Christian Andersen</a>, who was publishing his invented tales in Danish from 1835, these German works were at least mainly based on collected <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk tales</a>, and the Grimms remained true to the style of the telling in their early editions, though later rewriting some parts. One of the brothers, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Jacob</a>, published in 1835 <i><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mythologie" title="Deutsche Mythologie">Deutsche Mythologie</a></i>, a long academic work on Germanic mythology.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another strain is exemplified by Schiller's highly emotional language and the depiction of physical violence in his play <i><a href="/wiki/The_Robbers" title="The Robbers">The Robbers</a></i> of 1781. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Great Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Romantic literature in English</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wordsworth_on_Helvellyn_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Wordsworth_on_Helvellyn_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg/170px-Wordsworth_on_Helvellyn_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Wordsworth_on_Helvellyn_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg/255px-Wordsworth_on_Helvellyn_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Wordsworth_on_Helvellyn_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg/340px-Wordsworth_on_Helvellyn_by_Benjamin_Robert_Haydon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2481" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a> <i>(pictured)</i> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature in 1798 with their joint publication <i><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a>.</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a>, the key figures of the Romantic movement are considered to be the group of poets including <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">John Keats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</a> and the much older <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>, followed later by the isolated figure of <a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">John Clare</a>; also such novelists as <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> from Scotland and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a>, and the essayists <a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">William Hazlitt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lamb" title="Charles Lamb">Charles Lamb</a>. The publication in 1798 of <i><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a></i>, with many of the finest poems by Wordsworth and Coleridge, is often held to mark the start of the movement. The majority of the poems were by Wordsworth, and many dealt with the lives of the poor in his native <a href="/wiki/Lake_District" title="Lake District">Lake District</a>, or his feelings about nature—which he more fully developed in his long poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prelude" title="The Prelude">The Prelude</a></i>, never published in his lifetime. The longest poem in the volume was Coleridge's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rime_of_the_Ancient_Mariner" title="The Rime of the Ancient Mariner">The Rime of the Ancient Mariner</a></i>, which showed the Gothic side of English Romanticism, and the exotic settings that many works featured. In the period when they were writing, the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a> were widely regarded as a marginal group of radicals, though they were supported by the critic and writer <a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">William Hazlitt</a> and others. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byron_1813_by_Phillips.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Byron_1813_by_Phillips.jpg/170px-Byron_1813_by_Phillips.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Byron_1813_by_Phillips.jpg/255px-Byron_1813_by_Phillips.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Byron_1813_by_Phillips.jpg/340px-Byron_1813_by_Phillips.jpg 2x" data-file-width="733" data-file-height="944" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Lord_Byron" title="Portrait of Lord Byron">Portrait of Lord Byron</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Phillips" title="Thomas Phillips">Thomas Phillips</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1813</span>. The <a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic hero</a> first reached the wider public in <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a>'s semi-autobiographical epic narrative poem <i><a href="/wiki/Childe_Harold%27s_Pilgrimage" title="Childe Harold's Pilgrimage">Childe Harold's Pilgrimage</a></i> (1812–1818).</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> achieved enormous fame and influence throughout Europe with works exploiting the violence and drama of their exotic and historical settings;<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Goethe called Byron "undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott achieved immediate success with his long narrative poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lay_of_the_Last_Minstrel" title="The Lay of the Last Minstrel">The Lay of the Last Minstrel</a></i> in 1805, followed by the full <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Marmion_(poem)" title="Marmion (poem)">Marmion</a></i> in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish past, already evoked in <i>Ossian</i>; <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Romanticism and Scotland</a> were to have a long and fruitful partnership. Byron had equal success with the first part of <i><a href="/wiki/Childe_Harold%27s_Pilgrimage" title="Childe Harold's Pilgrimage">Childe Harold's Pilgrimage</a></i> in 1812, followed by four "Turkish tales", all in the form of long poems, starting with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Giaour" title="The Giaour">The Giaour</a></i> in 1813, drawing from his <a href="/wiki/Grand_Tour" title="Grand Tour">Grand Tour</a>, which had reached Ottoman Europe, and <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">orientalizing</a> the themes of the Gothic novel in verse. These featured different variations of the "<a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic hero</a>", and his own life contributed a further version. Scott meanwhile was effectively inventing the <a href="/wiki/Historical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical novel">historical novel</a>, beginning in 1814 with <i><a href="/wiki/Waverley_(novel)" title="Waverley (novel)">Waverley</a></i>, set in the <a href="/wiki/1745_Jacobite_rising" class="mw-redirect" title="1745 Jacobite rising">1745 Jacobite rising</a>, which was a highly profitable success, followed by over 20 further <a href="/wiki/Waverley_Novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Waverley Novels">Waverley Novels</a> over the next 17 years, with settings going back to the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> that he had researched to a degree that was new in literature.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to Germany, Romanticism in English literature had little connection with nationalism, and the Romantics were often regarded with suspicion for the sympathy many felt for the ideals of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, whose collapse and replacement with the dictatorship of Napoleon was, as elsewhere in Europe, a shock to the movement. Though his novels celebrated Scottish identity and history, Scott was politically a firm Unionist, but admitted to Jacobite sympathies. Several Romantics spent much time abroad, and a famous stay on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Geneva" title="Lake Geneva">Lake Geneva</a> with Byron and Shelley in 1816 produced the hugely influential novel <i><a href="/wiki/Frankenstein" title="Frankenstein">Frankenstein</a></i> by Shelley's wife-to-be <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Vampyre" title="The Vampyre">The Vampyre</a></i> by Byron's doctor <a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">John William Polidori</a>. The lyrics of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> in Scotland, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Moore" title="Thomas Moore">Thomas Moore</a> from Ireland, reflected in different ways their countries and the Romantic interest in folk literature, but neither had a fully Romantic approach to life or their work. </p><p>Though they have modern critical champions such as <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a>, Scott's novels are today more likely to be experienced in the form of the many operas that composers continued to base on them over the following decades, such as <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Lucia_di_Lammermoor" title="Lucia di Lammermoor">Lucia di Lammermoor</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Vincenzo Bellini</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/I_puritani" title="I puritani">I puritani</a></i> (both 1835). Byron is now most highly regarded for his short lyrics and his generally unromantic prose writings, especially his letters, and his unfinished <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Don_Juan_(poem)" title="Don Juan (poem)">Don Juan</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike many Romantics, Byron's widely publicised personal life appeared to match his work, and his death at 36 in 1824 from disease when helping the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> appeared from a distance to be a suitably Romantic end, entrenching his legend.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Keats in 1821 and Shelley in 1822 both died in Italy, Blake (at almost 70) in 1827, and Coleridge largely ceased to write in the 1820s. Wordsworth was by 1820 respectable and highly regarded, holding a government <a href="/wiki/Sinecure" title="Sinecure">sinecure</a>, but wrote relatively little. In the discussion of English literature, the Romantic period is often regarded as finishing around the 1820s, or sometimes even earlier, although many authors of the succeeding decades were no less committed to Romantic values. </p><p>The most significant novelist in English during the peak Romantic period, other than Walter Scott, was <a href="/wiki/Jane_Austen" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a>, whose essentially conservative world-view had little in common with her Romantic contemporaries, retaining a strong belief in decorum and social rules, though critics such as <a href="/wiki/Claudia_L._Johnson" title="Claudia L. Johnson">Claudia L. Johnson</a> have detected tremors under the surface of many works, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Northanger_Abbey" title="Northanger Abbey">Northanger Abbey</a></i> (1817), <i><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_Park" title="Mansfield Park">Mansfield Park</a></i> (1814) and <i><a href="/wiki/Persuasion_(novel)" title="Persuasion (novel)">Persuasion</a></i> (1817).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But around the mid-century the undoubtedly Romantic novels of the <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_family" title="Brontë family">Brontë family</a> appeared, most notably <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">Charlotte</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Jane_Eyre" title="Jane Eyre">Jane Eyre</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">Emily</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Wuthering_Heights" title="Wuthering Heights">Wuthering Heights</a></i>, both published in 1847, which also introduced more Gothic themes. While these two novels were written and published after the Romantic period is said to have ended, their novels were heavily influenced by Romantic literature they had read as children. </p><p>Byron, Keats, and Shelley all wrote for the stage, but with little success in England, with Shelley's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cenci" title="The Cenci">The Cenci</a></i> perhaps the best work produced, though that was not played in a public theatre in England until a century after his death. Byron's plays, along with dramatizations of his poems and Scott's novels, were much more popular on the Continent, and especially in France, and through these versions several were turned into operas, many still performed today. If contemporary poets had little success on the stage, the period was a legendary one for performances of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, and went some way to restoring his original texts and removing the Augustan "improvements" to them. The greatest actor of the period, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Kean" title="Edmund Kean">Edmund Kean</a>, restored the tragic ending to <i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear" title="King Lear">King Lear</a></i>;<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coleridge said that "Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland">Scotland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Romanticism in Scotland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg/170px-PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg/255px-PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg/340px-PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4448" data-file-height="5448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nasmyth" title="Alexander Nasmyth">Alexander Nasmyth</a>'s portrait of 1787</figcaption></figure> <p>Although after <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">union with England</a> in 1707 Scotland increasingly adopted English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. <a href="/wiki/Allan_Ramsay_(poet)" title="Allan Ramsay (poet)">Allan Ramsay</a> (1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the <a href="/wiki/Habbie_stanza" class="mw-redirect" title="Habbie stanza">Habbie stanza</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Poetic_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Poetic form">poetic form</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Macpherson" title="James Macpherson">James Macpherson</a> (1736–1796) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard <a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a>, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical</a> <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epics</a>. <i>Fingal</i>, written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gottfried von Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also popularised in France by figures that included <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> (1759–96) and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> (1771–1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the <a href="/wiki/National_poet" title="National poet">national poet</a> of Scotland and a major influence on the Romantic movement. His poem (and song) "<a href="/wiki/Auld_Lang_Syne" title="Auld Lang Syne">Auld Lang Syne</a>" is often sung at <a href="/wiki/Hogmanay" title="Hogmanay">Hogmanay</a> (the last day of the year), and "<a href="/wiki/Scots_Wha_Hae" title="Scots Wha Hae">Scots Wha Hae</a>" served for a long time as an unofficial <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a> of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, <i><a href="/wiki/Waverley_(novel)" title="Waverley (novel)">Waverley</a></i> in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It launched a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as <i><a href="/wiki/Rob_Roy_(novel)" title="Rob Roy (novel)">Rob Roy</a></i> (1817), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Heart_of_Midlothian" title="The Heart of Midlothian">The Heart of Midlothian</a></i> (1818) and <i><a href="/wiki/Ivanhoe" title="Ivanhoe">Ivanhoe</a></i> (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists <a href="/wiki/James_Hogg" title="James Hogg">James Hogg</a> (1770–1835), <a href="/wiki/Allan_Cunningham_(author)" title="Allan Cunningham (author)">Allan Cunningham</a> (1784–1842) and <a href="/wiki/John_Galt_(novelist)" title="John Galt (novelist)">John Galt</a> (1779–1839).<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/170px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/255px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/340px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1649" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Raeburn" title="Henry Raeburn">Raeburn</a>'s portrait of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> in 1822</figcaption></figure><p> Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Edinburgh_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The Edinburgh Review">The Edinburgh Review</a></i> (founded in 1802) and <i><a href="/wiki/Blackwood%27s_Magazine" title="Blackwood's Magazine">Blackwood's Magazine</a></i> (founded in 1817), which had a major impact on the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century, caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and become central to a wider formation of a "British Isles nationalism".<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. Theatres had been discouraged by the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> and fears of Jacobite assemblies. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "<a href="/wiki/Closet_drama" title="Closet drama">closet dramas</a>", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Baillie" title="Joanna Baillie">Joanna Baillie</a> (1762–1851), often influenced by the ballad tradition and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic</a> Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007pp229-30_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007pp229-30-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France" title="Romanticism in France">Romanticism in France</a></div> <p>Romanticism was relatively late in developing <a href="/wiki/19th-century_French_literature#Romanticism" title="19th-century French literature">in French literature</a>, more so than in the visual arts. The 18th-century precursor to Romanticism, the cult of sensibility, had become associated with the <i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i>, and the French Revolution had been more of an inspiration to foreign writers than those experiencing it at first-hand. The first major figure was <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">François-René de Chateaubriand</a>, an aristocrat who had remained a royalist throughout the Revolution, and returned to France from exile in England and America under Napoleon, with whose regime he had an uneasy relationship. His writings, all in prose, included some fiction, such as his influential <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a> of exile <i><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_(novella)" title="René (novella)">René</a></i> (1802), which anticipated Byron in its alienated hero, but mostly contemporary history and politics, his travels, a defence of religion and the medieval spirit (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Genius_of_Christianity" title="The Genius of Christianity">Génie du christianisme</a></i>, 1802), and finally in the 1830s and 1840s his enormous <a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiography</a> <i><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9moires_d%27Outre-Tombe" title="Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe">Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe</a></i> ("Memoirs from beyond the grave").<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg/220px-Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg/330px-Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg/440px-Jean-Jacques_Grandville_-_Frenzied_Romans_at_the_First_Performance_of_Hernani_-_WGA10359.jpg 2x" data-file-width="802" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>The "battle of <i><a href="/wiki/Hernani_(drama)" title="Hernani (drama)">Hernani</a></i>" was fought nightly at the theatre in 1830: lithograph, by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Ignace_Isidore_G%C3%A9rard_Grandville" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard Grandville">J. J. Grandville</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a>, French Romanticism developed in the lively world of <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_France#19th_century" title="Theatre of France">Parisian theatre</a>, with productions of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, Schiller (in France a key Romantic author), and adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several of whom began to write in the late 1820s. Cliques of pro- and anti-Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted assertion by one theatregoer in 1822 that "Shakespeare, c'est l'aide-de-camp de Wellington" ("Shakespeare is <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington" title="Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington">Wellington</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aide-de-camp" title="Aide-de-camp">aide-de-camp</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Alexandre Dumas</a> began as a dramatist, with a series of successes beginning with <i><a href="/wiki/Henri_III_et_sa_cour" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri III et sa cour">Henri III et sa cour</a></i> (1829) before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures somewhat in the manner of Scott, most famously <i><a href="/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers" title="The Three Musketeers">The Three Musketeers</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo" title="The Count of Monte Cristo">The Count of Monte Cristo</a></i>, both of 1844. <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a> published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving success on the stage with <i><a href="/wiki/Hernani_(drama)" title="Hernani (drama)">Hernani</a></i>—a historical drama in a quasi-Shakespearean style that had famously riotous performances on its first run in 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Dumas, Hugo is best known for his novels, and was already writing <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre-Dame" title="The Hunchback of Notre-Dame">The Hunchback of Notre-Dame</a></i> (1831), one of the best known works, which became a paradigm of the French Romantic movement. The preface to his unperformed play <i>Cromwell</i> gives an important manifesto of French Romanticism, stating that "there are no rules, or models". The career of <a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Prosper Mérimée</a> followed a similar pattern; he is now best known as the originator of the story of <i><a href="/wiki/Carmen_(novella)" title="Carmen (novella)">Carmen</a></i>, with his novella published 1845. Alfred de Vigny remains best known as a dramatist, with his play on the life of the English poet <i>Chatterton</i> (1835) perhaps his best work. <a href="/wiki/George_Sand" title="George Sand">George Sand</a> was a central figure of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her novels and criticism and her affairs with <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a> and several others;<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she too was inspired by the theatre, and wrote works to be staged at her <a href="/wiki/House_of_George_Sand" title="House of George Sand">private estate</a>. </p><p>French Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include <a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Alfred de Musset</a>, <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Gérard de Nerval</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Alphonse de Lamartine</a> and the flamboyant <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Théophile Gautier</a>, whose prolific output in various forms continued until his death in 1872. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stendhal" title="Stendhal">Stendhal</a> is today probably the most highly regarded French novelist of the period, but he stands in a complex relation with Romanticism, and is notable for his penetrating psychological insight into his characters and his realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic fiction. As a survivor of the French <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Retreat" title="French invasion of Russia">retreat from Moscow</a> in 1812, fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for him, and like Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of Realism. His most important works are <i>Le Rouge et le Noir</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Red_and_the_Black" title="The Red and the Black">The Red and the Black</a></i>, 1830) and <i>La Chartreuse de Parme</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Charterhouse_of_Parma" title="The Charterhouse of Parma">The Charterhouse of Parma</a></i>, 1839). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG/200px-Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG/300px-Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG/400px-Adam_Mickiewicz.PNG 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Adam_Mickiewicz_on_the_Ayu-Dag_Cliff" title="Portrait of Adam Mickiewicz on the Ayu-Dag Cliff"><i>Adam Mickiewicz on the Ayu-Dag</i></a>, by <a href="/wiki/Walenty_Wa%C5%84kowicz" title="Walenty Wańkowicz">Walenty Wańkowicz</a>, 1828</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Romanticism in Poland</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Romanticism in Poland</a> is often taken to begin with the publication of <a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</a>'s first poems in 1822, and end with the crushing of the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a> of 1863 against the Russians. It was strongly marked by interest in Polish history.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polish Romanticism revived the old "Sarmatism" traditions of the <i><a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a></i> or Polish nobility. Old traditions and customs were revived and portrayed in a positive light in the Polish messianic movement and in works of great Polish poets such as Adam Mickiewicz (<i><a href="/wiki/Pan_Tadeusz" title="Pan Tadeusz">Pan Tadeusz</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Juliusz Słowacki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Zygmunt Krasiński</a>. This close connection between Polish Romanticism and Polish history became one of the defining qualities of the literature of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Polish Romanticism</a> period, differentiating it from that of other countries. They had not suffered the loss of national statehood as was the case with Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by the general spirit and main ideas of European Romanticism, the literature of Polish Romanticism is unique, as many scholars have pointed out, in having developed largely outside of Poland and in its emphatic focus upon the issue of Polish <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>. The Polish intelligentsia, along with leading members of its government, left Poland in the early 1830s, during what is referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Emigration" title="Great Emigration">Great Emigration</a>", resettling in France, Germany, Great Britain, Turkey, and the United States. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_1.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_1.PNG/200px-Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_1.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_1.PNG/300px-Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_1.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_1.PNG/400px-Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_1.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1071" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Juliusz Słowacki</a>, a Polish poet considered one of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Bards" title="Three Bards">"Three National Bards" of Polish literature</a>—a major figure in the Polish Romantic period, and the father of modern Polish drama.</figcaption></figure> <p>Their art featured <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/emotionalism" class="extiw" title="wikt:emotionalism">emotionalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrationalism and Aestheticism">irrationality</a>, fantasy and imagination, personality cults, <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> and country life, and the propagation of ideals of freedom. In the second period, many of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Romantics" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Romantics">Polish Romantics</a> worked abroad, often banished from Poland by the occupying powers due to their politically subversive ideas. Their work became increasingly dominated by the ideals of political struggle for freedom and their country's <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>. Elements of mysticism became more prominent. There developed the idea of the <i><a href="/wiki/Three_Bards" title="Three Bards">poeta wieszcz</a></i> (the prophet). The <i><a href="/wiki/Wieszcz" class="mw-redirect" title="Wieszcz">wieszcz</a></i> (bard) functioned as spiritual leader to the nation fighting for its independence. The most notable poet so recognized was <a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Zygmunt Krasiński</a> also wrote to inspire political and religious hope in his countrymen. Unlike his predecessors, who called for victory at whatever price in Poland's struggle against Russia, Krasinski emphasized Poland's <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> role in its fight for independence, advocating an intellectual rather than a military superiority. His works best exemplify the <a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianic movement in Poland</a>: in two early dramas, <i><a href="/wiki/Nie-boska_komedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nie-boska komedia">Nie-boska komedia</a></i> (1835; <i>The Undivine Comedy</i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Irydion" title="Irydion">Irydion</a></i> (1836; <i>Iridion</i>), as well as in the later <i>Psalmy przyszłości</i> (1845), he asserted that Poland was the <a href="/wiki/Christ_of_Europe" title="Christ of Europe">Christ of Europe</a>: specifically chosen by God to carry the world's burdens, to suffer, and eventually be resurrected. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writers <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Konstantin Batyushkov</a> (<i>A Vision on the Shores of the Lethe</i>, 1809), <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Vasily Zhukovsky</a> (<i>The Bard</i>, 1811; <i>Svetlana</i>, 1813) and <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Nikolay Karamzin</a> (<i>Poor Liza</i>, 1792; <i>Julia</i>, 1796; <i>Martha the Mayoress</i>, 1802; <i>The Sensitive and the Cold</i>, 1803). However the principal exponent of Romanticism in Russia is <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Alexander Pushkin</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Prisoner_of_the_Caucasus_(poem)" title="The Prisoner of the Caucasus (poem)">The Prisoner of the Caucasus</a></i>, 1820–1821; <i>The Robber Brothers</i>, 1822; <i><a href="/wiki/Ruslan_and_Ludmila" title="Ruslan and Ludmila">Ruslan and Ludmila</a></i>, 1820; <i><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Onegin" title="Eugene Onegin">Eugene Onegin</a></i>, 1825–1832). Pushkin's work influenced many writers in the 19th century and led to his eventual recognition as Russia's greatest poet.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Russian Romantic poets include <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Mikhail Lermontov</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/A_Hero_of_Our_Time" title="A Hero of Our Time">A Hero of Our Time</a></i>, 1839), <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Fyodor Tyutchev</a> (<i>Silentium!</i>, 1830), <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Yevgeny Baratynsky</a> (<i>Eda</i>, 1826), <a href="/wiki/Anton_Delvig" title="Anton Delvig">Anton Delvig</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Wilhelm Küchelbecker</a>. </p><p>Influenced heavily by Lord Byron, Lermontov sought to explore the Romantic emphasis on metaphysical discontent with society and self, while Tyutchev's poems often described scenes of nature or passions of love. Tyutchev commonly operated with such categories as night and day, north and south, dream and reality, cosmos and chaos, and the still world of winter and spring teeming with life. Baratynsky's style was fairly classical in nature, dwelling on the models of the previous century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Romanticism in Spanish literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda_(detalle).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda_%28detalle%29.jpg/170px-Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda_%28detalle%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda_%28detalle%29.jpg/255px-Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda_%28detalle%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda_%28detalle%29.jpg/340px-Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda_%28detalle%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1549" data-file-height="2070" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/El_escritor_Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="El escritor José de Espronceda">El escritor José de Espronceda</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Portrait" title="Portrait">portrait</a> by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Mar%C3%ADa_Esquivel" title="Antonio María Esquivel">Antonio María Esquivel</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1845</span>) (<a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado" title="Museo del Prado">Museo del Prado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Romanticism in Spanish literature</a> developed a well-known literature with a huge variety of poets and playwrights. The most important Spanish poet during this movement was <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">José de Espronceda</a>. After him there were other poets like <a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Mariano José de Larra</a> and the dramatists <a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ángel de Saavedra">Ángel de Saavedra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">José Zorrilla</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/Don_Juan_Tenorio" title="Don Juan Tenorio">Don Juan Tenorio</a></i>. Before them may be mentioned the pre-romantics <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">José Cadalso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Jos%C3%A9_Quintana" title="Manuel José Quintana">Manuel José Quintana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plays of <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Antonio García Gutiérrez</a> were adapted to produce Giuseppe Verdi's operas <i><a href="/wiki/Il_trovatore" title="Il trovatore">Il trovatore</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Simon_Boccanegra" title="Simon Boccanegra">Simon Boccanegra</a></i>. Spanish Romanticism also influenced regional literatures. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a> there was a national boom of writers in the local languages, like the Catalan <a href="/wiki/Jacint_Verdaguer" title="Jacint Verdaguer">Jacint Verdaguer</a> and the Galician <a href="/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a>, the main figures of the <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">national revivalist</a> movements <a href="/wiki/Renaixen%C3%A7a" title="Renaixença">Renaixença</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rexurdimento" title="Rexurdimento">Rexurdimento</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are scholars who consider Spanish Romanticism to be Proto-Existentialism because it is more anguished than the movement in other European countries. Foster et al., for example, say that the work of Spain's writers such as Espronceda, Larra, and other writers in the 19th century demonstrated a "metaphysical crisis".<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These observers put more weight on the link between the 19th-century Spanish writers with the existentialist movement that emerged immediately after. According to Richard Caldwell, the writers that we now identify with Spain's romanticism were actually precursors to those who galvanized the literary movement that emerged in the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This notion is the subject of debate for there are authors who stress that Spain's romanticism is one of the earliest in Europe,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while some assert that Spain really had no period of literary romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This controversy underscores a certain uniqueness to Spanish Romanticism in comparison to its European counterparts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal">Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Almeida_Garrett_-_litografia_sobre_papel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Almeida_Garrett_-_litografia_sobre_papel.png/170px-Almeida_Garrett_-_litografia_sobre_papel.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Almeida_Garrett_-_litografia_sobre_papel.png/255px-Almeida_Garrett_-_litografia_sobre_papel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Almeida_Garrett_-_litografia_sobre_papel.png/340px-Almeida_Garrett_-_litografia_sobre_papel.png 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="1112" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese poet, novelist, politician and playwright <a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Almeida Garrett</a> (1799–1854)</figcaption></figure> <p>Romanticism began in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> with the publication of the poem <i>Camões</i> (1825), by <a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Almeida Garrett</a>, who was raised by his uncle D. Alexandre, bishop of <a href="/wiki/Angra_do_Hero%C3%ADsmo" title="Angra do Heroísmo">Angra</a>, in the precepts of <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a>, which can be observed in his early work. The author himself confesses (in <i>Camões</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> preface) that he voluntarily refused to follow the principles of epic poetry enunciated by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)"><i>Poetics</i></a>, as he did the same to <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ars_Poetica_(Horace)" title="Ars Poetica (Horace)"><i>Ars Poetica</i></a>. Almeida Garrett had participated in the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1820" title="Liberal Revolution of 1820">1820 Liberal Revolution</a>, which caused him to exile himself in England in 1823 and then in France, after the <a href="/wiki/Vilafrancada" title="Vilafrancada">Vila-Francada</a>. While living in Great Britain, he had contacts with the Romantic movement and read authors such as <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, Scott, Ossian, Byron, Hugo, Lamartine and de Staël, at the same time visiting feudal castles and ruins of <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> churches and abbeys, which would be reflected in his writings. In 1838, he presented <i>Um Auto de Gil Vicente</i> ("A Play by <a href="/wiki/Gil_Vicente" title="Gil Vicente">Gil Vicente</a>"), in an attempt to create a new national theatre, free of Greco-Roman and foreign influence. But his masterpiece would be <i>Frei Luís de Sousa</i> (1843), named by himself as a "Romantic drama" and it was acclaimed as an exceptional work, dealing with themes as national independence, faith, justice and love. He was also deeply interested in Portuguese folkloric verse, which resulted in the publication of <i>Romanceiro</i> ("Traditional Portuguese Ballads") (1843), that recollect a great number of ancient popular ballads, known as "romances" or "rimances", in <i>redondilha maior</i> verse form, that contained stories of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a>, life of <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Courtly_love" title="Courtly love">courtly love</a>, etc. He wrote the novels <i>Viagens na Minha Terra</i>, <i>O Arco de Sant'Ana</i> and <i>Helena.</i><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-José_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-José-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Alexandre Herculano</a> is, alongside Almeida Garrett, one of the founders of Portuguese Romanticism. He too was forced to exile to Great Britain and France because of his <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> ideals. All of his poetry and prose are (unlike Almeida Garrett's) entirely Romantic, rejecting <a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">Greco-Roman myth</a> and history. He sought inspiration in medieval Portuguese poems and <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a> as in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. His output is vast and covers many different genres, such as historical essays, poetry, novels, opuscules and theatre, where he brings back a whole world of Portuguese legends, tradition and history, especially in <i>Eurico, o Presbítero</i> ("Eurico, the Priest") and <i>Lendas e Narrativas</i> ("Legends and Narratives"). His work was influenced by Chateaubriand, Schiller, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Gottlieb_Klopstock" title="Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock">Klopstock</a>, Walter Scott and the Old Testament <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">António Feliciano de Castilho</a> made the case for <a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra-Romanticism</a>, publishing the poems <i>A Noite no Castelo</i> ("Night in the Castle") and <i>Os Ciúmes do Bardo</i> ("The Jealousy of the Bard"), both in 1836, and the drama <i>Camões</i>. He became an unquestionable master for successive Ultra-Romantic generations, whose influence would not be challenged until the famous Coimbra Question. He also created polemics by translating <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Goethe%27s_Faust" title="Goethe's Faust">Faust</a></i> without knowing German, but using French versions of the play. Other notable figures of Portuguese Romanticism are the famous novelists <a href="/wiki/Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Camilo Castelo Branco</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Júlio Dinis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares de Passos</a>, Bulhão Pato and Pinheiro Chagas.<sup id="cite_ref-José_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-José-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romantic style would be revived in the beginning of the 20th century, notably through the works of poets linked to the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Renaissance" title="Portuguese Renaissance">Portuguese Renaissance</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Teixeira_de_Pascoaes" title="Teixeira de Pascoaes">Teixeira de Pascoais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaime_Cortes%C3%A3o" title="Jaime Cortesão">Jaime Cortesão</a>, Mário Beirão, among others, who can be considered Neo-Romantics. An early Portuguese expression of Romanticism is found already in poets such as <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Maria_Barbosa_du_Bocage" title="Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage">Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage</a> (especially in his sonnets dated at the end of the 18th century) and <a href="/wiki/Leonor_de_Almeida_Portugal,_4th_Marquise_of_Alorna" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonor de Almeida Portugal, 4th Marquise of Alorna">Leonor de Almeida Portugal, Marquise of Alorna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-José_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-José-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isabella_di_Morra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Isabella_di_Morra.jpg" decoding="async" width="207" height="247" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="207" data-file-height="247" /></a><figcaption>Italian poet <a href="/wiki/Isabella_di_Morra" title="Isabella di Morra">Isabella di Morra</a>, sometimes cited as a precursor of Romantic poets<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Romanticism in Italian literature was a minor movement although some important works were produced; it began officially in 1816 when <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Germaine de Staël</a> wrote an article in the journal <i>Biblioteca italiana</i> called "Sulla maniera e l'utilità delle traduzioni", inviting Italian people to reject <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> and to study new authors from other countries. Before that date, <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a> had already published poems anticipating Romantic themes. The most important Romantic writers were <a href="/wiki/Ludovico_di_Breme" title="Ludovico di Breme">Ludovico di Breme</a>, Pietro Borsieri and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Giovanni Berchet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Better known authors such as <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a> were influenced by <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> as well as by Romanticism and Classicism.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An Italian romanticist writer who produced works in various genres, including short stories and novels (such as <i>Ricciarda o i Nurra e i Cabras</i>), was the Piedmontese <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Botero" title="Giuseppe Botero">Giuseppe Botero</a> (1815–1885), devoting much of his career to <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_literature" title="Sardinian literature">Sardinian literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Romantic_painting" title="Brazilian Romantic painting">Brazilian Romantic painting</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg/220px-Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg/330px-Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg/440px-Grecian-Gothic_neoclassical-romantic_style-contrast_1816-Repton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>A print exemplifying the contrast between neoclassical vs. romantic styles of landscape and architecture (or the "Grecian" and the "Gothic" as they are termed here), 1816</figcaption></figure> <p>Spanish-speaking South American Romanticism was influenced heavily by <a href="/wiki/Esteban_Echeverr%C3%ADa" title="Esteban Echeverría">Esteban Echeverría</a>, who wrote in the 1830s and 1840s. His writings were influenced by his hatred for the Argentine dictator <a href="/wiki/Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a>, and filled with themes of blood and terror, using the metaphor of a slaughterhouse to portray the violence of Rosas' dictatorship. </p><p>Brazilian Romanticism is characterized and divided in three different periods. The first one is basically focused on the creation of a sense of national identity, using the ideal of the heroic Indian. Some examples include <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">José de Alencar</a>, who wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Iracema" title="Iracema">Iracema</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guarani" title="The Guarani">O Guarani</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Gonçalves Dias</a>, renowned by the poem "<a href="/wiki/Can%C3%A7%C3%A3o_do_ex%C3%ADlio" class="mw-redirect" title="Canção do exílio">Canção do exílio</a>" (Song of the Exile). The second period, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra-Romanticism</a>, is marked by a profound influence of European themes and traditions, involving the melancholy, sadness and despair related to unobtainable love. Goethe and Lord Byron are commonly quoted in these works. Some of the most notable authors of this phase are <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Álvares de Azevedo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Casimiro de Abreu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Fagundes Varela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Junqueira_Freire" title="Junqueira Freire">Junqueira Freire</a>. The third cycle is marked by social poetry, especially the abolitionist movement, and it includes <a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Castro Alves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Tobias Barreto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Lu%C3%ADs_Pereira_de_Sousa" title="Pedro Luís Pereira de Sousa">Pedro Luís Pereira de Sousa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decatur_Boarding_the_Tripolitan_Gunboat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Decatur_Boarding_the_Tripolitan_Gunboat.jpg/220px-Decatur_Boarding_the_Tripolitan_Gunboat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Decatur_Boarding_the_Tripolitan_Gunboat.jpg/330px-Decatur_Boarding_the_Tripolitan_Gunboat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Decatur_Boarding_the_Tripolitan_Gunboat.jpg/440px-Decatur_Boarding_the_Tripolitan_Gunboat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5079" data-file-height="3717" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Malone_Carter" title="Dennis Malone Carter">Dennis Malone Carter</a>, <i>Decatur Boarding the Tripolitan Gunboat</i>, 1878. Romanticist vision of the Battle of Tripoli, during the <a href="/wiki/First_Barbary_War" title="First Barbary War">First Barbary War</a>. It represents the moment when the American war hero <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Decatur" title="Stephen Decatur">Stephen Decatur</a> was fighting hand-to-hand against the Muslim pirate captain.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Romantic literature in English</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cole_Thomas_The_Course_of_Empire_The_Savage_State_1836.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cole_Thomas_The_Course_of_Empire_The_Savage_State_1836.jpg/220px-Cole_Thomas_The_Course_of_Empire_The_Savage_State_1836.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cole_Thomas_The_Course_of_Empire_The_Savage_State_1836.jpg/330px-Cole_Thomas_The_Course_of_Empire_The_Savage_State_1836.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Cole_Thomas_The_Course_of_Empire_The_Savage_State_1836.jpg/440px-Cole_Thomas_The_Course_of_Empire_The_Savage_State_1836.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8880" data-file-height="5520" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Thomas Cole</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_of_Empire_(paintings)" title="The Course of Empire (paintings)">The Course of Empire</a>: The Savage State</i> (1 of 5), 1836</figcaption></figure> <p>In the United States, at least by 1818 with William Cullen Bryant's "<a href="/wiki/To_a_Waterfowl" title="To a Waterfowl">To a Waterfowl</a>", Romantic poetry was being published. American Romantic <a href="/wiki/Gothic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic literature">Gothic literature</a> made an early appearance with <a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/The_Legend_of_Sleepy_Hollow" title="The Legend of Sleepy Hollow">The Legend of Sleepy Hollow</a>" (1820) and "<a href="/wiki/Rip_Van_Winkle" title="Rip Van Winkle">Rip Van Winkle</a>" (1819), followed from 1823 onwards by the <i><a href="/wiki/Leatherstocking_Tales" title="Leatherstocking Tales">Leatherstocking Tales</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">James Fenimore Cooper</a>, with their emphasis on heroic simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an already-exotic mythicized frontier peopled by "<a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">noble savages</a>", similar to the philosophical theory of <a href="/wiki/Rousseau" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Uncas" title="Uncas">Uncas</a>, from <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_of_the_Mohicans" title="The Last of the Mohicans">The Last of the Mohicans</a></i>. There are picturesque "local colour" elements in Washington Irving's essays and especially his travel books. <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>'s tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more influential in France than at home, but the romantic American novel developed fully with the atmosphere and drama of <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Scarlet_Letter" title="The Scarlet Letter">The Scarlet Letter</a></i> (1850). Later <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalist</a> writers such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a> still show elements of its influence and imagination, as does the <a href="/wiki/Romantic_realism" title="Romantic realism">romantic realism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a>. The poetry of <a href="/wiki/Emily_Dickinson" title="Emily Dickinson">Emily Dickinson</a>—nearly unread in her own time—and <a href="/wiki/Herman_Melville" title="Herman Melville">Herman Melville</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/Moby-Dick" title="Moby-Dick">Moby-Dick</a></i> can be taken as epitomes of American Romantic literature. By the 1880s, however, psychological and <a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">social realism</a> were competing with Romanticism in the novel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Influence_of_European_Romanticism_on_American_writers">Influence of European Romanticism on American writers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Influence of European Romanticism on American writers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The European Romantic movement reached America in the early 19th century. American Romanticism was just as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in Europe. Like the Europeans, the American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm, commitment to individualism and the unfolding of the self, an emphasis on intuitive perception, and the assumption that the natural world was inherently good, while human society was filled with corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-George_L_1997_p_613_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_L_1997_p_613-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romanticism became popular in American politics, philosophy and art. The movement appealed to the revolutionary spirit of America as well as to those longing to break free of the strict religious traditions of early settlement. The Romantics rejected rationalism and religious intellect. It appealed to those in opposition of Calvinism, which includes the belief that the destiny of each individual is preordained. The Romantic movement gave rise to <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a>, which portrayed a less restrictive relationship between God and Universe. The new philosophy presented the individual with a more personal relationship with God. Transcendentalism and Romanticism appealed to Americans in a similar fashion, for both privileged feeling over reason, individual freedom of expression over the restraints of tradition and custom. It often involved a rapturous response to nature. It encouraged the rejection of harsh, rigid Calvinism, and promised a new blossoming of American culture.<sup id="cite_ref-George_L_1997_p_613_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_L_1997_p_613-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled against the confinement of neoclassicism and religious tradition. The Romantic movement in America created a new literary genre that continues to influence American writers. Novels, short stories, and poems replaced the sermons and manifestos of yore. Romantic literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more emotion than ever seen in neoclassical literature. America's preoccupation with freedom became a great source of motivation for Romantic writers as many were delighted in free expression and emotion without so much fear of ridicule and controversy. They also put more effort into the psychological development of their characters, and the main characters typically displayed extremes of sensitivity and excitement.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The works of the Romantic Era also differed from preceding works in that they spoke to a wider audience, partly reflecting the greater distribution of books as costs came down during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revival architecture</a></div> <p>Romantic architecture appeared in the late 18th century in a reaction against the rigid forms of <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">neoclassical architecture</a>. Romantic architecture reached its peak in the mid-19th century, and continued to appear until the end of the 19th century. It was designed to evoke an emotional reaction, either respect for tradition or nostalgia for a bucolic past. It was frequently inspired by the architecture of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>, it was strongly influenced by romanticism in literature, particularly the historical novels of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>. It sometimes moved into the domain of <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclecticism</a>, with features assembled from different historic periods and regions of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revival architecture</a> was a popular variant of the romantic style, particularly in the construction of churches, Cathedrals, and university buildings. Notable examples include the completion of <a href="/wiki/Cologne_Cathedral" title="Cologne Cathedral">Cologne Cathedral</a> in Germany, by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Schinkel" title="Karl Friedrich Schinkel">Karl Friedrich Schinkel</a>. The cathedral's construction began in 1248, but was halted in 1473. The original plans for the façade were discovered in 1840, and it was decided to recommence. Schinkel followed the original design as much as possible, but he also used modern construction technology, including an iron frame for the roof. The building was finished in 1880.<sup id="cite_ref-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Britain, notable examples include the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Pavilion" title="Royal Pavilion">Royal Pavilion</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brighton" title="Brighton">Brighton</a>, a romantic version of traditional <a href="/wiki/Indian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian architecture">Indian architecture</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Nash_(architect)" title="John Nash (architect)">John Nash</a> (1815–1823), and the <a href="/wiki/Houses_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Houses of Parliament">Houses of Parliament</a> in London, built in a Gothic revival style by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Barry" title="Charles Barry">Charles Barry</a> between 1840 and 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-65_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-65-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In France, one of the earliest examples of romantic architecture is the <a href="/wiki/Hameau_de_la_Reine" title="Hameau de la Reine">Hameau de la Reine</a>, the small rustic hamlet created at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a> for Queen <a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a> between 1783 and 1785 by the royal architect <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mique" title="Richard Mique">Richard Mique</a> with the help of the romantic painter <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Robert" title="Hubert Robert">Hubert Robert</a>. It consisted of twelve structures, ten of which still exist, in the style of villages in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>. It was designed for the Queen and her friends to amuse themselves by playing at being peasants, and included a farmhouse with a dairy, a mill, a boudoir, a pigeon loft, a tower in the form of a lighthouse from which one could fish in the pond, a belvedere, a cascade and grotto, and a luxuriously furnished cottage with a billiard room for the Queen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESauleMeyer201492_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESauleMeyer201492-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French romantic architecture in the 19th century was strongly influenced by two writers; <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>, whose novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre_Dame" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hunchback of Notre Dame">The Hunchback of Notre Dame</a></i> inspired a resurgence in interest in the Middle Ages; and <a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Prosper Mérimée</a>, who wrote celebrated romantic novels and short stories and was also the first head of the commission of Historic Monuments in France, responsible for publicizing and restoring (and sometimes romanticizing) many French cathedrals and monuments desecrated and ruined after the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. His projects were carried out by the architect <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Viollet-le-Duc" title="Eugène Viollet-le-Duc">Eugène Viollet-le-Duc</a>. These included the restoration (sometimes creative) of the Cathedral of <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Notre Dame de Paris">Notre Dame de Paris</a>, the fortified city of <a href="/wiki/Carcassonne" title="Carcassonne">Carcassonne</a>, and the unfinished medieval <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Pierrefonds" title="Château de Pierrefonds">Château de Pierrefonds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoissonPoisson2014_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoissonPoisson2014-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The romantic style continued in the second half of the 19th century. The <a href="/wiki/Palais_Garnier" title="Palais Garnier">Palais Garnier</a>, the Paris opera house designed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Garnier_(architect)" title="Charles Garnier (architect)">Charles Garnier</a> was a highly romantic and eclectic combination of artistic styles. Another notable example of late 19th century romanticism is the <a href="/wiki/Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur,_Paris" title="Sacré-Cœur, Paris">Basilica of Sacré-Cœur</a> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Abadie" title="Paul Abadie">Paul Abadie</a>, who drew upon the model of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine architecture</a> for his elongated domes (1875–1914).<sup id="cite_ref-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-65_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-65-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 168px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 166px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marie_Antoinette_amusement_at_Versailles.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Hameau de la Reine, Palace of Versailles (1783–1785)"><img alt="Hameau de la Reine, Palace of Versailles (1783–1785)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Marie_Antoinette_amusement_at_Versailles.JPG/249px-Marie_Antoinette_amusement_at_Versailles.JPG" decoding="async" width="166" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Marie_Antoinette_amusement_at_Versailles.JPG/375px-Marie_Antoinette_amusement_at_Versailles.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Marie_Antoinette_amusement_at_Versailles.JPG/499px-Marie_Antoinette_amusement_at_Versailles.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hameau_de_la_Reine" title="Hameau de la Reine">Hameau de la Reine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a> (1783–1785)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brighton_royal_pavilion_Qmin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Royal Pavilion in Brighton by John Nash (1815–1823)"><img alt="Royal Pavilion in Brighton by John Nash (1815–1823)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Brighton_royal_pavilion_Qmin.jpg/300px-Brighton_royal_pavilion_Qmin.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Brighton_royal_pavilion_Qmin.jpg/450px-Brighton_royal_pavilion_Qmin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Brighton_royal_pavilion_Qmin.jpg/599px-Brighton_royal_pavilion_Qmin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5112" data-file-height="3192" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Pavilion" title="Royal Pavilion">Royal Pavilion</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brighton" title="Brighton">Brighton</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Nash_(architect)" title="John Nash (architect)">John Nash</a> (1815–1823)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 124px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 122px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cologne_cathedrale_vue_sud.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cologne Cathedral (1840–1880)"><img alt="Cologne Cathedral (1840–1880)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cologne_cathedrale_vue_sud.jpg/183px-Cologne_cathedrale_vue_sud.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cologne_cathedrale_vue_sud.jpg/274px-Cologne_cathedrale_vue_sud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cologne_cathedrale_vue_sud.jpg/365px-Cologne_cathedrale_vue_sud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2930" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cologne_Cathedral" title="Cologne Cathedral">Cologne Cathedral</a> (1840–1880)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Monumental_stairway_of_the_palais_Garnier_opera_in_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Grand Staircase of the Paris Opera by Charles Garnier (1861–1875)"><img alt="Grand Staircase of the Paris Opera by Charles Garnier (1861–1875)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Monumental_stairway_of_the_palais_Garnier_opera_in_Paris.jpg/280px-Monumental_stairway_of_the_palais_Garnier_opera_in_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Monumental_stairway_of_the_palais_Garnier_opera_in_Paris.jpg/420px-Monumental_stairway_of_the_palais_Garnier_opera_in_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Monumental_stairway_of_the_palais_Garnier_opera_in_Paris.jpg/559px-Monumental_stairway_of_the_palais_Garnier_opera_in_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="669" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Grand Staircase of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Opera" title="Paris Opera">Paris Opera</a> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Garnier_(architect)" title="Charles Garnier (architect)">Charles Garnier</a> (1861–1875)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 112.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 110.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_sacre_coeur.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Basilica of Sacré-Cœur by Paul Abadie (1875–1914)"><img alt="Basilica of Sacré-Cœur by Paul Abadie (1875–1914)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Le_sacre_coeur.jpg/166px-Le_sacre_coeur.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Le_sacre_coeur.jpg/249px-Le_sacre_coeur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Le_sacre_coeur.jpg/332px-Le_sacre_coeur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="2598" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur,_Paris" title="Sacré-Cœur, Paris">Basilica of Sacré-Cœur</a> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Abadie" title="Paul Abadie">Paul Abadie</a> (1875–1914)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Visual arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Jones_The_Bard_1774.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Thomas_Jones_The_Bard_1774.jpg/220px-Thomas_Jones_The_Bard_1774.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Thomas_Jones_The_Bard_1774.jpg/330px-Thomas_Jones_The_Bard_1774.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Thomas_Jones_The_Bard_1774.jpg/440px-Thomas_Jones_The_Bard_1774.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5040" data-file-height="3350" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Thomas Jones</a>, <i>The Bard</i>, 1774, a prophetic combination of Romanticism and nationalism by the Welsh artist</figcaption></figure> <p>In the visual arts, Romanticism first showed itself in <a href="/wiki/Landscape_painting" title="Landscape painting">landscape painting</a>, where from as early as the 1760s British artists began to turn to wilder landscapes and storms, and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>, even if they had to make do with <a href="/wiki/Welsh_art" title="Welsh art">Wales as a setting</a>. <a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Caspar David Friedrich</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a> were born less than a year apart in 1774 and 1775 respectively and were to take German and English landscape painting to their extremes of Romanticism, but both their artistic sensibilities were formed when forms of Romanticism was already strongly present in art. <a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">John Constable</a>, born in 1776, stayed closer to the English landscape tradition, but in his largest "six-footers" insisted on the heroic status of a patch of the working countryside where he had grown up—challenging the traditional <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_genres" title="Hierarchy of genres">hierarchy of genres</a>, which relegated landscape painting to a low status. Turner also painted very large landscapes, and above all, seascapes. Some of these large paintings had contemporary settings and <a href="/wiki/Staffage" title="Staffage">staffage</a>, but others had small figures that turned the work into <a href="/wiki/History_painting" title="History painting">history painting</a> in the manner of <a href="/wiki/Claude_Lorrain" title="Claude Lorrain">Claude Lorrain</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Salvator_Rosa" title="Salvator Rosa">Salvator Rosa</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">late Baroque</a> artist whose landscapes had elements that Romantic painters repeatedly turned to. Friedrich often used single figures, or features like crosses, set alone amidst a huge landscape, "making them images of the transitoriness of human life and the premonition of death".<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg/220px-Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg/330px-Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg/440px-Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2107" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a> receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes</i> (1800–1802), Musée national de Malmaison et Bois-Préau, <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Malmaison" title="Château de Malmaison">Château de Malmaison</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on the mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and proportions. These included <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Samuel Palmer</a> and the other members of <a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">the Ancients</a> in England, and in Germany <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Philipp Otto Runge</a>. Like Friedrich, none of these artists had significant influence after their deaths for the rest of the 19th century, and were 20th-century rediscoveries from obscurity, though Blake was always known as a poet, and Norway's leading painter <a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Dahl" title="Johan Christian Dahl">Johan Christian Dahl</a> was heavily influenced by Friedrich. The Rome-based <a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a> of German artists, active from 1810, took a very different path, concentrating on medievalizing history paintings with religious and nationalist themes.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed by the strong hold of <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> on the academies, but from the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic">Napoleonic</a> period it became increasingly popular, initially in the form of history paintings propagandising for the new regime, of which <a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a> receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes</i>, for Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Malmaison" title="Château de Malmaison">Château de Malmaison</a>, was one of the earliest. Girodet's old teacher <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">David</a> was puzzled and disappointed by his pupil's direction, saying: "Either Girodet is mad or I no longer know anything of the art of painting".<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new generation of the French school,<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed personal Romantic styles, though still concentrating on history painting with a political message. <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Théodore Géricault</a> (1791–1824) had his first success with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Charging_Chasseur" title="The Charging Chasseur">The Charging Chasseur</a></i>, a heroic military figure derived from <a href="/wiki/Rubens" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubens">Rubens</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Salon" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Salon">Paris Salon</a> of 1812 in the years of the Empire, but his next major completed work, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Raft_of_the_Medusa" title="The Raft of the Medusa">The Raft of the Medusa</a></i> of 1818–19, remains the greatest achievement of the Romantic history painting, which in its day had a powerful anti-government message. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a> (1798–1863) made his first Salon hits with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Barque_of_Dante" title="The Barque of Dante">The Barque of Dante</a></i> (1822), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Massacre_at_Chios" title="The Massacre at Chios">The Massacre at Chios</a></i> (1824) and <i><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Sardanapalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Sardanapalus">Death of Sardanapalus</a></i> (1827). The second was a scene from the Greek War of Independence, completed the year Byron died there, and the last was a scene from one of Byron's plays. With Shakespeare, Byron was to provide the subject matter for many other works of Delacroix, who also spent long periods in North Africa, painting colourful scenes of mounted Arab warriors. His <i><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Leading_the_People" title="Liberty Leading the People">Liberty Leading the People</a></i> (1830) remains, with the <i>Medusa</i>, one of the best-known works of French Romantic painting. Both reflected current events, and increasingly "<a href="/wiki/History_painting" title="History painting">history painting</a>", literally "story painting", a phrase dating back to the Italian Renaissance meaning the painting of subjects with groups of figures, long considered the highest and most difficult form of art, did indeed become the painting of historical scenes, rather than those from religion or mythology.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Francisco Goya</a> was called "the last great painter in whose art thought and observation were balanced and combined to form a faultless unity".<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the extent to which he was a Romantic is a complex question. In Spain, there was still a struggle to introduce the values of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, in which Goya saw himself as a participant. The demonic and anti-rational monsters thrown up by his imagination are only superficially similar to those of the Gothic fantasies of northern Europe, and in many ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism of his training, as well as looking forward to the Realism of the later 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But he, more than any other artist of the period, exemplified the Romantic values of the expression of the artist's feelings and his personal imaginative world.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also shared with many of the Romantic painters a more free handling of paint, emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and <a href="/wiki/Impasto" title="Impasto">impasto</a>, which tended to be repressed in neoclassicism under a self-effacing finish. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cavalier_gaulois_pont_d%27iena_RG_am_face.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cavalier_gaulois_pont_d%27iena_RG_am_face.jpg/220px-Cavalier_gaulois_pont_d%27iena_RG_am_face.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cavalier_gaulois_pont_d%27iena_RG_am_face.jpg/330px-Cavalier_gaulois_pont_d%27iena_RG_am_face.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cavalier_gaulois_pont_d%27iena_RG_am_face.jpg/440px-Cavalier_gaulois_pont_d%27iena_RG_am_face.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="3700" /></a><figcaption><i>Cavalier gaulois</i> by <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Antoine-Augustin Préault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pont_d%27I%C3%A9na" title="Pont d'Iéna">Pont d'Iéna</a>, Paris</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a> remained largely impervious to Romanticism, probably partly for technical reasons, as the most prestigious material of the day, marble, does not lend itself to expansive gestures. The leading sculptors in Europe, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Canova" title="Antonio Canova">Antonio Canova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertel_Thorvaldsen" title="Bertel Thorvaldsen">Bertel Thorvaldsen</a>, were both based in Rome and firm Neoclassicists, not at all tempted to allow influence from medieval sculpture, which would have been one possible approach to Romantic sculpture. When it did develop, true Romantic sculpture—with the exception of a few artists such as <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Maison" title="Rudolf Maison">Rudolf Maison</a><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—rather oddly was missing in Germany, and mainly found in France, with <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">François Rude</a>, best known from his group of the 1830s from the <a href="/wiki/Arc_de_Triomphe" title="Arc de Triomphe">Arc de Triomphe</a> in Paris, <a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Pr%C3%A9ault" class="mw-redirect" title="Auguste Préault">Auguste Préault</a>. Préault's plaster relief entitled <i>Slaughter</i>, which represented the horrors of wars with exacerbated passion, caused so much scandal at the 1834 <a href="/wiki/Salon_(Paris)" title="Salon (Paris)">Salon</a> that Préault was banned from this official annual exhibition for nearly twenty years.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Italy, the most important Romantic sculptor was <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Bartolini" title="Lorenzo Bartolini">Lorenzo Bartolini</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Stubbs_-_A_Lion_Attacking_a_Horse_-_1955.27.1_-_Yale_University_Art_Gallery.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="George Stubbs, A Lion Attacking a Horse (1770), oil on canvas, 38 in. x 49 1/2in., Yale Center for British Art"><img alt="George Stubbs, A Lion Attacking a Horse (1770), oil on canvas, 38 in. x 49 1/2in., Yale Center for British Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/George_Stubbs_-_A_Lion_Attacking_a_Horse_-_1955.27.1_-_Yale_University_Art_Gallery.jpg/160px-George_Stubbs_-_A_Lion_Attacking_a_Horse_-_1955.27.1_-_Yale_University_Art_Gallery.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/George_Stubbs_-_A_Lion_Attacking_a_Horse_-_1955.27.1_-_Yale_University_Art_Gallery.jpg/240px-George_Stubbs_-_A_Lion_Attacking_a_Horse_-_1955.27.1_-_Yale_University_Art_Gallery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/George_Stubbs_-_A_Lion_Attacking_a_Horse_-_1955.27.1_-_Yale_University_Art_Gallery.jpg/320px-George_Stubbs_-_A_Lion_Attacking_a_Horse_-_1955.27.1_-_Yale_University_Art_Gallery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1534" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">George Stubbs, <i>A Lion Attacking a Horse</i> (1770), oil on canvas, 38 in. x 49 1/2in., <a href="/wiki/Yale_Center_for_British_Art" title="Yale Center for British Art">Yale Center for British Art</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_Fuseli_(1741%E2%80%931825),_The_Nightmare,_1781.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Henry Fuseli, The Nightmare (1781), oil on canvas, 101.6 cm × 127 cm., Detroit Institute of Arts"><img alt="John Henry Fuseli, The Nightmare (1781), oil on canvas, 101.6 cm × 127 cm., Detroit Institute of Arts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Henry_Fuseli_%281741%E2%80%931825%29%2C_The_Nightmare%2C_1781.jpg/160px-Henry_Fuseli_%281741%E2%80%931825%29%2C_The_Nightmare%2C_1781.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Henry_Fuseli_%281741%E2%80%931825%29%2C_The_Nightmare%2C_1781.jpg/240px-Henry_Fuseli_%281741%E2%80%931825%29%2C_The_Nightmare%2C_1781.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Henry_Fuseli_%281741%E2%80%931825%29%2C_The_Nightmare%2C_1781.jpg/320px-Henry_Fuseli_%281741%E2%80%931825%29%2C_The_Nightmare%2C_1781.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1602" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">John Henry Fuseli, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nightmare" title="The Nightmare">The Nightmare</a></i> (1781), oil on canvas, 101.6 cm × 127 cm., <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Institute_of_Arts" title="Detroit Institute of Arts">Detroit Institute of Arts</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Tres_de_Mayo,_by_Francisco_de_Goya,_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814"><img alt="Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg/160px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg/240px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg/320px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="29294" data-file-height="22626" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Francisco Goya</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Third_of_May_1808" title="The Third of May 1808">The Third of May 1808</a></i>, 1814</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_(Museo_del_Louvre,_1818-19).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Théodore Géricault, The Raft of the Medusa, 1819"><img alt="Théodore Géricault, The Raft of the Medusa, 1819" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg/160px-JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg/240px-JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg/320px-JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5872" data-file-height="4008" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Théodore Géricault</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Raft_of_the_Medusa" title="The Raft of the Medusa">The Raft of the Medusa</a></i>, 1819</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People, 1830"><img alt="Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People, 1830" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/160px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/240px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/320px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3133" data-file-height="2480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Leading_the_People" title="Liberty Leading the People">Liberty Leading the People</a></i>, 1830</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Fighting_Temeraire,_JMW_Turner,_National_Gallery.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="J. M. W. Turner, The Fighting Téméraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up, 1839"><img alt="J. M. W. Turner, The Fighting Téméraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up, 1839" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_Fighting_Temeraire%2C_JMW_Turner%2C_National_Gallery.jpg/160px-The_Fighting_Temeraire%2C_JMW_Turner%2C_National_Gallery.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_Fighting_Temeraire%2C_JMW_Turner%2C_National_Gallery.jpg/240px-The_Fighting_Temeraire%2C_JMW_Turner%2C_National_Gallery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_Fighting_Temeraire%2C_JMW_Turner%2C_National_Gallery.jpg/320px-The_Fighting_Temeraire%2C_JMW_Turner%2C_National_Gallery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5684" data-file-height="4223" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Fighting_Temeraire" title="The Fighting Temeraire">The Fighting Téméraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up</a></i>, 1839</div> </li> </ul> <p>In France, historical painting on idealized medieval and Renaissance themes is known as the <a href="/wiki/Troubadour_style" title="Troubadour style"><i>style Troubadour</i></a>, a term with no equivalent for other countries, though the same trends occurred there. Delacroix, <a href="/wiki/Ingres" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingres">Ingres</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Richard Parkes Bonington</a> all worked in this style, as did lesser specialists such as <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Henri_R%C3%A9voil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre-Henri Révoil">Pierre-Henri Révoil</a> (1776–1842) and <a href="/wiki/Fleury-Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" class="mw-redirect" title="Fleury-François Richard">Fleury-François Richard</a> (1777–1852). Their pictures are often small, and feature intimate private and anecdotal moments, as well as those of high drama. The lives of great artists such as <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a> were commemorated on equal terms with those of rulers, and fictional characters were also depicted. Fleury-Richard's <i>Valentine of Milan weeping for the death of her husband</i>, shown in the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Salon" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Salon">Paris Salon</a> of 1802, marked the arrival of the style, which lasted until the mid-century, before being subsumed into the increasingly academic history painting of artists like <a href="/wiki/Paul_Delaroche" title="Paul Delaroche">Paul Delaroche</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hayez,_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hayez%2C_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg/260px-Hayez%2C_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hayez%2C_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg/390px-Hayez%2C_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hayez%2C_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg/520px-Hayez%2C_Fracesco_-_Crusaders_Thirsting_near_Jerusalem_-_1836-50.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1253" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a>, <i>Crusaders Thirsting near Jerusalem</i> (1836–1850), <a href="/wiki/Royal_Palace_of_Turin" title="Royal Palace of Turin">Palazzo Reale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micha%C5%82owski_Reiter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Micha%C5%82owski_Reiter.jpg/200px-Micha%C5%82owski_Reiter.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Micha%C5%82owski_Reiter.jpg/300px-Micha%C5%82owski_Reiter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Micha%C5%82owski_Reiter.jpg/400px-Micha%C5%82owski_Reiter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2089" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Piotr Michałowski</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Reiter" title="Reiter">Reiter</a></i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1840</span>, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_in_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum in Warsaw">National Museum in Warsaw</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Another trend was for very large apocalyptic history paintings, often combining extreme natural events, or divine wrath, with human disaster, attempting to outdo <i>The Raft of the Medusa</i>, and now often drawing comparisons with effects from Hollywood. The leading English artist in the style was <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">John Martin</a>, whose tiny figures were dwarfed by enormous earthquakes and storms, and worked his way through the biblical disasters, and those to come in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">final days</a>. Other works such as Delacroix's <i><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Sardanapalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Sardanapalus">Death of Sardanapalus</a></i> included larger figures, and these often drew heavily on earlier artists, especially <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Poussin" title="Nicolas Poussin">Poussin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>, with extra emotionalism and special effects. </p><p>Elsewhere in Europe, leading artists adopted Romantic styles: in Russia there were the portraitists <a href="/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Orest Kiprensky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Vasily Tropinin</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Ivan Aivazovsky</a> specializing in <a href="/wiki/Marine_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine painting">marine painting</a>, and in Norway <a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Hans Gude</a> painted scenes of <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjords</a>. In Poland, <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Piotr Michałowski</a> (1800–1855) used a Romantic style in paintings particularly relating to the history of <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Italy <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a> (1791–1882) was the leading artist of Romanticism in mid-19th-century <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>. His long, prolific and extremely successful career saw him begin as a Neoclassical painter, pass right through the Romantic period, and emerge at the other end as a sentimental painter of young women. His Romantic period included many historical pieces of "Troubadour" tendencies, but on a very large scale, that are heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Gian_Battista_Tiepolo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gian Battista Tiepolo">Gian Battista Tiepolo</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">late Baroque</a> Italian masters. </p><p>Literary Romanticism had its counterpart in the American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of an untamed American <a href="/wiki/Landscape_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Landscape art">landscape</a> found in the paintings of the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a>. Painters like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Thomas Cole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Albert Bierstadt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Frederic Edwin Church</a> and others often expressed Romantic themes in their paintings. They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world, such as in Fredric Edwin Church's piece <i>Sunrise in Syria</i>. These works reflected the Gothic feelings of death and decay. They also show the Romantic ideal that Nature is powerful and will eventually overcome the transient creations of men. More often, they worked to distinguish themselves from their European counterparts by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea of an American identity in the art world is reflected in <a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">W. C. Bryant</a>'s poem <i>To Cole, the Painter, Departing for Europe</i>, where Bryant encourages Cole to remember the powerful scenes that can only be found in America. </p><p>Some American paintings (such as Albert Bierstadt's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rocky_Mountains,_Lander%27s_Peak" title="The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak">The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak</a></i>) promote the literary idea of the "<a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a>" by portraying idealized Native Americans living in harmony with the natural world. Thomas Cole's paintings tend towards <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a>, explicit in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Voyage_of_Life" title="The Voyage of Life">The Voyage of Life</a></i> series painted in the early 1840s, showing the stages of life set amidst an awesome and immense nature. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 812px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Childhood,_1842_(National_Gallery_of_Art).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thomas Cole, Childhood (1842), one of the four scenes in The Voyage of Life"><img alt="Thomas Cole, Childhood (1842), one of the four scenes in The Voyage of Life" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Childhood%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg/160px-Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Childhood%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Childhood%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg/240px-Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Childhood%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Childhood%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg/320px-Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Childhood%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5121" data-file-height="3459" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Thomas Cole</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Voyage_of_Life#Childhood" title="The Voyage of Life">Childhood</a></i> (1842), one of the four scenes in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Voyage_of_Life" title="The Voyage of Life">The Voyage of Life</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Old_Age,_1842_(National_Gallery_of_Art).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thomas Cole, The Voyage of Life Old Age (1842)"><img alt="Thomas Cole, The Voyage of Life Old Age (1842)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Old_Age%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg/160px-Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Old_Age%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Old_Age%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg/240px-Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Old_Age%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Old_Age%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg/320px-Thomas_Cole_-_The_Voyage_of_Life_Old_Age%2C_1842_%28National_Gallery_of_Art%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5100" data-file-height="3431" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Thomas Cole, <i>The Voyage of Life<br /><a href="/wiki/The_Voyage_of_Life#Old_Age" title="The Voyage of Life">Old Age</a></i> (1842)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Blake_-_Albion_Rose_-_from_A_Large_Book_of_Designs_1793-6.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="William Blake, Albion Rose, 1794–1795"><img alt="William Blake, Albion Rose, 1794–1795" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/William_Blake_-_Albion_Rose_-_from_A_Large_Book_of_Designs_1793-6.jpg/118px-William_Blake_-_Albion_Rose_-_from_A_Large_Book_of_Designs_1793-6.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/William_Blake_-_Albion_Rose_-_from_A_Large_Book_of_Designs_1793-6.jpg/177px-William_Blake_-_Albion_Rose_-_from_A_Large_Book_of_Designs_1793-6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/William_Blake_-_Albion_Rose_-_from_A_Large_Book_of_Designs_1793-6.jpg/236px-William_Blake_-_Albion_Rose_-_from_A_Large_Book_of_Designs_1793-6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2452" data-file-height="3324" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Albion_(Blake)" title="Albion (Blake)">Albion</a> Rose</i>, 1794–1795</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Louis Janmot, from his series The Poem of the Soul, before 1854"><img alt="Louis Janmot, from his series The Poem of the Soul, before 1854" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg/160px-Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg/240px-Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg/320px-Le_poeme_de_lAme-14-Louis_Janmot-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0497.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4438" data-file-height="3398" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Louis Janmot</a>, from his series <i>The Poem of the Soul</i>, before 1854</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Music">Music</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Romantic music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Musical_nationalism" title="Musical nationalism">Musical nationalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_composers" title="List of Romantic composers">List of Romantic composers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/NiccoloPaganini.jpeg/170px-NiccoloPaganini.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/NiccoloPaganini.jpeg/255px-NiccoloPaganini.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/NiccoloPaganini.jpeg/340px-NiccoloPaganini.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="855" data-file-height="1105" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres" title="Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres">Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres</a>, <i>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Niccolò Paganini</a></i>, 1819</figcaption></figure> <p>The term "Romanticism" when applied to music has come to imply the period roughly from 1800 until 1850, or else until around 1900. Musical Romanticism is predominantly a German phenomenon—so much so that one respected French reference work defines it entirely in terms of "The role of music in the aesthetics of German romanticism".<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another French encyclopedia holds that the German temperament generally "can be described as the deep and diverse action of romanticism on German musicians", and that there is only one true representative of Romanticism in French music, <a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Hector Berlioz</a>, while in Italy, the sole great name of musical Romanticism is <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a>, "a sort of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">[Victor] Hugo</a> of opera, gifted with a real genius for dramatic effect". Similarly, in his analysis of Romanticism and its pursuit of harmony, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Henri Lefebvre</a> posits that, "But of course, German romanticism was more closely linked to music than French romanticism was, so it is there we should look for the direct expression of harmony as the central romantic idea."<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the huge popularity of German Romantic music led, "whether by imitation or by reaction", to an often nationalistically inspired vogue amongst Polish, Hungarian, Russian, Czech, and Scandinavian musicians, successful "perhaps more because of its extra-musical traits than for the actual value of musical works by its masters".<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career depending on sensitive middle-class audiences rather than on a courtly patron, as had been the case with earlier musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation of virtuosi who made their way as soloists, epitomized in the concert tours of <a href="/wiki/Paganini" class="mw-redirect" title="Paganini">Paganini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liszt" class="mw-redirect" title="Liszt">Liszt</a>, and the conductor began to emerge as an important figure, on whose skill the interpretation of the increasingly complex music depended.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_the_term_in_musicology">Evolution of the term in musicology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Evolution of the term in musicology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg/170px-Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg/255px-Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg/340px-Joseph_Karl_Stieler%27s_Beethoven_mit_dem_Manuskript_der_Missa_solemnis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4330" data-file-height="5389" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>, 1820</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the term "Romanticism" when applied to music has come to imply the period roughly from 1800 until 1850, or else until around 1900, the contemporary application of "romantic" to music did not coincide with this modern interpretation. Indeed, one of the earliest sustained applications of the term to music occurs in 1789, in the <i>Mémoires</i> of <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gr%C3%A9try" title="André Grétry">André Grétry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is of particular interest because it is a French source on a subject mainly dominated by Germans, but also because it explicitly acknowledges its debt to <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> (himself a composer, amongst other things) and, by so doing, establishes a link to one of the major influences on the Romantic movement generally.<sup id="cite_ref-Samson_2001_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samson_2001-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1810 <a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">E. T. A. Hoffmann</a> named <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Haydn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Mozart</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a> as "the three masters of instrumental compositions" who "breathe one and the same romantic spirit". He justified his view on the basis of these composers' depth of evocative expression and their marked individuality. In Haydn's music, according to Hoffmann, "a child-like, serene disposition prevails", while Mozart (in the late <a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._39_(Mozart)" title="Symphony No. 39 (Mozart)">E-flat major Symphony</a>, for example) "leads us into the depths of the spiritual world", with elements of fear, love, and sorrow, "a presentiment of the infinite ... in the eternal dance of the spheres". Beethoven's music, on the other hand, conveys a sense of "the monstrous and immeasurable", with the pain of an endless longing that "will burst our breasts in a fully coherent concord of all the passions".<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This elevation in the valuation of pure emotion resulted in the promotion of music from the subordinate position it had held in relation to the verbal and plastic arts during the Enlightenment. Because music was considered to be free of the constraints of reason, imagery, or any other precise concept, it came to be regarded, first in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a> and later by writers such as <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a>, as preeminent among the arts, the one best able to express the secrets of the universe, to evoke the spirit world, infinity, and the absolute.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> This chronologic agreement of musical and literary Romanticism continued as far as the middle of the 19th century, when <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a> denigrated the music of <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a> as "<a href="/wiki/Neoromanticism_(music)" title="Neoromanticism (music)">neoromantic</a>": "The Opera, to which we shall now return, has swallowed down the Neoromanticism of Berlioz, too, as a plump, fine-flavoured oyster, whose digestion has conferred on it anew a brisk and well-to-do appearance."<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg/170px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg/255px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg/340px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2536" data-file-height="3391" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Frédéric Chopin</a> in 1838 by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a></figcaption></figure> <p>It was only toward the end of the 19th century that the newly emergent discipline of <i>Musikwissenschaft</i> (<a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">musicology</a>)—itself a product of the historicizing proclivity of the age—attempted a more scientific <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodization</a> of music history, and a distinction between <a href="/wiki/Classical_period_(music)" title="Classical period (music)">Viennese Classical</a> and Romantic periods was proposed. The key figure in this trend was <a href="/wiki/Guido_Adler" title="Guido Adler">Guido Adler</a>, who viewed Beethoven and <a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a> as transitional but essentially Classical composers, with Romanticism achieving full maturity only in the post-Beethoven generation of Frédéric Chopin, Felix Mendelssohn, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">Robert Schumann</a>, Hector Berlioz and <a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Franz Liszt</a>. From Adler's viewpoint, found in books like <i>Der Stil in der Musik</i> (1911), composers of the <a href="/wiki/New_German_School" title="New German School">New German School</a> and various late-19th-century <a href="/wiki/Musical_nationalism" title="Musical nationalism">nationalist</a> composers were not Romantics but "moderns" or "realists" (by analogy with the fields of painting and literature), and this schema remained prevalent through the first decades of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Samson_2001_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samson_2001-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the second quarter of the 20th century, an awareness that radical changes in musical syntax had occurred during the early 1900s caused another shift in historical viewpoint, and the change of century came to be seen as marking a decisive break with the musical past. This in turn led historians such as <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Einstein" title="Alfred Einstein">Alfred Einstein</a><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to extend the musical "<a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Romantic era</a>" throughout the 19th century and into the first decade of the 20th. It has continued to be referred to as such in some of the standard music references such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Music" title="The Oxford Companion to Music">The Oxford Companion to Music</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Jay_Grout" title="Donald Jay Grout">Grout</a>'s <i>History of Western Music</i><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was not unchallenged. For example, the prominent German musicologist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Friedrich Blume</a>, the chief editor of the first edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Die_Musik_in_Geschichte_und_Gegenwart" title="Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart">Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart</a></i> (1949–86), accepted the earlier position that Classicism and Romanticism together constitute a single period beginning in the middle of the 18th century, but at the same time held that it continued into the 20th century, including such pre-World War II developments as <a href="/wiki/Expressionist_music" title="Expressionist music">expressionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism_(music)" title="Neoclassicism (music)">neoclassicism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is reflected in some notable recent reference works such as the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians" class="mw-redirect" title="New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians">New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Samson_2001_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samson_2001-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the new edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Musik_in_Geschichte_und_Gegenwart" class="mw-redirect" title="Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart">Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Felix Mendelssohn, 1839"><img alt="Felix Mendelssohn, 1839" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg/112px-Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg/168px-Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg/224px-Mendelssohn_Bartholdy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a>, 1839</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Schumann_1839.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Robert Schumann, 1839"><img alt="Robert Schumann, 1839" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Robert_Schumann_1839.jpg/160px-Robert_Schumann_1839.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Robert_Schumann_1839.jpg/240px-Robert_Schumann_1839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Robert_Schumann_1839.jpg/320px-Robert_Schumann_1839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3100" data-file-height="3100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">Robert Schumann</a>, 1839</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Barabas-liszt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Franz Liszt, 1847"><img alt="Franz Liszt, 1847" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Barabas-liszt.jpg/125px-Barabas-liszt.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Barabas-liszt.jpg/188px-Barabas-liszt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Barabas-liszt.jpg/251px-Barabas-liszt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="870" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Franz Liszt</a>, 1847</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Postcard-1910_Daniel_Fransois_Auber.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Daniel Auber, c. 1868"><img alt="Daniel Auber, c. 1868" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Postcard-1910_Daniel_Fransois_Auber.jpg/115px-Postcard-1910_Daniel_Fransois_Auber.jpg" decoding="async" width="115" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Postcard-1910_Daniel_Fransois_Auber.jpg/173px-Postcard-1910_Daniel_Fransois_Auber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Postcard-1910_Daniel_Fransois_Auber.jpg/231px-Postcard-1910_Daniel_Fransois_Auber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="796" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Daniel Auber</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1868</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hector_Berlioz.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hector Berlioz by Gustave Courbet, 1850"><img alt="Hector Berlioz by Gustave Courbet, 1850" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Hector_Berlioz.jpg/125px-Hector_Berlioz.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Hector_Berlioz.jpg/188px-Hector_Berlioz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Hector_Berlioz.jpg/251px-Hector_Berlioz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Hector Berlioz</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Courbet" title="Gustave Courbet">Gustave Courbet</a>, 1850</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Verdi_by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Giovanni Boldini, Portrait of Giuseppe Verdi, 1886"><img alt="Giovanni Boldini, Portrait of Giuseppe Verdi, 1886" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giuseppe_Verdi_by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg/117px-Giuseppe_Verdi_by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giuseppe_Verdi_by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg/175px-Giuseppe_Verdi_by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giuseppe_Verdi_by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg/233px-Giuseppe_Verdi_by_Giovanni_Boldini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1234" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boldini" title="Giovanni Boldini">Giovanni Boldini</a>, <i>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a></i>, 1886</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Richardwagner1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Richard Wagner, c. 1870s"><img alt="Richard Wagner, c. 1870s" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Richardwagner1.jpg/138px-Richardwagner1.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Richardwagner1.jpg/207px-Richardwagner1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Richardwagner1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="301" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1870s</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustav_Mahler_1896.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gustav Mahler, 1896"><img alt="Gustav Mahler, 1896" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gustav_Mahler_1896.jpg/115px-Gustav_Mahler_1896.jpg" decoding="async" width="115" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gustav_Mahler_1896.jpg/173px-Gustav_Mahler_1896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gustav_Mahler_1896.jpg/231px-Gustav_Mahler_1896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Gustav Mahler</a>, 1896</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outside_the_arts">Outside the arts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Outside the arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg/170px-Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg/255px-Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg/340px-Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Akseli Gallen-Kallela</a>, <i>The Forging of the Sampo</i>, 1893. An artist from Finland deriving inspiration from the Finnish "national epic", the <i><a href="/wiki/Kalevala" title="Kalevala">Kalevala</a></i></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sciences">Sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a></div> <p>The Romantic movement affected most aspects of intellectual life, and <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism and science</a> had a powerful connection, especially in the period 1800–1840. Many scientists were influenced by versions of the <i><a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">Naturphilosophie</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_von_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> and others, and without abandoning <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, sought in their work to uncover what they tended to believe was a unified and organic Nature. The English scientist Sir <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>, a prominent Romantic thinker, said that understanding nature required "an attitude of admiration, love and worship, [...] a personal response".<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed that knowledge was only attainable by those who truly appreciated and respected nature. Self-understanding was an important aspect of Romanticism. It had less to do with proving that man was capable of understanding nature (through his budding intellect) and therefore controlling it, and more to do with the emotional appeal of connecting himself with nature and understanding it through a harmonious co-existence.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">History writing</a> was very strongly, and many would say harmfully, influenced by Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In England, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> was a highly influential essayist who turned historian; he both invented and exemplified the phrase "hero-worship",<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>. Romantic nationalism had a largely negative effect on the writing of history in the 19th century, as each nation tended to <a href="/wiki/Historiography_and_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography and nationalism">produce its own version of history</a>, and the critical attitude, even cynicism, of earlier historians was often replaced by a tendency to create romantic stories with clearly distinguished heroes and villains.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalist ideology of the period placed great emphasis on racial coherence, and the antiquity of peoples, and tended to vastly overemphasize the continuity between past periods and the present, leading to <a href="/wiki/National_mysticism" title="National mysticism">national mysticism</a>. Much historical effort in the 20th century was devoted to combating the romantic historical myths created in the 19th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theology">Theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To insulate theology from <a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">scientism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a> in science, 19th-century post-Enlightenment German theologians developed a modernist or so-called <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">liberal conception of Christianity</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a>. They took the Romantic approach of rooting religion in the inner world of the human spirit, so that it is a person's feeling or sensibility about spiritual matters that comprises religion.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chess">Chess</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Chess"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romantic_chess" title="Romantic chess">Romantic chess</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Romantic_chess" title="Romantic chess">Romantic chess</a> was the style of <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a> which emphasized quick, tactical maneuvers characterized by aesthetic beauty rather than long-term strategic planning, which was considered to be of secondary importance.<sup id="cite_ref-Shenk,_2007_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shenk,_2007-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romantic era in chess is generally considered to have begun around the 18th century (although a primarily tactical style of chess was predominant even earlier),<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to have reached its peak with Joseph MacDonnell and Pierre LaBourdonnais, the two dominant chess players in the 1830s. The 1840s were dominated by <a href="/wiki/Howard_Staunton" title="Howard Staunton">Howard Staunton</a>, and other leading players of the era included <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Anderssen" title="Adolf Anderssen">Adolf Anderssen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Harrwitz" title="Daniel Harrwitz">Daniel Harrwitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bird_(chess_player)" title="Henry Bird (chess player)">Henry Bird</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Paulsen" title="Louis Paulsen">Louis Paulsen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Morphy" title="Paul Morphy">Paul Morphy</a>. The "<a href="/wiki/Immortal_Game" title="Immortal Game">Immortal Game</a>", played by Anderssen and <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Kieseritzky" title="Lionel Kieseritzky">Lionel Kieseritzky</a> on <a href="/wiki/21_June" class="mw-redirect" title="21 June">21 June</a> 1851 in London—where Anderssen made bold <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_(chess)" title="Sacrifice (chess)">sacrifices</a> to secure victory, giving up both <a href="/wiki/Rook_(chess)" title="Rook (chess)">rooks</a> and a bishop, then his <a href="/wiki/Queen_(chess)" title="Queen (chess)">queen</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Checkmate" title="Checkmate">checkmating</a> his opponent with his three remaining <a href="/wiki/Minor_piece" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor piece">minor pieces</a>—is considered a supreme example of Romantic chess.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The end of the Romantic era in chess is considered to be the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_1873_chess_tournament" title="Vienna 1873 chess tournament">1873 Vienna Tournament</a> where <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Steinitz" title="Wilhelm Steinitz">Wilhelm Steinitz</a> popularized positional play and the closed game. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romantic_nationalism">Romantic nationalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Romantic nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG/220px-Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG/330px-Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG/440px-Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3348" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Egide_Charles_Gustave_Wappers" class="mw-redirect" title="Egide Charles Gustave Wappers">Egide Charles Gustave Wappers</a>, <i>Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830</i>, 1834, Musée d'Art Ancien, Brussels. A romantic vision by a Belgian painter.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg/220px-Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg/330px-Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg/440px-Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Hans Gude</a>, <i>Fra Hardanger</i>, 1847. Example of <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norwegian romantic nationalism</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of Romanticism's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the movement, with their focus on development of <a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">national languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, and the importance of local customs and traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism, its role, expression and meaning. One of the most important functions of medieval references in the 19th century was nationalist. Popular and epic poetry were its workhorses. This is visible in Germany and Ireland, where underlying Germanic or Celtic <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">linguistic substrates</a> dating from before the Romanization-Latinization were sought out. </p><p>Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by Rousseau, and by the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gottfried von Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a>, who in 1784 argued that the geography formed the natural economy of a people, and shaped their customs and society.<sup id="cite_ref-herder_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herder-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon</a>, and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and republicanism were, at first, inspirational to movements in other nations: self-determination and a consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the reasons why France was able to defeat other countries in battle. But as the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Republic</a> became <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Napoleon's Empire</a>, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">the struggle against Napoleon</a> was argued by, among others, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>, a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>. The word <i><a href="/wiki/Volkstum" title="Volkstum">Volkstum</a></i>, or nationality, was coined in German as part of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the unity of language and nation in his address "To the German Nation" in 1806: </p> <blockquote><p>Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in accordance with its own peculiar quality, and only when in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality, as well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality—then, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to be.<sup id="cite_ref-Fichte_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fichte-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This view of nationalism inspired the collection of <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> by such people as the <a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a>, the revival of old epics as national, and the construction of new epics as if they were old, as in the <i><a href="/wiki/Kalevala" title="Kalevala">Kalevala</a></i>, compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or <i><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></i>, where the claimed ancient roots were invented. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. For instance, the Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Perrault" title="Charles Perrault">Charles Perrault</a>, which they thought proved they were not truly German tales;<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Sleeping_Beauty" title="Sleeping Beauty">Sleeping Beauty</a></i> survived in their collection because the tale of <a href="/wiki/Brunhild" title="Brunhild">Brynhildr</a> convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess was authentically German. <a href="/wiki/Vuk_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87" title="Vuk Karadžić">Vuk Karadžić</a> contributed to <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a> folk literature, using peasant culture as the foundation. He regarded the oral literature of the peasants as an integral part of Serbian culture, compiling it to use in his collections of folk songs, tales and proverbs, as well as the first dictionary of vernacular Serbian.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar projects were undertaken by the Russian <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Afanasyev" title="Alexander Afanasyev">Alexander Afanasyev</a>, the Norwegians <a href="/wiki/Peter_Christen_Asbj%C3%B8rnsen" title="Peter Christen Asbjørnsen">Peter Christen Asbjørnsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rgen_Moe" title="Jørgen Moe">Jørgen Moe</a>, and the Englishman <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jacobs" title="Joseph Jacobs">Joseph Jacobs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polish_nationalism_and_messianism">Polish nationalism and messianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Polish nationalism and messianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Night_november.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Night_november.jpg/220px-Night_november.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Night_november.jpg/330px-Night_november.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Night_november.jpg/440px-Night_november.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a> (1830–31), in the <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a>, against the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, not least in Poland, which had recently failed to restore its independence when <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Russia's army</a> crushed the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">Polish Uprising</a> under <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a>. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalism</a>. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this part of Europe was <a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</a>, who developed an idea that <a href="/wiki/Christ_of_Europe" title="Christ of Europe">Poland was the Messiah of Nations</a>, predestined to suffer just as <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> had suffered to save all the people. The Polish self-image as a "<a href="/wiki/Christ_of_Europe" title="Christ of Europe">Christ among nations</a>" or the martyr of Europe can be traced back to its history of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> and suffering under invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the Catholic Church served as bastion of Poland's national identity and language, and the major promoter of <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Poland" title="Culture of Poland">Polish culture</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitions</a> came to be seen in Poland as a Polish sacrifice for the security for <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a>. Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama <i><a href="/wiki/Dziady_(poem)" title="Dziady (poem)">Dziady</a></i> (directed against the Russians), where he depicts Poland as the Christ of Nations. He also wrote "Verily I say unto you, it is not for you to learn civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them civilization ... You are among the foreigners like the Apostles among the idolaters". In <i>Books of the Polish Nation and Polish Pilgrimage</i> Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland as a Messias and a Christ of Nations, that would save mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation. The most known ones are the moral aspect of part II, <a href="/wiki/Individualist" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist">individualist</a> and romantic message of part IV, as well as deeply patriotic, messianistic and Christian vision in part III of the poem. Zdzisław Kępiński, however, focuses his interpretation on <a href="/wiki/Slavic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic mythology">Slavic pagan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">occult</a> elements found in the drama. In his book <i>Mickiewicz hermetyczny</i> he writes about <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">hermetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theosophy_(Blavatskian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theosophy (Blavatskian)">theosophic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemical</a> philosophy on the book as well as <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Masonic</a> symbols. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Emerging Romanticism in the 18th century</dt></dl> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shipwrec-vernet.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joseph Vernet, 1759, Shipwreck; the 18th-century "sublime""><img alt="Joseph Vernet, 1759, Shipwreck; the 18th-century "sublime"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Shipwrec-vernet.jpg/160px-Shipwrec-vernet.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Shipwrec-vernet.jpg/240px-Shipwrec-vernet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Shipwrec-vernet.jpg/320px-Shipwrec-vernet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1106" data-file-height="820" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Vernet" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Vernet">Joseph Vernet</a>, 1759, <i>Shipwreck</i>; the 18th-century "sublime"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Wright_004.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joseph Wright, 1774, Cave at evening, Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts"><img alt="Joseph Wright, 1774, Cave at evening, Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Joseph_Wright_004.jpg/160px-Joseph_Wright_004.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Joseph_Wright_004.jpg/240px-Joseph_Wright_004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Joseph_Wright_004.jpg/320px-Joseph_Wright_004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="705" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby" title="Joseph Wright of Derby">Joseph Wright</a>, 1774, <i>Cave at evening</i>, <a href="/wiki/Smith_College" title="Smith College">Smith College Museum of Art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northampton,_Massachusetts" title="Northampton, Massachusetts">Northampton, Massachusetts</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Philipp_Jakob_Loutherbourg_d._J._002.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Philip James de Loutherbourg, Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, a key location of the English Industrial Revolution"><img alt="Philip James de Loutherbourg, Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, a key location of the English Industrial Revolution" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Philipp_Jakob_Loutherbourg_d._J._002.jpg/160px-Philipp_Jakob_Loutherbourg_d._J._002.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Philipp_Jakob_Loutherbourg_d._J._002.jpg/240px-Philipp_Jakob_Loutherbourg_d._J._002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Philipp_Jakob_Loutherbourg_d._J._002.jpg/320px-Philipp_Jakob_Loutherbourg_d._J._002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1309" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg" title="Philip James de Loutherbourg">Philip James de Loutherbourg</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale_by_Night" title="Coalbrookdale by Night">Coalbrookdale by Night</a></i>, 1801, a key location of the English <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></div> </li> </ul> <dl><dt>French Romantic painting</dt></dl> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GericaultHorseman.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Théodore Géricault, The Charging Chasseur, c. 1812"><img alt="Théodore Géricault, The Charging Chasseur, c. 1812" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/GericaultHorseman.jpg/123px-GericaultHorseman.jpg" decoding="async" width="123" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/GericaultHorseman.jpg/184px-GericaultHorseman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/GericaultHorseman.jpg/245px-GericaultHorseman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4489" data-file-height="5853" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Théodore Géricault</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Charging_Chasseur" title="The Charging Chasseur">The Charging Chasseur</a></i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1812</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ingres, The Death of Leonardo da Vinci, 1818, one of his Troubadour style works"><img alt="Ingres, The Death of Leonardo da Vinci, 1818, one of his Troubadour style works" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg/160px-IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg/240px-IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg/320px-IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3020" data-file-height="2396" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres" title="Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres">Ingres</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="The Death of Leonardo da Vinci">The Death of Leonardo da Vinci</a></i>, 1818, one of his <a href="/wiki/Troubadour_style" title="Troubadour style">Troubadour style</a> works</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eugène Delacroix, Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 1843–44"><img alt="Eugène Delacroix, Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 1843–44" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg/160px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg/240px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg/320px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Collision_of_Moorish_Horsemen_-_Walters_376.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1432" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>, <i>Collision of Moorish Horsemen</i>, 1843–44</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eugène Delacroix, The Bride of Abydos, 1857, after the poem by Byron"><img alt="Eugène Delacroix, The Bride of Abydos, 1857, after the poem by Byron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg/129px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg/193px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg/258px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1117" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>, <i>The Bride of Abydos</i>, 1857, after the poem by Byron</div> </li> </ul> <dl><dt>Other</dt></dl> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waterfalls_at_Subiaco_Joseph_Anton_Koch.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joseph Anton Koch, Waterfalls at Subiaco, 1812–1813, a "classical" landscape to art historians"><img alt="Joseph Anton Koch, Waterfalls at Subiaco, 1812–1813, a "classical" landscape to art historians" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Waterfalls_at_Subiaco_Joseph_Anton_Koch.jpeg/160px-Waterfalls_at_Subiaco_Joseph_Anton_Koch.jpeg" decoding="async" width="160" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Waterfalls_at_Subiaco_Joseph_Anton_Koch.jpeg/240px-Waterfalls_at_Subiaco_Joseph_Anton_Koch.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Waterfalls_at_Subiaco_Joseph_Anton_Koch.jpeg/320px-Waterfalls_at_Subiaco_Joseph_Anton_Koch.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="637" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Joseph Anton Koch</a>, <i>Waterfalls at Subiaco</i>, 1812–1813, a "classical" landscape to art historians</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_(A_View_of_Gordale,_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven,_Yorkshire,_the_Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="James Ward, 1814–1815, Gordale Scar"><img alt="James Ward, 1814–1815, Gordale Scar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_%28A_View_of_Gordale%2C_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven%2C_Yorkshire%2C_the_Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/160px-James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_%28A_View_of_Gordale%2C_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven%2C_Yorkshire%2C_the_Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_%28A_View_of_Gordale%2C_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven%2C_Yorkshire%2C_the_Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/240px-James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_%28A_View_of_Gordale%2C_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven%2C_Yorkshire%2C_the_Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_%28A_View_of_Gordale%2C_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven%2C_Yorkshire%2C_the_Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/320px-James_Ward_-_Gordale_Scar_%28A_View_of_Gordale%2C_in_the_Manor_of_East_Malham_in_Craven%2C_Yorkshire%2C_the_Property_of_Lord_Ribblesdale%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2771" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(English_artist)" title="James Ward (English artist)">James Ward</a>, 1814–1815, <i>Gordale Scar</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Constable_The_Hay_Wain.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Constable, 1821, The Hay Wain, one of Constable's large "six footers""><img alt="John Constable, 1821, The Hay Wain, one of Constable's large "six footers"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/John_Constable_The_Hay_Wain.jpg/160px-John_Constable_The_Hay_Wain.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/John_Constable_The_Hay_Wain.jpg/240px-John_Constable_The_Hay_Wain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/John_Constable_The_Hay_Wain.jpg/320px-John_Constable_The_Hay_Wain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2547" data-file-height="1756" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">John Constable</a>, 1821, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hay_Wain" title="The Hay Wain">The Hay Wain</a></i>, one of Constable's large "six footers"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="J. C. Dahl, 1826, Eruption of Vesuvius, by Friedrich's closest follower"><img alt="J. C. Dahl, 1826, Eruption of Vesuvius, by Friedrich's closest follower" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/160px-J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/240px-J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/320px-J.C._Dahl_-_Eruption_of_the_Volcano_Vesuvius_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4319" data-file-height="3026" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/J._C._Dahl" class="mw-redirect" title="J. C. Dahl">J. C. Dahl</a>, 1826, <i>Eruption of <a href="/wiki/Vesuvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesuvius">Vesuvius</a></i>, by Friedrich's closest follower</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Wood_of_the_Self-Murderers.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="William Blake, c. 1824–1827, The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides, Tate"><img alt="William Blake, c. 1824–1827, The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides, Tate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/The_Wood_of_the_Self-Murderers.jpg/160px-The_Wood_of_the_Self-Murderers.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/The_Wood_of_the_Self-Murderers.jpg/240px-The_Wood_of_the_Self-Murderers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/The_Wood_of_the_Self-Murderers.jpg/320px-The_Wood_of_the_Self-Murderers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1198" data-file-height="838" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1824</span>–1827, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wood_of_the_Self-Murderers:_The_Harpies_and_the_Suicides" title="The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides">The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Tate" title="Tate">Tate</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii, 1833, The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia"><img alt="Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii, 1833, The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/160px-Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/240px-Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/320px-Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="21059" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Karl Bryullov</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii" title="The Last Day of Pompeii">The Last Day of Pompeii</a></i>, 1833, The <a href="/wiki/State_Russian_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="State Russian Museum">State Russian Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg,_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg, Russia">St. Petersburg, Russia</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaak_Ilitsch_Lewitan_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Isaac Levitan, Pacific, 1898, State Russian Museum, St.Petersburg"><img alt="Isaac Levitan, Pacific, 1898, State Russian Museum, St.Petersburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Isaak_Ilitsch_Lewitan_003.jpg/160px-Isaak_Ilitsch_Lewitan_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Isaak_Ilitsch_Lewitan_003.jpg/240px-Isaak_Ilitsch_Lewitan_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Isaak_Ilitsch_Lewitan_003.jpg/320px-Isaak_Ilitsch_Lewitan_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1506" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Levitan" title="Isaac Levitan">Isaac Levitan</a>, <i>Pacific</i>, 1898, <a href="/wiki/State_Russian_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="State Russian Museum">State Russian Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/St.Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St.Petersburg">St.Petersburg</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Turner-The_Burning_of_the_Houses_of_Lords_and_Commons.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="J. M. W. Turner, The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons (1835), Philadelphia Museum of Art"><img alt="J. M. W. Turner, The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons (1835), Philadelphia Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Turner-The_Burning_of_the_Houses_of_Lords_and_Commons.jpg/160px-Turner-The_Burning_of_the_Houses_of_Lords_and_Commons.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Turner-The_Burning_of_the_Houses_of_Lords_and_Commons.jpg/240px-Turner-The_Burning_of_the_Houses_of_Lords_and_Commons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Turner-The_Burning_of_the_Houses_of_Lords_and_Commons.jpg/320px-Turner-The_Burning_of_the_Houses_of_Lords_and_Commons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1133" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Burning_of_the_Houses_of_Lords_and_Commons" title="The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons">The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons</a></i> (1835), <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art" title="Philadelphia Museum of Art">Philadelphia Museum of Art</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Gude--Vinterettermiddag--1847.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hans Gude, Winter Afternoon, 1847, National Gallery of Norway, Oslo"><img alt="Hans Gude, Winter Afternoon, 1847, National Gallery of Norway, Oslo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Hans_Gude--Vinterettermiddag--1847.jpg/160px-Hans_Gude--Vinterettermiddag--1847.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Hans_Gude--Vinterettermiddag--1847.jpg/240px-Hans_Gude--Vinterettermiddag--1847.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Hans_Gude--Vinterettermiddag--1847.jpg/320px-Hans_Gude--Vinterettermiddag--1847.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="899" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Hans Gude</a>, <i>Winter Afternoon</i>, 1847, <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="National Gallery of Norway">National Gallery of Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ivan Aivazovsky, 1850, The Ninth Wave, Russian Museum, St. Petersburg"><img alt="Ivan Aivazovsky, 1850, The Ninth Wave, Russian Museum, St. Petersburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/160px-Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/240px-Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/320px-Hovhannes_Aivazovsky_-_The_Ninth_Wave_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5090" data-file-height="3420" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Ivan Aivazovsky</a>, 1850, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ninth_Wave" title="The Ninth Wave">The Ninth Wave</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Museum" title="Russian Museum">Russian Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Martin_-_Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Martin, 1852, The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Laing Art Gallery"><img alt="John Martin, 1852, The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Laing Art Gallery" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/John_Martin_-_Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg/160px-John_Martin_-_Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/John_Martin_-_Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg/240px-John_Martin_-_Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/John_Martin_-_Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg/320px-John_Martin_-_Sodom_and_Gomorrah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3597" data-file-height="2293" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">John Martin</a>, 1852, <i>The Destruction of <a href="/wiki/Sodom_and_Gomorrah" title="Sodom and Gomorrah">Sodom and Gomorrah</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Laing_Art_Gallery" title="Laing Art Gallery">Laing Art Gallery</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Twilight_in_the_Wilderness_by_Frederic_Edwin_Church_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Frederic Edwin Church, 1860, Twilight in the Wilderness, Cleveland Museum of Art"><img alt="Frederic Edwin Church, 1860, Twilight in the Wilderness, Cleveland Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Twilight_in_the_Wilderness_by_Frederic_Edwin_Church_%283%29.jpg/160px-Twilight_in_the_Wilderness_by_Frederic_Edwin_Church_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Twilight_in_the_Wilderness_by_Frederic_Edwin_Church_%283%29.jpg/240px-Twilight_in_the_Wilderness_by_Frederic_Edwin_Church_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Twilight_in_the_Wilderness_by_Frederic_Edwin_Church_%283%29.jpg/320px-Twilight_in_the_Wilderness_by_Frederic_Edwin_Church_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3115" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Frederic Edwin Church</a>, 1860, <i><a href="/wiki/Twilight_in_the_Wilderness" title="Twilight in the Wilderness">Twilight in the Wilderness</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains,_Lander%27s_Peak.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Albert Bierstadt, 1863, The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak"><img alt="Albert Bierstadt, 1863, The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains%2C_Lander%27s_Peak.jpg/160px-Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains%2C_Lander%27s_Peak.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains%2C_Lander%27s_Peak.jpg/240px-Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains%2C_Lander%27s_Peak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains%2C_Lander%27s_Peak.jpg/320px-Albert_Bierstadt_-_The_Rocky_Mountains%2C_Lander%27s_Peak.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3789" data-file-height="2269" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Albert Bierstadt</a>, 1863, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rocky_Mountains,_Lander%27s_Peak" title="The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak">The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak</a></i> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romantic_writers">Romantic writers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Romantic writers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Castro Alves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Machado de Assis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Casimiro de Abreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Nikoloz Baratashvili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">Charlotte Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">Emily Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Gonçalves Dias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Alexander Chavchavadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Dickinson" title="Emily Dickinson">Emily Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Alexandre Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Eichendorff" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph von Eichendorff">Joseph von Eichendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Álvares de Azevedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Mihai Eminescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Aleksander Fredro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Nikolai Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Bernardo Guimarães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Wilhelm Hauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">E. T. A. Hoffmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">John Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Zygmunt Krasiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Joaquim Manuel de Macedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Melville" title="Herman Melville">Herman Melville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Prosper Mérimée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Kamil_Norwid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprian Kamil Norwid">Cyprian Kamil Norwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Mikhail Lermontov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Gérard de Nerval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Grigol Orbeliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Petar II Petrović-Njegoš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Laza Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Alexander Pushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Ion Heliade Rădulescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sand" title="George Sand">George Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_von_Schlegel" class="mw-redirect" title="August Wilhelm von Schlegel">August Wilhelm von Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Schlegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich von Schlegel">Friedrich von Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Juliusz Słowacki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Fagundes Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholars_of_Romanticism">Scholars of Romanticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Scholars of Romanticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Gerald Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">M. H. Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Ault" title="Donald Ault">Donald Ault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Jacques Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Frederick C. Beiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Bent" title="Ian Bent">Ian Bent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Blanning" class="mw-redirect" title="Tim Blanning">Tim Blanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Harold Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Friedrich Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chandler_(academic)" title="James Chandler (academic)">James Chandler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_N._Cox" title="Jeffrey N. Cox">Jeffrey N. Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Carl Dahlhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Frye" title="Northrop Frye">Northrop Frye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Maria Janion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kitson" title="Peter Kitson">Peter Kitson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Arthur Oncken Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">Paul de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilar_J._Mazzeo" title="Tilar J. Mazzeo">Tilar J. Mazzeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_McGann" title="Jerome McGann">Jerome McGann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_K._Mellor" title="Anne K. Mellor">Anne K. Mellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Jean-Luc Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashton_Nichols" title="Ashton Nichols">Ashton Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Plantinga" title="Leon Plantinga">Leon Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Christopher Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Charles Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">René Wellek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_J._Wolfson" title="Susan J. Wolfson">Susan J. Wolfson</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_terms">Related terms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Related terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goethean_science" title="Goethean science">Goethean science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentimentalism_(literature)" title="Sentimentalism (literature)">Sentimentalism (literature)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposing_terms">Opposing terms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Opposing terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">The Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_subjects">Related subjects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Related subjects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" title="Dark Romanticism">Dark Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo-romanticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post-romanticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plagiarism_and_Literary_Property_in_the_Romantic_Period" title="Plagiarism and Literary Property in the Romantic Period">Plagiarism and Literary Property in the Romantic Period</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_movements">Related movements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Related movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decadent_movement" title="Decadent movement">Decadent movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Düsseldorf School">Düsseldorf School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(movement)" title="Symbolism (movement)">Symbolist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_Romanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetarianism and Romanticism">Vegetarianism and Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_literature" title="Victorian literature">Victorian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist-Leninist_views_on_Romanticism" title="Marxist-Leninist views on Romanticism">Marxist-Leninist views on Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_culture" title="Underground culture">Underground culture</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHamilton2016" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Paul (2016). <i>The Oxford Handbook of European Romanticism</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969638-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969638-3"><bdi>978-0-19-969638-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+European+Romanticism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969638-3&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlechman1999" class="citation book cs1">Blechman, Max (1999). <i>Revolutionary Romanticism: A Drunken Boat Anthology</i>. San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books. pp. 84–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87286-351-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87286-351-4"><bdi>0-87286-351-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Romanticism%3A+A+Drunken+Boat+Anthology&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+CA&rft.pages=84-85&rft.pub=City+Lights+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-87286-351-4&rft.aulast=Blechman&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051013060413/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9083836">"<i>Romanticism</i>. Retrieved 30 January 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9083836">the original</a> on 13 October 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Romanticism.+Retrieved+30+January+2008%2C+from+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft.au=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9083836&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Casey-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Casey_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasey2008" class="citation web cs1">Casey, Christopher (October 30, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090513053304/http://ww2.jhu.edu/foundations/?p=8">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism"</a>. <i>Foundations. Volume III, Number 1</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ww2.jhu.edu/foundations/?p=8">the original</a> on May 13, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-05-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foundations.+Volume+III%2C+Number+1&rft.atitle=%22Grecian+Grandeurs+and+the+Rude+Wasting+of+Old+Time%22%3A+Britain%2C+the+Elgin+Marbles%2C+and+Post-Revolutionary+Hellenism&rft.date=2008-10-30&rft.aulast=Casey&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fww2.jhu.edu%2Ffoundations%2F%3Fp%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Levin, <i>History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman</i> (1967)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald Lee Gutek, <i>A history of the Western educational experience</i> (1987) ch. 12 on <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi" title="Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi">Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ashton_Nichols" title="Ashton Nichols">Ashton Nichols</a>, "Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram to Charles Darwin", <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i> 2005 149(3): 304–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrow2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Morrow, John (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/EEBC9BBCC0907F899DC10DE7A4ED87A9/9780511973581c2_p39-76_CBO.pdf/romanticism_and_political_thought_in_the_early_nineteenth_century.pdf">"Romanticism and political thought in the early 19th century"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In <a href="/wiki/Gareth_Stedman_Jones" title="Gareth Stedman Jones">Stedman Jones, Gareth</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Claeys" title="Gregory Claeys">Claeys, Gregory</a> (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Nineteenth-Century Political Thought</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Political_Thought" title="The Cambridge History of Political Thought">The Cambridge History of Political Thought</a>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a>. pp. 39–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521430562">10.1017/CHOL9780521430562</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-97358-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-97358-1"><bdi>978-0-511-97358-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Romanticism+and+political+thought+in+the+early+19th+century&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Political+Thought&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+Political+Thought&rft.pages=39-76&rft.pub=Cambridge+University&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521430562&rft.isbn=978-0-511-97358-1&rft.aulast=Morrow&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fservices%2Faop-cambridge-core%2Fcontent%2Fview%2FEEBC9BBCC0907F899DC10DE7A4ED87A9%2F9780511973581c2_p39-76_CBO.pdf%2Fromanticism_and_political_thought_in_the_early_nineteenth_century.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-metafizika_journal-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-metafizika_journal_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuliyeva2022" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Guliyeva, Gunesh (2022-12-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221114160047/https://metafizikajurnali.az/storage/images/site/files/Metafizika-20/Metafizika.Vol.5,No.4,Serial.20,pp.113-128.pdf">"Traces of Romanticism in the Creativity of Bahtiyar Vahabzade"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metafizika_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metafizika (journal) (page does not exist)">Metafizika</a></i> (in Azerbaijani). <b>5</b> (4): 77–87. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2617-751X">2617-751X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2616-6879">2616-6879</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1117709579">1117709579</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://metafizikajurnali.az/storage/images/site/files/Metafizika-20/Metafizika.Vol.5%2CNo.4%2CSerial.20%2Cpp.113-128.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2022-11-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metafizika&rft.atitle=Traces+of+Romanticism+in+the+Creativity+of+Bahtiyar+Vahabzade&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=77-87&rft.date=2022-12-15&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1117709579&rft.issn=2616-6879&rft.eissn=2617-751X&rft.aulast=Guliyeva&rft.aufirst=Gunesh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmetafizikajurnali.az%2Fstorage%2Fimages%2Fsite%2Ffiles%2FMetafizika-20%2FMetafizika.Vol.5%252CNo.4%252CSerial.20%252Cpp.113-128.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman2020" class="citation book cs1">Coleman, Jon T. (2020). <i>Nature Shock: Getting Lost in America</i>. Yale University Press. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22714-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22714-7"><bdi>978-0-300-22714-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature+Shock%3A+Getting+Lost+in+America&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-300-22714-7&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=Jon+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2006" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Barbara A. (2006). <i>Global Extremes: Spectacles of Wilderness Adventure, Endless Frontiers, and American Dreams</i>. Santa Cruz: University of California Press. p. 51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Extremes%3A+Spectacles+of+Wilderness+Adventure%2C+Endless+Frontiers%2C+and+American+Dreams&rft.place=Santa+Cruz&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Barbara+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BAria_Perpiny%C3%A0" title="Núria Perpinyà">Perpinya</a>, Núria. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/buch/isbn/3794">Ruins, Nostalgia and Ugliness. Five Romantic perceptions of Middle Ages and a spoon of Game of Thrones and Avant-garde oddity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160313091643/http://logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/buch/isbn/3794">Archived</a> 2016-03-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Berlin: Logos Verlag. 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Novotny, 96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the Preface to the 2nd edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a></i>, quoted Day, 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Day, 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruthven01p40-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ruthven01p40_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruthven (2001) p. 40 quote: "Romantic ideology of literary authorship, which conceives of the text as an autonomous object produced by an individual genius."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spearing87-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spearing87_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spearing (1987) quote: "Surprising as it may seem to us, living after the Romantic movement has transformed older ideas about literature, in the Middle Ages authority was prized more highly than originality."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eco94-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eco94_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eco (1994) p. 95 quote: Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the "modern" avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of "creation from nothingness", with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and so on.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waterhouse (1926), throughout; Smith (1924); Millen, Jessica <i>Romantic Creativity and the Ideal of Originality: A Contextual Analysis</i>, in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eview.anu.edu.au/cross-sections/vol6/pdf/ch07.pdf"><i>Cross-sections</i>, The Bruce Hall Academic Journal – Volume VI, 2010 PDF</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160314220913/http://eview.anu.edu.au/cross-sections/vol6/pdf/ch07.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Forest Pyle, The Ideology of Imagination: Subject and Society in the Discourse of Romanticism (Stanford University Press, 1995) p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreckman2008" class="citation book cs1">Breckman, Warren (2008). <i>European Romanticism: A Brief History with Documents</i>. Rogers D. Spotswood Collection. (1st ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-45023-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-45023-6"><bdi>978-0-312-45023-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/148859077">148859077</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Romanticism%3A+A+Brief+History+with+Documents&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martins&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F148859077&rft.isbn=978-0-312-45023-6&rft.aulast=Breckman&rft.aufirst=Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, 92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Day 3–4; quotation from M.H. Abrams, quoted in Day, 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schellinger2014-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schellinger2014_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schellinger2014_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchellinger2014" class="citation book cs1">Schellinger, Paul (8 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FPdRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA942">"Novel and Romance: Etymologies"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of the Novel</i>. Routledge. p. 942. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-91826-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-91826-2"><bdi>978-1-135-91826-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Novel+and+Romance%3A+Etymologies&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Novel&rft.pages=942&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-04-08&rft.isbn=978-1-135-91826-2&rft.aulast=Schellinger&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFPdRAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saul2009-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saul2009_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaul2009" class="citation book cs1">Saul, Nicholas (9 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vy5AAw9ODMgC&pg=PA1"><i>The Cambridge Companion to German Romanticism</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84891-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84891-6"><bdi>978-0-521-84891-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+German+Romanticism&rft.pages=1-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009-07-09&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84891-6&rft.aulast=Saul&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvy5AAw9ODMgC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferber, 6–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AGgyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA122"><i>Athenaeum</i></a>. Bey F. Vieweg dem Älteren. 1800. p. 122. <q>Ich habe ein bestimmtes Merkmahl des Gegensatzes zwischen dem Antiken und dem Romantischen aufgestellt. Indessen bitte ich Sie doch, nun nicht sogleich anzunehmen, daß mir das Romantische und das Moderne völlig gleich gelte. Ich denke es ist etwa ebenso verschieden, wie die Gemählde des Raphael und Correggio von den Kupferstichen die jetzt Mode sind. Wollen Sie sich den Unterschied völlig klar machen, so lesen Sie gefälligst etwa die Emilia Galotti die so unaussprechlich modern und doch im geringsten nicht romantisch ist, und erinnern sich dann an Shakspeare, in den ich das eigentliche Zentrum, den Kern der romantischen Fantasie setzen möchte. Da suche und finde ich das Romantische, bey den ältern Modernen, bey Shakspeare, Cervantes, in der italiänischen Poesie, in jenem Zeitalter der Ritter, der Liebe und der Mährchen, aus welchem die Sache und das Wort selbst herstammt. Dieses ist bis jetzt das einzige, was einen Gegensatz zu den classischen Dichtungen des Alterthums abgeben kann; nur diese ewig frischen Blüthen der Fantasie sind würdig die alten Götterbilder zu umkränzen. Und gewiß ist es, daß alles Vorzüglichste der modernen Poesie dem Geist und selbst der Art nach dahinneigt; es müßte denn eine Rückkehr zum Antiken seyn sollen. Wie unsre Dichtkunst mit dem Roman, so fing die der Griechen mit dem Epos an und löste sich wieder darin auf.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Athenaeum&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Bey+F.+Vieweg+dem+%C3%84lteren&rft.date=1800&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAGgyAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferber,_7-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferber,_7_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferber,_7_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferber, 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">in her <i>Oxford Companion</i> article, quoted by Day, 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Day, 1–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMellorMatlak1996" class="citation book cs1">Mellor, Anne; Matlak, Richard (1996). <i>British Literature 1780–1830</i>. NY: Harcourt Brace & Co./Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4130-2253-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4130-2253-7"><bdi>978-1-4130-2253-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Literature+1780%E2%80%931830&rft.place=NY&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+%26+Co.%2FWadsworth&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-4130-2253-7&rft.aulast=Mellor&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft.au=Matlak%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward F. Kravitt, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WpR6Ja9eQzYC&dq=%22Four+Last+Songs%22+%22Late+Romantic%22&pg=PA47">The Lied: Mirror of Late Romanticism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204111545/https://books.google.com/books?id=WpR6Ja9eQzYC&pg=PA47&dq=%22Four+Last+Songs%22+%22Late+Romantic%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=FC92T8K_JIWA8gPP3JCeDQ&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Four%20Last%20Songs%22%20%22Late%20Romantic%22&f=false">Archived</a> 2022-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996): 47. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06365-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-06365-2">0-300-06365-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenblatt et al., <i>Norton Anthology of English Literature</i>, eighth edition, "The Romantic Period – Volume D" (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 2006): <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2016)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, 147, inc. quotation</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barzun, 469</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Day, 1–3; the arch-conservative and Romantic is <a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Joseph de Maistre</a>, but many Romantics swung from youthful radicalism to conservative views in middle age, for example Wordsworth. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Samuel Palmer</a>'s only published text was a short piece opposing the <a href="/wiki/Repeal_of_the_corn_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Repeal of the corn laws">Repeal of the corn laws</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, 57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Several of Berlin's pieces dealing with this theme are collected in the work referenced. See in particular: Berlin, 34–47, 57–59, 183–206, 207–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, 57–58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2004/february/bkpub1.asp">"Linda Simon <i>The Sleep of Reason</i> by Robert Hughes"</a>. 12 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linda+Simon+The+Sleep+of+Reason+by+Robert+Hughes&rft.date=2021-07-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldandi.com%2Fnewhome%2Fpublic%2F2004%2Ffebruary%2Fbkpub1.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Critics_of_the_Enlightenment:_Vico,_Hamann,_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder">Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder</a></i>, Pimlico, 2000 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7126-6492-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7126-6492-0">0-7126-6492-0</a> was one of <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>'s many publications on the Enlightenment and its enemies that did much to popularise the concept of a Counter-Enlightenment movement that he characterised as <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">anti-rationalist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalist</a> and organic,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Darrin_McMahon" title="Darrin McMahon">Darrin M. McMahon</a>, "The Counter-Enlightenment and the Low-Life of Literature in Pre-Revolutionary France" <i>Past and Present</i> No. 159 (May 1998:77–112) p. 79 note 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Salon_de_1846_%28Curiosit%C3%A9s_esth%C3%A9tiques%29#II._.E2.80.94_Qu.E2.80.99est-ce_que_le_romantisme.3F">"Baudelaire's speech at the "Salon des curiosités Estethiques"</a> (in French). Fr.wikisource.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Baudelaire%27s+speech+at+the+%22Salon+des+curiosit%C3%A9s+Estethiques&rft.pub=Fr.wikisource.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FSalon_de_1846_%2528Curiosit%25C3%25A9s_esth%25C3%25A9tiques%2529%23II._.E2.80.94_Qu.E2.80.99est-ce_que_le_romantisme.3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Runcieman_Sutherland" title="James Runcieman Sutherland">Sutherland, James</a> (1958) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4kc4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1"><i>English Satire</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204111607/https://books.google.com/books?id=4kc4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">Archived</a> 2022-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> p. 1. There were a few exceptions, notably Byron, who integrated satire into some of his greatest works, yet shared much in common with his Romantic contemporaries. Bloom, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Keats_page_106-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-John_Keats_page_106_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Keats. By Sidney Colvin, p. 106. Elibron Classics</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas_Chatterton_1971,_page_11-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_Chatterton_1971,_page_11_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Chatterton, Grevel Lindop, 1972, Fyffield Books, p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZipes1988" class="citation book cs1">Zipes, Jack (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brothersgrimmfro0000zipe/page/7"><i>The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World</i></a> (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brothersgrimmfro0000zipe/page/7">7–8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-90081-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-90081-2"><bdi>978-0-415-90081-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brothers+Grimm%3A+From+Enchanted+Forests+to+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=7-8&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-415-90081-2&rft.aulast=Zipes&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrothersgrimmfro0000zipe%2Fpage%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZipes2000" class="citation book cs1">Zipes, Jack (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000zipe/page/13"><i>The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000zipe/page/13">13–14, 218–19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860115-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860115-9"><bdi>978-0-19-860115-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Fairy+Tales&rft.pages=13-14%2C+218-19&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860115-9&rft.aulast=Zipes&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont0000zipe%2Fpage%2F13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver, Susan. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230555006">Scott, Byron and the Poetics of Cultural Encounter</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220523180434/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230555006">Archived</a> 2022-05-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)241pp.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55500-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55500-6">978-0-230-55500-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 192–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 197–200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 213–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 188–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Or at least he tried to; Kean played the tragic Lear for a few performances. They were not well received, and with regret, he reverted to <a href="/wiki/Nahum_Tate" title="Nahum Tate">Nahum Tate</a>'s version with a comic ending, which had been standard since 1689. See <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells" title="Stanley Wells">Stanley Wells</a>, "Introduction" from <i>King Lear</i>, Oxford University Press (2000), p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge, Samuel Taylor</a>, <i>Table Talk</i>, 27 April 1823 in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeridgeMorley1884" class="citation book cs1">Coleridge, Samuel Taylor; Morley, Henry (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tabletalksamuel01morlgoog"><i>Table Talk of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Christobel, &c</i></a>. New York: Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tabletalksamuel01morlgoog/page/n44">38</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Table+Talk+of+Samuel+Taylor+Coleridge+and+The+Rime+of+the+Ancient+Mariner%2C+Christobel%2C+%26c&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1884&rft.aulast=Coleridge&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Taylor&rft.au=Morley%2C+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftabletalksamuel01morlgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Buchan, <i>Crowded with Genius</i> (London: Harper Collins, 2003), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-055888-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-055888-1">0-06-055888-1</a>, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Buchan, <i>Crowded with Genius</i> (London: Harper Collins, 2003), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-055888-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-055888-1">0-06-055888-1</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Gaskill, <i>The Reception of Ossian in Europe</i> (Continuum, 2004), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-6135-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-6135-2">0-8264-6135-2</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Thomson, <i>The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian"</i> (Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd, 1952).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. McIlvanney, "Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature", <i>Eighteenth-Century Life</i>, vol. 29 (2), Spring 2005, pp. 25–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. S. Whetter, <i>Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-6142-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-6142-3">0-7546-6142-3</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. Davidson, <i>The Origins of Scottish Nationhood</i> (Pluto Press, 2008), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7453-1608-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7453-1608-5">0-7453-1608-5</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Maunder, <i>FOF Companion to the British Short Story</i> (Infobase Publishing, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-7496-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-7496-8">0-8160-7496-8</a>, p. 374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Jarrels, "'Associations respect[ing] the past': Enlightenment and Romantic historicism", in J. P. Klancher, <i>A Concise Companion to the Romantic Age</i> (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2009), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-23355-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-23355-5">0-631-23355-5</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Benchimol, ed., <i>Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-6446-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-6446-5">0-7546-6446-5</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Benchimol, ed., <i>Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-6446-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-6446-5">0-7546-6446-5</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown2007pp229-30-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown2007pp229-30_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Brown, <i>The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire (1707–1918)</i> (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-2481-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-2481-3">0-7486-2481-3</a>, pp. 229–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 202–03, 241–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 239–46, 240 quoted.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 244–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leon Dyczewski, <i>Values in the Polish cultural tradition</i> (2002) p. 183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher J. Murray, <i>Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 1760–1850</i> (2004) vol. 2. p. 742</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401220028/http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/dostoevsky/texts/devil_pushkinbio.html">"Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799–1837)"</a>. University of Virginia Slavic Department. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/dostoevsky/texts/devil_pushkinbio.html">the original</a> on 1 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alexander+Sergeevich+Pushkin+%281799%E2%80%931837%29&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Slavic+Department&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faculty.virginia.edu%2Fdostoevsky%2Ftexts%2Fdevil_pushkinbio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.museodelprado.es/coleccion/obra-de-arte/jose-de-espronceda/e97beaab-f0a3-4f73-8302-1c8185110410">"El escritor José de Espronceda"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado" title="Museo del Prado">Museo del Prado</a></i> (in Spanish). Madrid<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 27,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museo+del+Prado&rft.atitle=El+escritor+Jos%C3%A9+de+Espronceda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.museodelprado.es%2Fcoleccion%2Fobra-de-arte%2Fjose-de-espronceda%2Fe97beaab-f0a3-4f73-8302-1c8185110410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip W. Silver, <i>Ruin and restitution: reinterpreting romanticism in Spain</i> (1997) p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald Brenan, <i>The literature of the Spanish people: from Roman times to the present</i> (1965) p. 364</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosterAltamirandade_Urioste2001" class="citation book cs1">Foster, David; Altamiranda, Daniel; de Urioste, Carmen (2001). <i>Spanish Literature : Current debates on Hispanism</i>. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3563-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3563-4"><bdi>978-0-8153-3563-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spanish+Literature+%3A+Current+debates+on+Hispanism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Garland+Publishing%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-3563-4&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Altamiranda%2C+Daniel&rft.au=de+Urioste%2C+Carmen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwell1970" class="citation journal cs1">Caldwell, Richard (1970). "The Persistence of Romantic Thought in Spain". <i>Modern Language Review</i>. <b>65</b> (4): 803–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3722555">10.2307/3722555</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-7937">0026-7937</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3722555">3722555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Language+Review&rft.atitle=The+Persistence+of+Romantic+Thought+in+Spain&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=803-12&rft.date=1970&rft.issn=0026-7937&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3722555%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3722555&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebold1974" class="citation book cs1">Sebold, Russell (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cadalsoelprimerr0000sebo"><i>El primer romantico 'europeo' de España</i></a>. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-249-0591-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-249-0591-0"><bdi>978-84-249-0591-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+primer+romantico+%27europeo%27+de+Espa%C3%B1a&rft.place=Madrid&rft.pub=Editorial+Gredos&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-84-249-0591-0&rft.aulast=Sebold&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcadalsoelprimerr0000sebo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw1963" class="citation journal cs1">Shaw, Donald (1963). "Towards an Understanding of Spanish Romanticism". <i>Modern Language Review</i>. <b>58</b> (2): 190–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3721247">10.2307/3721247</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3721247">3721247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Language+Review&rft.atitle=Towards+an+Understanding+of+Spanish+Romanticism&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=190-95&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3721247&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3721247%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmeida_Garrett1990" class="citation book cs1">Almeida Garrett, João Baptista (1990). <i>Obras Completas de Almeida Garrett – 2 Volumes</i>. Porto: Lello Editores. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-972-48-0192-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-972-48-0192-6"><bdi>978-972-48-0192-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Obras+Completas+de+Almeida+Garrett+%E2%80%93+2+Volumes&rft.place=Porto&rft.pub=Lello+Editores&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-972-48-0192-6&rft.aulast=Almeida+Garrett&rft.aufirst=Jo%C3%A3o+Baptista&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infopedia.pt/$almeida-garrett">"Artigo de apoio Infopédia – Almeida Garrett"</a>. <i>Infopédia – Dicionários Porto Editora</i> (in European Portuguese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-04-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infop%C3%A9dia+%E2%80%93+Dicion%C3%A1rios+Porto+Editora&rft.atitle=Artigo+de+apoio+Infop%C3%A9dia+%E2%80%93+Almeida+Garrett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infopedia.pt%2F%24almeida-garrett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-José-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-José_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-José_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-José_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaraivaLopes1996" class="citation book cs1">Saraiva, António José; Lopes, Oscar (1996). <i>História da literatura portuguesa</i> (17a ed.). Porto, Portugal: Porto Editora. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-972-0-30170-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-972-0-30170-3"><bdi>978-972-0-30170-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35124986">35124986</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hist%C3%B3ria+da+literatura+portuguesa&rft.place=Porto%2C+Portugal&rft.edition=17a&rft.pub=Porto+Editora&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35124986&rft.isbn=978-972-0-30170-3&rft.aulast=Saraiva&rft.aufirst=Ant%C3%B3nio+Jos%C3%A9&rft.au=Lopes%2C+Oscar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infopedia.pt/$alexandre-herculano">"Artigo de apoio Infopédia – Alexandre Herculano"</a>. <i>Infopédia – Dicionários Porto Editora</i> (in European Portuguese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-04-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infop%C3%A9dia+%E2%80%93+Dicion%C3%A1rios+Porto+Editora&rft.atitle=Artigo+de+apoio+Infop%C3%A9dia+%E2%80%93+Alexandre+Herculano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infopedia.pt%2F%24alexandre-herculano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaetana Marrone, Paolo Puppa, <i>Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies: A–J</i>, <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>, 2007, p. 1242</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarofalo2005" class="citation book cs1">Garofalo, Piero (2005). "Italian Romanticisms". In Ferber, Michael (ed.). <i>Companion to European Romanticism</i>. London: Blackwell. pp. 238–255.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italian+Romanticisms&rft.btitle=Companion+to+European+Romanticism&rft.place=London&rft.pages=238-255&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Garofalo&rft.aufirst=Piero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>La nuova enciclopedia della letteratura</i>. Milan: Garzanti. 1985. p. 829.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+nuova+enciclopedia+della+letteratura&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=829&rft.pub=Garzanti&rft.date=1985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarci2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Marci, Giuseppe (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://diazilla.com/doc/1032231/opere---centro-di-studi-filologici-sardi"><i>Scrittori Sardi</i></a> (in Italian). Autonomous Region of Sardinia, Italy: Center for Sardinian Philological Studies / CUEC. p. 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8467-859-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8467-859-1"><bdi>978-88-8467-859-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319212952/https://diazilla.com/doc/1032231/opere---centro-di-studi-filologici-sardi">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scrittori+Sardi&rft.place=Autonomous+Region+of+Sardinia%2C+Italy&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Center+for+Sardinian+Philological+Studies+%2F+CUEC&rft.date=2013-12&rft.isbn=978-88-8467-859-1&rft.aulast=Marci&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiazilla.com%2Fdoc%2F1032231%2Fopere---centro-di-studi-filologici-sardi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberto González Echevarría and Enrique Pupo-Walker, <i>The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature: Brazilian Literature</i> (1996) vol. 2 p. 367</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-George_L_1997_p_613-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-George_L_1997_p_613_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-George_L_1997_p_613_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">George L. McMichael and Frederick C. Crews, eds. <i>Anthology of American Literature: Colonial through romantic</i> (6th ed. 1997) p. 613</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Romanticism, American", in <i>The Oxford Dictionary of American Art and Artists</i> ed by Ann Lee Morgan (Oxford University Press, 2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t238.e1140">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728132702/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195373219.001.0001/acref-9780195373219">Archived</a> 2020-07-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The relationship of the American poet Wallace Stevens to Romanticism is raised in the poem "<a href="/wiki/Another_Weeping_Woman" class="mw-redirect" title="Another Weeping Woman">Another Weeping Woman</a>" and its commentary.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weber, Patrick, <i>Histoire de l'Architecture</i> (2008), p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Weber, Patrick, <i>Histoire de l'Architecture</i> (2008), pp. 64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-65-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-65_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weber,_Patrick_2008_pp._64-65_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Weber, Patrick, <i>Histoire de l'Architecture</i> (2008), pp. 64–65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESauleMeyer201492-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESauleMeyer201492_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSauleMeyer2014">Saule & Meyer 2014</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoissonPoisson2014-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoissonPoisson2014_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPoissonPoisson2014">Poisson & Poisson 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Novotny, 96–101, 99 quoted</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Novotny, 112–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Honour, 184–190, 187 quoted</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Friedlaender, <i>From David to Delacroix</i>, 1974, remains the best available account of the subject.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roma/hd_roma.htm">"Romanticism"</a>. <i>metmuseum.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=metmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Romanticism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Froma%2Fhd_roma.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Novotny, 142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Novotny, 133–42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hughes, 279–80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McKay, James, <i>The Dictionary of Sculptors in Bronze</i>, Antique Collectors Club, London, 1995</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Novotny, 397, 379–84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Dizionario di arte e letteratura</i>. Bologna: Zanichelli. 2002. p. 544.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dizionario+di+arte+e+letteratura&rft.place=Bologna&rft.pages=544&rft.pub=Zanichelli&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noon, throughout, especially pp. 124–155</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(in Polish) <a href="/wiki/Maciej_Mas%C5%82owski" title="Maciej Masłowski">Masłowski, Maciej</a>, Piotr Michałowski, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, 1957, Arkady Publishers, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyer 1961, 585.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Lefebvre1995" class="citation book cs1">Lefebvre, Henri (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.versobooks.com/books/1062-introduction-to-modernity"><i>Introduction to Modernity: Twelve Preludes September 1959 – May 1961</i></a>. London: Verso. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-056-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-056-6"><bdi>1-85984-056-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Modernity%3A+Twelve+Preludes+September+1959+%E2%80%93+May+1961&rft.place=London&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-85984-056-6&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.versobooks.com%2Fbooks%2F1062-introduction-to-modernity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferchault 1957.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen, 176–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grétre 1789.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Samson_2001-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Samson_2001_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Samson_2001_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Samson_2001_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Samson 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoffmann 1810, col. 632.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyer 1961, 585–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner 1995, 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Einstein 1947.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Warrack 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grout 1960, 492.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blume 1970; Samson 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wehnert 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. <i>Romanticism and the Sciences</i>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bossi, M., and Poggi, S., ed. <i>Romanticism in Science: Science in Europe, 1790–1840</i>, p.xiv; Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. <i>Romanticism and the Sciences</i>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Sreedharan2004" class="citation book cs1">E. Sreedharan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jJVoi3PIejwC&pg=PR9"><i>A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000</i></a>. Orient Blackswan. pp. 128–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-250-2657-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-250-2657-0"><bdi>978-81-250-2657-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Historiography%2C+500+B.C.+to+A.D.+2000&rft.pages=128-68&rft.pub=Orient+Blackswan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-250-2657-0&rft.au=E.+Sreedharan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjJVoi3PIejwC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">in his published lectures <i><a href="/wiki/On_Heroes,_Hero-Worship,_and_The_Heroic_in_History" class="mw-redirect" title="On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History">On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History</a></i> of 1841</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCeri_Crossley2002" class="citation book cs1">Ceri Crossley (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ovaIAgAAQBAJ"><i>French Historians and Romanticism: Thierry, Guizot, the Saint-Simonians, Quinet, Michelet</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97668-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97668-3"><bdi>978-1-134-97668-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French+Historians+and+Romanticism%3A+Thierry%2C+Guizot%2C+the+Saint-Simonians%2C+Quinet%2C+Michelet&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-97668-3&rft.au=Ceri+Crossley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DovaIAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Clayton and Zachary Simpson, eds. <i>The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science</i> (2006) p. 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shenk,_2007-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shenk,_2007_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Shenk2007" class="citation book cs1">David Shenk (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385510103"><i>The Immortal Game: A History of Chess</i></a></span>. Knopf Doubleday. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385510103/page/99">99</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-38766-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-38766-0"><bdi>978-0-307-38766-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immortal+Game%3A+A+History+of+Chess&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-38766-0&rft.au=David+Shenk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780385510103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwaner2021" class="citation web cs1">Swaner, Billy (2021-01-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chess-game-strategies.com/chess-history-guide-chess-style-evolution/">"Chess History Guide : Chess Style Evolution"</a>. <i>Chess Game Strategies</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chess+Game+Strategies&rft.atitle=Chess+History+Guide+%3A+Chess+Style+Evolution&rft.date=2021-01-08&rft.aulast=Swaner&rft.aufirst=Billy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chess-game-strategies.com%2Fchess-history-guide-chess-style-evolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartston,_Bill1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Hartston" title="William Hartston">Hartston, Bill</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chess0000hart_g7f1/page/150"><i>Teach Yourself Chess</i></a>. Hodder & Stoughton. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chess0000hart_g7f1/page/150">150</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-67039-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-67039-2"><bdi>978-0-340-67039-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teach+Yourself+Chess&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Hodder+%26+Stoughton&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-340-67039-2&rft.au=Hartston%2C+Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchess0000hart_g7f1%2Fpage%2F150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-herder-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-herder_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayes1927" class="citation journal cs1">Hayes, Carlton (July 1927). "Contributions of Herder to the Doctrine of Nationalism". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 722–723. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1837852">10.2307/1837852</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1837852">1837852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Contributions+of+Herder+to+the+Doctrine+of+Nationalism&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=722-723&rft.date=1927-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1837852&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1837852%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=Carlton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fichte-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fichte_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFichte,_Johann1806" class="citation web cs1">Fichte, Johann (1806). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814170610/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1806fichte.asp">"Address to the German Nation"</a>. Fordham University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1806fichte.asp">the original</a> on August 14, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Address+to+the+German+Nation&rft.pub=Fordham+University&rft.date=1806&rft.au=Fichte%2C+Johann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fmod%2F1806fichte.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maria Tatar, <i>The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales</i>, p. 31 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-06722-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-06722-8">0-691-06722-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CnpHAQAAIAAJ&q=%22%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8+%D1%83+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%22"><i>Prilozi za književnost, jezik, istoriju i folklor</i></a> (in Serbian). Државна штампарија Краљевине Срба, Хрвата и Словенаца. 1965. p. 264<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prilozi+za+knji%C5%BEevnost%2C+jezik%2C+istoriju+i+folklor&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0+%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5+%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%2C+%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%B8+%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B0&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCnpHAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522%25D1%2581%25D1%2580%25D0%25B1%25D0%25B8%2B%25D1%2583%2B%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D1%2582%25D1%2583%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack Zipes, <i>The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm</i>, p. 846, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-97636-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-97636-X">0-393-97636-X</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guido_Adler" title="Guido Adler">Adler, Guido</a>. 1911. <i>Der Stil in der Musik</i>. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel.</li> <li>Adler, Guido. 1919. <i>Methode der Musikgeschichte</i>. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel.</li> <li>Adler, Guido. 1930. <i>Handbuch der Musikgeschichte</i>, second, thoroughly revised and greatly expanded edition. 2 vols. Berlin-Wilmersdorf: H. Keller. Reprinted, Tutzing: Schneider, 1961.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun, Jacques</a>. 2000. <i><a href="/wiki/From_Dawn_to_Decadence" title="From Dawn to Decadence">From Dawn to Decadence</a>: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-092883-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-092883-4">978-0-06-092883-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin, Isaiah</a>. 1990. <i>The Crooked Timber of Humanity: Chapters in the History of Ideas</i>, ed. Henry Hardy. London: John Murray. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7195-4789-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7195-4789-X">0-7195-4789-X</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom, Harold</a> (ed.). 1986. <i>George Gordon, Lord Byron</i>. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume, Friedrich</a>. 1970. <i>Classic and Romantic Music</i>, translated by M. D. Herter Norton from two essays first published in <i>Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart</i>. New York: W.W. Norton.</li> <li>Black, Joseph, Leonard Conolly, Kate Flint, Isobel Grundy, Don LePan, Roy Liuzza, Jerome J. McGann, Anne Lake Prescott, Barry V. Qualls, and Claire Waters. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://broadviewpress.com/product/the-broadview-anthology-of-british-literature-second-edition-6">The Broadview Anthology of British Literature Volume 4: The Age of Romanticism Second Edition</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>. Peterborough: Broadview Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-404-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-404-0">978-1-55111-404-0</a>.</li> <li>Bowra, C. Maurice. 1949. <i>The Romantic Imagination</i> (in series, "Galaxy Book[s]"). New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Boyer, Jean-Paul. 1961. "Romantisme". <i>Encyclopédie de la musique</i>, edited by François Michel, with <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Lesure" title="François Lesure">François Lesure</a> and Vladimir Fédorov, 3:585–87. Paris: Fasquelle.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Christiansen" title="Rupert Christiansen">Christiansen, Rupert</a>. 1988. <i>Romantic Affinities: Portraits From an Age, 1780–1830</i>. London: Bodley Head. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-370-31117-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-370-31117-5">0-370-31117-5</a>. Paperback reprint, London: Cardinal, 1989 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7474-0404-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7474-0404-6">0-7474-0404-6</a>. Paperback reprint, London: Vintage, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-936711-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-936711-4">0-09-936711-4</a>. Paperback reprint, London: Pimlico, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84413-421-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84413-421-0">1-84413-421-0</a>.</li> <li>Cunningham, Andrew, and Nicholas Jardine (eds.) (1990). <i>Romanticism and the Sciences</i>. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-35602-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-35602-4">0-521-35602-4</a> (cloth); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-35685-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-35685-7">0-521-35685-7</a> (pbk.); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0jc4AAAAIAAJ&q=Cunningham+%22Romanticism+and+the+Sciences%22">another excerpt-and-text-search source</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204111608/https://books.google.com/books?id=0jc4AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Cunningham+%22Romanticism+and+the+Sciences%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=y3GhT6bEHMKw2gW_wYDdCQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cunningham%20%22Romanticism%20and%20the%20Sciences%22&f=false">Archived</a> 2022-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Day, Aidan. <i>Romanticism</i>, 1996, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-08378-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-08378-8">0-415-08378-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08378-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08378-2">978-0-415-08378-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco, Umberto</a>. 1994. "Interpreting Serials", in his <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q8ZosSvB8C">The Limits of Interpretation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204111544/https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q8ZosSvB8C">Archived</a> 2022-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, pp. 83–100. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20869-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-20869-6">0-253-20869-6</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Innovation+%26+repetition%3A+between+modern+%26+postmodern+aesthetics.-a0138814075">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201226/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Innovation+%26+repetition%3A+between+modern+%26+postmodern+aesthetics.-a0138814075">Archived</a> 2011-07-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Einstein" title="Alfred Einstein">Einstein, Alfred</a>. 1947. <i>Music in the Romantic Era</i>. New York: W.W. Norton.</li> <li>Ferber, Michael. 2010. <i>Romanticism: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956891-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956891-8">978-0-19-956891-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Friedl%C3%A4nder" title="Walter Friedländer">Friedlaender, Walter</a>, <i>David to Delacroix</i>, (Originally published in German; reprinted 1980) 1952.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (January 2016)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Greenblatt, Stephen, M. H. Abrams, Alfred David, James Simpson, George Logan, Lawrence Lipking, James Noggle, Jon Stallworthy, Jahan Ramazani, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jack_Stillinger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jack Stillinger (page does not exist)">Jack Stillinger</a>, and Deidre Shauna Lynch. 2006. <i><a href="/wiki/Norton_Anthology_of_English_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Norton Anthology of English Literature">Norton Anthology of English Literature</a></i>, eighth edition, <i>The Romantic Period – Volume D</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-92720-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-92720-7">978-0-393-92720-7</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gr%C3%A9try" title="André Grétry">Grétry, André-Ernest-Modeste</a>. 1789. <i>Mémoires, ou Essai sur la musique</i>. 3 vols. Paris: Chez l'auteur, de L'Imprimerie de la république, 1789. Second, enlarged edition, Paris: Imprimerie de la république, pluviôse, 1797. Republished, 3 vols., Paris: Verdiere, 1812; Brussels: Whalen, 1829. Facsimile of the 1797 edition, Da Capo Press Music Reprint Series. New York: Da Capo Press, 1971. Facsimile reprint in 1 volume of the 1829 Brussels edition, Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, Sezione III no. 43. Bologna: Forni Editore, 1978.</li> <li>Grout, Donald Jay. 1960. <i>A History of Western Music</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor Amadeus</a>. 1810. "Recension: Sinfonie pour 2 Violons, 2 Violes, Violoncelle e Contre-Violon, 2 Flûtes, petite Flûte, 2 Hautbois, 2 Clarinettes, 2 Bassons, Contrabasson, 2 Cors, 2 Trompettes, Timbales et 3 Trompes, composée et dediée etc. par Louis van Beethoven. à Leipsic, chez Breitkopf et Härtel, Oeuvre 67. No. 5. des Sinfonies. (Pr. 4 Rthlr. 12 Gr.)". <i>Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung</i> 12, no. 40 (4 July), cols. 630–42 [Der Beschluss folgt.]; 12, no. 41 (11 July), cols. 652–59.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Honour" title="Hugh Honour">Honour, Hugh</a>, <i>Neo-classicism</i>, 1968, Pelican.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hughes_(critic)" title="Robert Hughes (critic)">Hughes, Robert</a>. <i>Goya</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-58028-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-58028-1">0-394-58028-1</a>.</li> <li>Joachimides, Christos M. and Rosenthal, Norman and <a href="/wiki/David_Anfam" title="David Anfam">Anfam, David</a> and Adams, Brooks (1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vc_pAAAAMAAJ"><i>American Art in the 20th Century: Painting and Sculpture 1913–1993</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204111604/https://books.google.com/books?id=vc_pAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> 2022-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Macfarlane, Robert. 2007. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oso/3105617/2007/00000001/00000001/art00002">'Romantic' Originality</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721182346/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oso/3105617/2007/00000001/00000001/art00002">Archived</a> 2011-07-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pt9mAAAAMAAJ"><i>Original Copy: Plagiarism and Originality in Nineteenth-Century Literature</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204111544/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pt9mAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> 2022-12-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, March 2007, pp. 18–50(33)</li> <li>(in Polish) <a href="/wiki/Maciej_Mas%C5%82owski" title="Maciej Masłowski">Masłowski, Maciej</a>, Piotr Michałowski, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, 1957, Arkady Publishers</li> <li>Noon, Patrick (ed), <i>Crossing the Channel, British and French Painting in the Age of Romanticism</i>, 2003, Tate Publishing/Metropolitan Museum of Art.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Novotny" title="Fritz Novotny">Novotny, Fritz</a>, <i>Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880</i> (Pelican History of Art), Yale University Press, 2nd edn. 1971 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-056120-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-056120-X">0-14-056120-X</a>.</li> <li>Ruthven, Kenneth Knowles. 2001. <i>Faking Literature</i>. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-66015-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-66015-7">0-521-66015-7</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-66965-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-66965-0">0-521-66965-0</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoissonPoisson2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Poisson, Georges; Poisson, Olivier (2014). <i>Eugène Viollet-le-Duc</i> (in French). Paris: Picard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7084-0952-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7084-0952-1"><bdi>978-2-7084-0952-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eug%C3%A8ne+Viollet-le-Duc&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Picard&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-2-7084-0952-1&rft.aulast=Poisson&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft.au=Poisson%2C+Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Samson, Jim. 2001. "Romanticism". <i>The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>, second edition, edited by <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Sadie" title="Stanley Sadie">Stanley Sadie</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Tyrrell_(professor_of_music)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Tyrrell (professor of music)">John Tyrrell</a>. London: Macmillan Publishers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSauleMeyer2014" class="citation book cs1">Saule, Béatrix; Meyer, Daniel (2014). <i>Versailles Visitor's Guide</i>. Versailles: Éditions Art-Lys. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782854951172" title="Special:BookSources/9782854951172"><bdi>9782854951172</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Versailles+Visitor%27s+Guide&rft.place=Versailles&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+Art-Lys&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9782854951172&rft.aulast=Saule&rft.aufirst=B%C3%A9atrix&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logan_Pearsall_Smith" title="Logan Pearsall Smith">Smith, Logan Pearsall</a> (1924) <i>Four Words: Romantic, Originality, Creative, Genius</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Spearing" title="A. C. Spearing">Spearing, A. C.</a> 1987. <i>Introduction</i> section to Chaucer's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Franklin%27s_Prologue_and_Tale" class="mw-redirect" title="The Franklin's Prologue and Tale">The Franklin's Prologue and Tale</a></i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (May 2013)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Steiner" title="George Steiner">Steiner, George</a>. 1998. "Topologies of Culture", chapter 6 of <i><a href="/wiki/After_Babel" title="After Babel">After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation</a></i>, third revised edition. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-288093-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-288093-2">978-0-19-288093-2</a>.</li> <li>Wagner, Richard. <i>Opera and Drama</i>, translated by William Ashton Ellis. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995. Originally published as volume 2 of <i>Richard Wagner's Prose Works</i> (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1900), a translation from <i>Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen</i> (Leipzig, 1871–73, 1883).</li> <li>Warrack, John. 2002. "Romanticism". <i>The Oxford Companion to Music</i>, edited by Alison Latham. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866212-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866212-2">0-19-866212-2</a>.</li> <li>Waterhouse, Francis A. 1926. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27533952">Romantic 'Originality'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160506222518/http://www.jstor.org/stable/27533952">Archived</a> 2016-05-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sewanee_Review" title="The Sewanee Review">The Sewanee Review</a></i>, Vol. 34, No. 1 (January 1926), pp. 40–49.</li> <li>Weber, Patrick, <i>Histoire de l'Architecture de l'Antiquité à Nos Jours</i>, Librio, Paris, (2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-229-0-158098" title="Special:BookSources/978-229-0-158098">978-229-0-158098</a>.</li> <li>Wehnert, Martin. 1998. "Romantik und romantisch". <i>Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik, begründet von Friedrich Blume</i>, second revised edition. Sachteil 8: Quer–Swi, cols. 464–507. Basel, Kassel, London, Munich, and Prague: Bärenreiter; Stuttgart and Weimar: Metzler.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Further_reading_cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This "<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout#Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">Further reading</a>" section <b>may need cleanup</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">editing guide</a> and help improve the section.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Abrams, Meyer H. 1971. <i>The Mirror and the Lamp</i>. London: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-501471-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-501471-5">0-19-501471-5</a>.</li> <li>Abrams, Meyer H. 1973. <i>Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature</i>. New York: W. W. Norton.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun, Jacques</a>. 1943. <i>Romanticism and the Modern Ego</i>. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.</li> <li>Barzun, Jacques. 1961. <i>Classic, Romantic, and Modern</i>. University of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-03852-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-03852-0">978-0-226-03852-0</a>.</li> <li>Berlin, Isaiah. 1999. <i>The Roots of Romanticism</i>. London: Chatto and Windus. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08662-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-08662-1">0-691-08662-1</a>.</li> <li>Blanning, Tim. <i>The Romantic Revolution: A History</i> (2011).</li> <li>Breckman, Warren, <i>European Romanticism: A Brief History with Documents</i>. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreckman2008" class="citation book cs1">Breckman, Warren (2008). <i>European Romanticism: A Brief History with Documents</i>. Bedford/St. Martin's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-45023-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-45023-6"><bdi>978-0-312-45023-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Romanticism%3A+A+Brief+History+with+Documents&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-312-45023-6&rft.aulast=Breckman&rft.aufirst=Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cavalletti, Carlo. 2000. <i>Chopin and Romantic Music</i>, translated by Anna Maria Salmeri Pherson. Hauppauge, New York: Barron's Educational Series. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7641-5136-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7641-5136-3">0-7641-5136-3</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-5136-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-5136-1">978-0-7641-5136-1</a>.</li> <li>Chaudon, Francis. 1980. <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Romanticism</i>. Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89009-707-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-89009-707-0">0-89009-707-0</a>.</li> <li>Ciofalo, John J. 2001. "The Ascent of Genius in the Court and Academy." <i>The Self-Portraits of Francisco Goya.</i> Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Clewis, Robert R., ed. <i>The Sublime Reader</i>. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019.</li> <li>Cox, Jeffrey N. 2004. <i>Poetry and Politics in the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and Their Circle</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60423-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60423-9">978-0-521-60423-9</a>.</li> <li>Dahlhaus, Carl. 1979. "Neo-Romanticism". <i>19th-Century Music</i> 3, no. 2 (November): 97–105.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus, Carl</a>. 1980. <i>Between Romanticism and Modernism: Four Studies in the Music of the Later Nineteenth Century</i>, translated by Mary Whittall in collaboration with Arnold Whittall; also with <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, "On Music and Words", translated by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Arnold Kaufmann</a>. California Studies in 19th Century Music 1. Berkeley: University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-03679-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-03679-4">0-520-03679-4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06748-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-06748-7">0-520-06748-7</a>. Original German edition, as <i>Zwischen Romantik und Moderne: vier Studien zur Musikgeschichte des späteren 19. Jahrhunderts</i>. Munich: Musikverlag Katzber, 1974.</li> <li>Dahlhaus, Carl. 1985. <i>Realism in Nineteenth-Century Music</i>, translated by Mary Whittall. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-26115-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-26115-5">0-521-26115-5</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-27841-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-27841-4">0-521-27841-4</a>. Original German edition, as <i>Musikalischer Realismus: zur Musikgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts</i>. Munich: R. Piper, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-492-00539-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-492-00539-X">3-492-00539-X</a>.</li> <li>Fay, Elizabeth. 2002. <i>Romantic Medievalism. History and the Romantic Literary Ideal.</i> Houndsmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave.</li> <li>Garofalo, Piero. 2005. "Italian Romanticisms." <i>Companion to European Romanticism</i>, ed. Michael Ferber. London: Blackwell Press, 238–255.</li> <li>Gaull, Marilyn. 1988. <i>English Romanticism: The Human Context.</i> New York and London: W. W. Norton. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-95547-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-95547-7">978-0-393-95547-7</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Gay, Peter</a>. 2015. <i>Why the Romantics Matter</i>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300144291" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300144291">978-0300144291</a>.</li> <li>Geck, Martin. 1998. "Realismus". <i>Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik begründe von Friedrich Blume</i>, second, revised edition, edited by <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Finscher" title="Ludwig Finscher">Ludwig Finscher</a>. Sachteil 8: Quer–Swi, cols. 91–99. Kassel, Basel, London, New York, Prague: Bärenreiter; Suttgart and Weimar: Metzler. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7618-1109-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-7618-1109-8">3-7618-1109-8</a> (<a href="/wiki/B%C3%A4renreiter" title="Bärenreiter">Bärenreiter</a>); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-476-41008-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-476-41008-0">3-476-41008-0</a> (Metzler).</li> <li>Halmi, Nicholas. 2019. "European Romanticism." In The Cambridge History of Modern European Thought, ed. Warren Breckman and Peter Gordon, vol. 1, 40-64. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107097759.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.cambridge.org/gb/universitypress/subjects/history/history-ideas-and-intellectual-history/cambridge-history-modern-european-thought-volume-1?format=PB">[1]</a></li> <li>Halmi, Nicholas. 2021. "Romantic Thinking." In <i>Thought: A Philosophical History</i>, ed. Daniel Whistler and Panayiota Vassilopoulou, 61-74. ISBN 9780367000103.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.routledge.com/Thought--A-Philosophical-History/Vassilopoulou-Whistler/p/book/9780367000103">[2]</a></li> <li>Halmi, Nicholas. 2023. "Transcendental Revolutions." In The Cambridge History of European Romantic Literature, ed. Patrick Vincent, 223-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108497060 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/universitypress/subjects/literature/english-literature-1700-1830/cambridge-history-european-romantic-literature?format=HB">[3]</a></li> <li>Hamilton, Paul, ed. <i>The Oxford Handbook of European Romanticism</i> (2016).</li> <li>Hesmyr, Atle. 2018. <i>From Enlightenment to Romanticism in 18th Century Europe</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Holmes_(biographer)" title="Richard Holmes (biographer)">Holmes, Richard</a>. 2009. <i>The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the Beauty and Terror of Science</i>. London: HarperPress. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-714952-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-714952-0">978-0-00-714952-0</a>. New York: Pantheon Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42222-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42222-5">978-0-375-42222-5</a>. Paperback reprint, New York: Vintage Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-3187-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-3187-0">978-1-4000-3187-0</a></li> <li>Honour, Hugh. 1979. <i>Romanticism</i>. New York: Harper and Row. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-433336-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-433336-1">0-06-433336-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-430089-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-430089-7">0-06-430089-7</a>.</li> <li>Kravitt, Edward F. 1992. "Romanticism Today". <i>The Musical Quarterly</i> 76, no. 1 (Spring): 93–109.</li> <li>Lang, Paul Henry. 1941. <i>Music in Western Civilization</i>. New York: W.W. Norton</li> <li>McCalman, Iain (ed.). 2009. <i>An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/pages/Subjects_and_titles__t285">Oxford Reference Online</a> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li>Mason, Daniel Gregory. 1936. <i>The Romantic Composers</i>. New York: Macmillan.</li> <li>Masson, Scott. 2007. "Romanticism", Chapt. 7 in <i>The Oxford Handbook of English Literature and Theology</i>, (Oxford University Press).</li> <li>Murray, Christopher, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 1760–1850</i> (2 vol 2004); 850 articles by experts; 1600pp</li> <li>Piccitto, Diane, and Terry F. Robinson, eds. <i>The Visual Life of Romantic Theater, 1780-1830.</i> Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 2023.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Plantinga" title="Leon Plantinga">Plantinga, Leon</a>. 1984. <i>Romantic Music: A History of Musical Style in Nineteenth-Century Europe</i>. A Norton Introduction to Music History. New York: W.W. Norton. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-95196-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-95196-0">0-393-95196-0</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-95196-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-95196-7">978-0-393-95196-7</a></li> <li>Reynolds, Nicole. 2010. <i>Building Romanticism: Literature and Architecture in Nineteenth-century Britain</i>. University of Michigan Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11731-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11731-4">978-0-472-11731-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_V._Riasanovsky" title="Nicholas V. Riasanovsky">Riasanovsky, Nicholas V</a>. 1992. <i>The Emergence of Romanticism</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507341-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507341-6">978-0-19-507341-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen, Charles</a>. 1995. <i>The Romantic Generation</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-77933-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-77933-9">0-674-77933-9</a>.</li> <li>Rummenhöller, Peter. 1989. <i>Romantik in der Musik: Analysen, Portraits, Reflexionen</i>. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag; Kassel and New York: Bärenreiter.</li> <li>Ruston, Sharon. 2013. <i>Creating Romanticism: Case Studies in the Literature, Science and Medicine of the 1790s</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-26428-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-26428-2">978-1-137-26428-2</a>.</li> <li>Schenk, H. G. 1966. <i>The Mind of the European Romantics: An Essay in Cultural History</i>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (May 2013)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>: Constable.</li> <li>Spencer, Stewart. 2008. "The 'Romantic Operas' and the Turn to Myth". In <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Companions_to_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Companions to Music">The Cambridge Companion to Wagner</a></i>, edited by Thomas S. Grey, 67–73. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-64299-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-64299-X">0-521-64299-X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-64439-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-64439-9">0-521-64439-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Marggraf_Turley" title="Richard Marggraf Turley">Turley, Richard Marggraf</a>. 2002. <i>The Politics of Language in Romantic Literature</i>. London. Palgrave Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-1528-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-1528-0">978-0-7618-1528-0</a>.</li> <li>Workman, Leslie J. 1994. "Medievalism and Romanticism". <i>Poetica</i> 39–40: 1–34.</li> <li>Wulf, Andrea. 2022. <i>Magnificent Rebels: The First Romantics and the Invention of the Self</i>. Knopf.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanticism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">England (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France" title="Romanticism in France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_French_literature#Romanticism" title="19th-century French literature">(literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Russia (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Spain (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Romantic_literature" title="Swedish Romantic literature">Sweden (literature)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" title="Dark Romanticism">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_School_of_painting" title="Düsseldorf School of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianism_(arts)" title="Indianism (arts)">Indianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preromanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Preromanticism">Pre</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_school" title="Ukrainian school">Ukrainian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Wallenrod" title="Konrad Wallenrod">Wallenrodism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_flower" title="Blue flower">Blue flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Marine_Art_(Romantic_Era)" title="British Marine Art (Romantic Era)">British Marine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">Noble savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia#Romanticism" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_romanticism" title="Rhine romanticism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(literature)#Romanticism_and_genius" title="Genius (literature)">Romantic genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanderlust" title="Wanderlust">Wanderlust</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Mountain_art" title="White Mountain art">White Mountain art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Literature">Writers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Abreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">Alencar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Alves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Assis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Azevedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Barreto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Dias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Guimarães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Macedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es,_Viscount_of_Araguaia" title="Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia">Magalhães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Firmina_dos_Reis" title="Maria Firmina dos Reis">Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay,_Viscount_of_Taunay" title="Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Viscount of Taunay">Taunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Varela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France#Literature" title="Romanticism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrand" title="Aloysius Bertrand">Bertrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Gautier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Mérimée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Musset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Nerval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Nodier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Vigny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">A. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">B. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beer_(poet)" title="Michael Beer (poet)">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Eichendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Fouqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoline_von_G%C3%BCnderrode" title="Karoline von Günderrode">Günderrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gutzkow" title="Karl Gutzkow">Gutzkow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Hauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul" title="Jean Paul">Jean Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Mörike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Schwab" title="Gustav Schwab">Schwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Uhland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Great<br />Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Laetitia_Barbauld" title="Anna Laetitia Barbauld">Barbauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">C. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">E. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">Clare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">de Quincey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">Polidori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Seward" title="Anna Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">M. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">P. B. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland#Notable_Polish_Romantic_writers_and_poets" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Fredro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Krasiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Malczewski" title="Antoni Malczewski">Malczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Mickiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Norwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Potocki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Słowacki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Castelo Branco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">Castilho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_de_Nogueira_Ramos" title="João de Deus de Nogueira Ramos">João de Deus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Dinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Herculano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares dos Passos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Baratynsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Batyushkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Küchelbecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Lermontov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Tyutchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Vyazemsky" title="Pyotr Vyazemsky">Vyazemsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Đura Jakšić">Jakšić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Njegoš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Radi%C4%8Devi%C4%87" title="Branko Radičević">Radičević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milica_Stojadinovi%C4%87-Srpkinja" title="Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja">Stojadinović-Srpkinja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj" title="Jovan Jovanović Zmaj">Zmaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Bécquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">Espronceda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra,_3rd_Duke_of_Rivas" title="Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas">Saavedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">Zorrilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khachatur_Abovian" title="Khachatur Abovian">Abovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Alfieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Andersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hristo_Botev" title="Hristo Botev">Botev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Chavchavadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Eminescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naim_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Naim Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Gustaf_Geijer" title="Erik Gustaf Geijer">Geijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">Grundtvig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Heliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_Isaacs" title="Jorge Isaacs">Isaacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Lenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Hynek_M%C3%A1cha" title="Karel Hynek Mácha">Mácha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger" title="Adam Oehlenschläger">Oehlenschläger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Orbeliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren" title="France Prešeren">Prešeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg" title="Johan Ludvig Runeberg">Runeberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Shevchenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachris_Topelius" title="Zachris Topelius">Topelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6smarty" title="Mihály Vörösmarty">Vörösmarty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Wergeland" title="Henrik Wergeland">Wergeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Bruckner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Czerny" title="Carl Czerny">Czerny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Nepomuk_Hummel" title="Johann Nepomuk Hummel">Hummel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Mahler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigismond_Thalberg" title="Sigismond Thalberg">Thalberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Wolf" title="Hugo Wolf">Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles" title="Ignaz Moscheles">Moscheles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Reicha" title="Anton Reicha">Reicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana" title="Bedřich Smetana">Smetana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_V%C3%A1clav_Vo%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1ek" title="Jan Václav Voříšek">Voříšek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Adam" title="Adolphe Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan" title="Charles-Valentin Alkan">Alkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Fauré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fromental_Hal%C3%A9vy" title="Fromental Halévy">Halévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_M%C3%A9hul" title="Étienne Méhul">Méhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Onslow_(composer)" title="George Onslow (composer)">Onslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Saint-Saëns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Bruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kalkbrenner" title="Friedrich Kalkbrenner">Kalkbrenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Loewe" title="Carl Loewe">Loewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Marschner" title="Heinrich Marschner">Marschner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanny_Mendelssohn" title="Fanny Mendelssohn">Fanny Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski" title="Moritz Moszkowski">Moszkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Schumann" title="Clara Schumann">C. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">R. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Spohr" title="Louis Spohr">Spohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber" title="Carl Maria von Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Erkel" title="Ferenc Erkel">Erkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Goldmark" title="Karl Goldmark">Goldmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Heller" title="Stephen Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen%C5%91_Hubay" title="Jenő Hubay">Hubay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Bellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Busoni" title="Ferruccio Busoni">Busoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cherubini" title="Luigi Cherubini">Cherubini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Paganini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Rossini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspare_Spontini" title="Gaspare Spontini">Spontini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bortkiewicz" title="Sergei Bortkiewicz">Bortkiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Lipi%C5%84ski" title="Karol Lipiński">Lipiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko" title="Stanisław Moniuszko">Moniuszko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Paderewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Stolpe" title="Antoni Stolpe">Stolpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Tausig" title="Karl Tausig">Tausig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Wieniawski" title="Henryk Wieniawski">Wieniawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Arensky" title="Anton Arensky">Arensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mily_Balakirev" title="Mily Balakirev">Balakirev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Borodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Cui" title="César Cui">Cui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Lyapunov" title="Sergei Lyapunov">Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Medtner" title="Nikolai Medtner">Medtner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Mussorgsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Rachmaninoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Rimsky-Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Rubinstein" title="Anton Rubinstein">Rubinstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87" title="Stevan Hristić">Hristić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87" title="Petar Konjović">Konjović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac" title="Stevan Mokranjac">Mokranjac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kornelije_Stankovi%C4%87" title="Kornelije Stanković">Stanković</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterndale_Bennett" title="William Sterndale Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Berwald" title="Franz Berwald">Berwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Elgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Field_(composer)" title="John Field (composer)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Grieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sibelius" title="Jean Sibelius">Sibelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Sor" title="Fernando Sor">Sor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Berchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Chaadayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Larra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Quinet" title="Edgar Quinet">Quinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman" title="Johan Vilhelm Snellman">Snellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Visual_arts">Visual artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Aivazovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Bierstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Bonington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Bryullov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Chass%C3%A9riau" title="Théodore Chassériau">Chassériau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">Constable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Corot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Dahl" title="Johan Christian Dahl">Dahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Edelfelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Fuseli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Gallen-Kallela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Géricault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_G%C5%82owacki" title="Jan Nepomucen Głowacki">Głowacki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Gude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Hayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Janmot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Kiprensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciszek_Ksawery_Lampi" title="Franciszek Ksawery Lampi">Lampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Leutze" title="Emanuel Leutze">Leutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Michałowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Ara%C3%BAjo_Porto-Alegre,_Baron_of_Santo_%C3%82ngelo" title="Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo">Porto-Alegre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Préault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_R%C3%A9voil" title="Pierre Révoil">Révoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleury_Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" title="Fleury François Richard">Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">Rude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Runge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Saleh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Scheffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Stattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Stroy" title="Michael Stroy">Stroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_Tidemand" title="Adolph Tidemand">Tidemand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Tropinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Veit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(English_artist)" title="James Ward (English artist)">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Wiertz" title="Antoine Wiertz">Wiertz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">Scholars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">Blanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ferber" title="Michael Ferber">Ferber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Frye" title="Northrop Frye">Frye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Janion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Gabriel_Porthan" title="Henrik Gabriel Porthan">Porthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">Wellek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_economics" title="Romanticism and economics">Romanticism and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" title="Romanticism in evolution theory">Evolution theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;">← <b><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></b></div> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Modernism" title="Template:Modernism">Modernism</a></b> →</div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Romanticism" title="Category:Romanticism">Category</a> </p> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Premodern,_Modern_and_Contemporary_art_movements" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_art_movements" title="Template:Western art movements"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_art_movements" title="Template talk:Western art movements"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_art_movements" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western art movements"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Premodern,_Modern_and_Contemporary_art_movements" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Premodern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Modern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">Contemporary</a> art movements</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">List of art movements</a>/<a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">periods</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%">Premodern<br />(Western)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_art" title="Ancient art">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_treasure" title="Thracian treasure">Thracian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_art" title="Dacian art">Dacian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization#Culture" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_art" title="Aegean art">Aegean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_art" title="Cycladic art">Cycladic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_art" title="Minoan art">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyan_ware" title="Minyan ware">Minyan ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece#Art_and_pottery" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Mycenaean_pottery" title="Sub-Mycenaean pottery">Sub-Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protogeometric_style" title="Protogeometric style">Protogeometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_art" title="Geometric art">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orientalizing_period" title="Orientalizing period">Orientalizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic Greek art">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-figure_pottery" title="Black-figure pottery">Black-figure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-figure_pottery" title="Red-figure pottery">Red-figure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_style" title="Severe style">Severe style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art#Classical" title="Ancient Greek art">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerch_style" title="Kerch style">Kerch style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art#"Baroque"" title="Hellenistic art">"Baroque"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_art" title="Indo-Greek art">Indo-Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Attic" title="Neo-Attic">Neo-Attic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian art">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_sculpture" title="Iberian sculpture">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauls#Art" title="Gauls">Gaulish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_art" title="Roman Republican art">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Roman art">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustan_and_Julio-Claudian_art" title="Augustan and Julio-Claudian art">Julio-Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">Pompeian Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajanic_art" title="Trajanic art">Trajanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severan_art" title="Severan art">Severan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antique art">Late antique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture" title="Early Christian art and architecture">Early Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_art" title="Coptic art">Coptic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_art" title="Ethiopian art">Ethiopian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Migration Period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunnic_art" title="Hunnic art">Hunnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombards#Art" title="Lombards">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_art_and_architecture" title="Visigothic art and architecture">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_portrait" title="Donor portrait">Donor portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picts#Art" title="Picts">Pictish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_art_and_architecture" title="Mozarabic art and architecture">Mozarabic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Repoblaci%C3%B3n_art_and_architecture" title="Repoblación art and architecture">Repoblación</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Viking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeologan_Renaissance#Art_and_architecture" title="Palaeologan Renaissance">Palaeologan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Byzantine" title="Italo-Byzantine">Italo-Byzantine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franks#Art_and_architecture" title="Franks">Frankish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_art_and_architecture" title="Merovingian art and architecture">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_art" title="Carolingian art">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture" title="Pre-Romanesque art and architecture">Pre-Romanesque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_art" title="Ottonian art">Ottonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosan_art" title="Mosan art">Mosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Romanesque" title="Spanish Romanesque">Spanish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normans#Visual_arts" title="Normans">Norman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman%E2%80%93Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_culture" title="Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture">Norman-Sicilian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_Anglicanum" title="Opus Anglicanum">Opus Anglicanum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_art_in_Milan" title="Gothic art in Milan">Gothic art in Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Gothic" title="International Gothic">International Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Gothic_art_in_Italy" title="International Gothic art in Italy">International Gothic art in Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucchese_school" title="Lucchese school">Lucchese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Crusades" title="Art of the Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_school" title="Novgorod school">Novgorod school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sienese_school" title="Sienese school">Sienese school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar_art" title="Mudéjar art">Mudéjar</a></li> <li>Medieval <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography#Medieval_Europe" title="History of cartography">cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography#Italian_cartography_and_the_birth_of_portolan_charts" title="History of cartography">Italian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorcan_cartographic_school" title="Majorcan cartographic school">Majorcan school</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mappa_mundi" title="Mappa mundi">Mappa mundi</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Renaissance">Proto-Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_painting" title="Florentine painting">Florentine school</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pittura_infamante" title="Pittura infamante">Pittura infamante</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Ferrara" title="School of Ferrara">Ferrarese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forlivese_school_of_art" title="Forlivese school of art">Forlivese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">Venetian school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolognese_school" title="Bolognese school">Bolognese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Maniera" title="Counter-Maniera">Counter-<i>Maniera</i></a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_landscape" title="World landscape">World landscape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghent%E2%80%93Bruges_school" title="Ghent–Bruges school">Ghent–Bruges school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mannerism" title="Northern Mannerism">Northern Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_school_of_painting" title="Cologne school of painting">Cologne school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danube_school" title="Danube school">Danube school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antwerp_Mannerism" title="Antwerp Mannerism">Antwerp Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanism_(painting)" title="Romanism (painting)">Romanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still_life" title="Still life">Still life</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance#Visual_arts" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artists_of_the_Tudor_court" title="Artists of the Tudor court">Tudor court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_school" title="Cretan school">Cretan school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turquerie" title="Turquerie">Turquerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Fontainebleau" title="School of Fontainebleau">Fontainebleau school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_late_16th_century_in_Milan" title="Art of the late 16th century in Milan">Art of the late 16th century in Milan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_in_Milan" title="Baroque in Milan">Baroque in Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Baroque_painting" title="Flemish Baroque painting">Flemish Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caravaggisti" title="Caravaggisti">Caravaggisti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utrecht_Caravaggism" title="Utrecht Caravaggism">in Utrecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenebrism" title="Tenebrism">Tenebrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII_style" title="Louis XIII style">Louis XIII style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_baroque" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran baroque">Lutheran Baroque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroganov_school" title="Stroganov school">Stroganov school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_painter" title="Animal painter">Animal painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_of_Romanists" title="Guild of Romanists">Guild of Romanists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting" title="Dutch Golden Age painting">Dutch Golden Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delft_school_(painting)" title="Delft school (painting)">Delft school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capriccio_(art)" title="Capriccio (art)">Capriccio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(painting)" title="Ionian school (painting)">Heptanese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism#In_the_fine_arts" title="Classicism">Classicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_style" title="Louis XIV style">Louis XIV style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poussinists_and_Rubenists" title="Poussinists and Rubenists">Poussinists and Rubenists</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocaille" title="Rocaille">Rocaille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_style" title="Louis XV style">Louis XV style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederician_Rococo" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederician Rococo">Frederician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinoiserie" title="Chinoiserie">Chinoiserie</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_galante" title="Fête galante">Fête galante</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Go%C3%BBt_grec" title="Goût grec">Goût grec</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_style" title="Louis XVI style">Louis XVI style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_style" title="Adam style">Adam style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directoire_style" title="Directoire style">Directoire style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture_in_Milan" title="Neoclassical architecture in Milan">Neoclassical architecture in Milan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">Colonial art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Art of the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_art" title="Caribbean art">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_art" title="Haitian art">Haitian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Colonial Asian art <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_in_the_Philippines" title="Arts in the Philippines">Arts in the Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letras_y_figuras" title="Letras y figuras">Letras y figuras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipos_del_Pa%C3%ADs" title="Tipos del País">Tipos del País</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque#Baroque_in_the_Spanish_and_Portuguese_Colonial_Asia" title="Baroque">Colonial Asian Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_style" title="Company style">Company style</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art" title="Latin American art">Latin American art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casta_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Casta painting">Casta painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_school_of_religious_imagery" title="Chilote school of religious imagery">Chilote school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuzco_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuzco school">Cuzco school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_school" title="Quito school">Quito school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque#Baroque_in_the_Spanish_and_Portuguese_Colonial_Americas" title="Baroque">Latin American Baroque</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">Art borrowing<br />Western elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus#Art_and_architecture" title="Al-Andalus">Moorish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_art" title="Manichaean art">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal art">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_art" title="Qajar art">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_handicrafts" title="Qing handicrafts">Qing handicrafts</a></li> <li>Western influence in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akita_ranga" title="Akita ranga">Akita ranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uki-e" title="Uki-e">Uki-e</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_art#Western_art_after_1770" title="History of art">Transition<br />to modern</a><br />(c. 1770 – 1862)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Visual_arts">Romanticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_painting" title="Fairy painting">Fairy painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Danish Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troubadour_style" title="Troubadour style">Troubadour style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Shoreham Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_school_of_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Düsseldorf school of painting">Düsseldorf school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luminism_(American_art_style)" title="Luminism (American art style)">American luminism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orientalism#Orientalist_art" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwich_school_of_painters" title="Norwich school of painters">Norwich school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_style" title="Empire style">Empire style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biedermeier" title="Biedermeier">Biedermeier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbizon_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbizon school">Barbizon school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costumbrismo" title="Costumbrismo">Costumbrismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verismo_(painting)" title="Verismo (painting)">Verismo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macchiaioli" title="Macchiaioli">Macchiaioli</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_art" title="Academic art">Academic art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Munich_school" title="Munich school">Munich school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_academic_art_of_the_19th_century" title="Greek academic art of the 19th century">in Greece</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Grec#Painting" title="Neo-Grec">Neo-Grec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etching_revival" title="Etching revival">Etching revival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Modern</a><br />(1863–1944)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1863–1899</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo-romanticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism#Arts" title="Romantic nationalism">National romanticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C5%8Dga" title="Yōga">Yōga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihonga" title="Nihonga">Nihonga</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Japonisme" title="Japonisme">Japonisme</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_style" title="Anglo-Japanese style">Anglo-Japanese style</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beuron_school" title="Beuron school">Beuron school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague school">Hague school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peredvizhniki" title="Peredvizhniki">Peredvizhniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Impressionism" title="American Impressionism">American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoosier_Group" title="Hoosier Group">Hoosier Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_school_(painting)" title="Boston school (painting)">Boston school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Impressionism" title="Amsterdam Impressionism">Amsterdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Impressionism" title="Canadian Impressionism">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidelberg school">Heidelberg school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_pottery" title="Art pottery">Art pottery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonalism" title="Tonalism">Tonalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decadent_movement" title="Decadent movement">Decadent movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbolist_movement_in_Romania" title="Symbolist movement in Romania">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_symbolism#Visual_arts" title="Russian symbolism">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_school" title="Volcano school">Volcano school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incoherents" title="Incoherents">Incoherents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Impressionism" title="Neo-Impressionism">Neo-Impressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luminism_(Impressionism)" title="Luminism (Impressionism)">Luminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divisionism" title="Divisionism">Divisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pointillism" title="Pointillism">Pointillism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pont-Aven_School" title="Pont-Aven School">Pont-Aven School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloisonnism" title="Cloisonnism">Cloisonnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetism" title="Synthetism">Synthetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Nabis" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Nabis">Les Nabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Barbizon_school" class="mw-redirect" title="American Barbizon school">American Barbizon school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_tonalism" class="mw-redirect" title="California tonalism">California tonalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costumbrismo#Visual_costumbrismo_in_the_Americas" title="Costumbrismo">Costumbrismo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1900–1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau_in_Milan" title="Art Nouveau in Milan">Art Nouveau in Milan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">Primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Impressionism" title="California Impressionism">California Impressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_(art)" title="Secession (art)">Secessionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Paris" title="School of Paris">School of Paris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Secession" title="Munich Secession">Munich Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Secession" title="Vienna Secession">Vienna Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Secession" title="Berlin Secession">Berlin Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonderbund_westdeutscher_Kunstfreunde_und_K%C3%BCnstler" title="Sonderbund westdeutscher Kunstfreunde und Künstler">Sonderbund</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Impressionism" title="Pennsylvania Impressionism">Pennsylvania Impressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_iskusstva" title="Mir iskusstva">Mir iskusstva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_American_Painters" title="Ten American Painters">Ten American Painters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke" title="Die Brücke">Die Brücke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter" title="Der Blaue Reiter">Der Blaue Reiter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noucentisme" title="Noucentisme">Noucentisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Werkbund" title="Deutscher Werkbund">Deutscher Werkbund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Realism" class="mw-redirect" title="American Realism">American Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashcan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashcan school">Ashcan school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Cubism" title="Proto-Cubism">Proto-Cubism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(art)" title="Orphism (art)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_(painters)" title="The Eight (painters)">A Nyolcak</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_K%C3%BCnstlervereinigung_M%C3%BCnchen" title="Neue Künstlervereinigung München">Neue Künstlervereinigung München</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cubo-Futurism" title="Cubo-Futurism">Cubo-Futurism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_painting" title="Metaphysical painting">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayonism" title="Rayonism">Rayonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivism_(art)" title="Productivism (art)">Productivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchromism" title="Synchromism">Synchromism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vorticism" title="Vorticism">Vorticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1915–1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sosaku-hanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosaku-hanga">Sosaku-hanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprematism" title="Suprematism">Suprematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Paris" title="School of Paris">School of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Cubism" title="Crystal Cubism">Crystal Cubism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(art)" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art#Constructivist_movement" title="Latin American art">Latin American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Constructivism" title="Universal Constructivism">Universal Constructivism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin-hanga" title="Shin-hanga">Shin-hanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasticism" title="Neoplasticism">Neoplasticism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purism" title="Purism">Purism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_to_order" title="Return to order">Return to order</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novecento_Italiano" title="Novecento Italiano">Novecento Italiano</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurative_Constructivism" title="Figurative Constructivism">Figurative Constructivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stupid_(art_movement)" title="Stupid (art movement)">Stupid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_Progressives" title="Cologne Progressives">Cologne Progressives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbeitsrat_f%C3%BCr_Kunst" title="Arbeitsrat für Kunst">Arbeitsrat für Kunst</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/November_Group_(German)" title="November Group (German)">November Group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_tonalism" title="Australian tonalism">Australian tonalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dresden_Secession" title="Dresden Secession">Dresden Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">Social realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_art" title="Kinetic art">Kinetic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_Antrop%C3%B3fago" title="Manifesto Antropófago">Anthropophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingei" title="Mingei">Mingei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Seven_(artists)" title="Group of Seven (artists)">Group of Seven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity" title="New Objectivity">New Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grosvenor_School_of_Modern_Art" title="Grosvenor School of Modern Art">Grosvenor school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art#Surrealism_in_Iran" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art#Surrealism" title="Latin American art">Latin American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_muralism" title="Mexican muralism">Mexican muralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Fauvism" title="Neo-Fauvism">Neo-Fauvism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precisionism" title="Precisionism">Precisionism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeropittura" title="Aeropittura">Aeropittura</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Revolutionary_Visual_Artists" title="Association of Revolutionary Visual Artists">Asso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuola_Romana" title="Scuola Romana">Scuola Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercle_et_Carr%C3%A9" title="Cercle et Carré">Cercle et Carré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapists" title="Kapists">Kapists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(art)" title="Regionalism (art)">Regionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Scene_Painting" title="California Scene Painting">California Scene Painting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_realism" title="Heroic realism">Heroic realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">Socialist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Art in Nazi Germany">Nazi art</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_art" title="Concrete art">Concrete art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstraction-Cr%C3%A9ation" title="Abstraction-Création">Abstraction-Création</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_(Expressionists)" title="The Ten (Expressionists)">The Ten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_art#Dimensionist_manifesto" title="Fourth dimension in art">Dimensionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Expressionism" title="Boston Expressionism">Boston Expressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leningrad_School_of_Painting" title="Leningrad School of Painting">Leningrad school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">Contemporary</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">Postmodern</a><br />(1945–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1945–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Typographic_Style" title="International Typographic Style">International Typographic Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_expressionism" title="Abstract expressionism">Abstract expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Color_School" title="Washington Color School">Washington Color School</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visionary_art" title="Visionary art">Visionary art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_School_of_Fantastic_Realism" title="Vienna School of Fantastic Realism">Vienna School of Fantastic Realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatialism" title="Spatialism">Spatialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_field" title="Color field">Color field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_abstraction" title="Lyrical abstraction">Lyrical abstraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tachisme" title="Tachisme">Tachisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arte_Informale" title="Arte Informale">Arte Informale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COBRA_(art_movement)" title="COBRA (art movement)">COBRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuagisme" title="Nuagisme">Nuagisme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Ruptura" title="Generación de la Ruptura">Generación de la Ruptura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jikken_K%C5%8Db%C5%8D" title="Jikken Kōbō">Jikken Kōbō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metcalf_Chateau" title="Metcalf Chateau">Metcalf Chateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mono-ha" title="Mono-ha">Mono-ha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanyang_Style" title="Nanyang Style">Nanyang Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_painting" title="Action painting">Action painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Figurative_Expressionism" title="American Figurative Expressionism">American Figurative Expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Figurative_Expressionism" title="New York Figurative Expressionism">in New York</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media_art" title="New media art">New media art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_School_(art)#Visual_arts" title="New York School (art)">New York school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard-edge_painting" title="Hard-edge painting">Hard-edge painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Area_Figurative_Movement" title="Bay Area Figurative Movement">Bay Area Figurative Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Plasticiens" title="Les Plasticiens">Les Plasticiens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutai_Art_Association" title="Gutai Art Association">Gutai Art Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendai_Bijutsu_Kondankai" title="Gendai Bijutsu Kondankai">Gendai Bijutsu Kondankai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Nonconformist_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Nonconformist Art">Soviet Nonconformist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_underground" title="Ukrainian underground">Ukrainian underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lettrism" title="Lettrism">Lettrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letterist_International" title="Letterist International">Letterist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Lettrist" title="Ultra-Lettrist">Ultra-Lettrist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Highwaymen" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Highwaymen">Florida Highwaymen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetic_art" title="Cybernetic art">Cybernetic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipodeans" title="Antipodeans">Antipodeans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1960–1969</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otra_Figuraci%C3%B3n" title="Otra Figuración">Otra Figuración</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Presencia" title="Nueva Presencia">Nueva Presencia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_(art)" title="Zero (art)">ZERO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happening" title="Happening">Happening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Dada" title="Neo-Dada">Neo-Dada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Dada_Organizers" title="Neo-Dada Organizers">Neo-Dada Organizers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Op_art" title="Op art">Op art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_r%C3%A9alisme" title="Nouveau réalisme">Nouveau réalisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_tendance" title="Nouvelle tendance">Nouvelle tendance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_realism" title="Capitalist realism">Capitalist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_%26_Language" title="Art & Language">Art & Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arte_Povera" title="Arte Povera">Arte Povera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement" title="Black Arts Movement">Black Arts Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Caribbean_Artists_Movement" title="The Caribbean Artists Movement">The Caribbean Artists Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_art_movement" title="Chicano art movement">Chicano art movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptual art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_art" title="Land art">Land art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_art" title="Systems art">Systems art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_art" title="Video art">Video art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimalism_(visual_arts)" title="Minimalism (visual arts)">Minimalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluxus" title="Fluxus">Fluxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_art" title="Generative art">Generative art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-painterly_abstraction" title="Post-painterly abstraction">Post-painterly abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermedia" title="Intermedia">Intermedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_art" title="Psychedelic art">Psychedelic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_Art" title="Nut Art">Nut Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photorealism" title="Photorealism">Photorealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_art" title="Environmental art">Environmental art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">Performance art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_art" title="Process art">Process art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_critique" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional critique">Institutional critique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_and_Space" title="Light and Space">Light and Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_art" title="Street art">Street art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Feminist art movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Feminist art movement in the United States">in the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art#Saqqakhaneh_movement" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">Saqqakhaneh movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Stars_Art_Group" title="The Stars Art Group">The Stars Art Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropic%C3%A1lia" title="Tropicália">Tropicália</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoru_no_Kai" title="Yoru no Kai">Yoru no Kai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_art" title="Artificial intelligence art">Artificial intelligence art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1970–1999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-conceptual_art" title="Post-conceptual art">Post-conceptual art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">Installation art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artscene" class="mw-redirect" title="Artscene">Artscene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postminimalism" title="Postminimalism">Postminimalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_art" title="Endurance art">Endurance art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sots_Art" title="Sots Art">Sots Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Conceptualists" title="Moscow Conceptualists">Moscow Conceptualists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_and_Decoration" title="Pattern and Decoration">Pattern and Decoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliontanism" title="Pliontanism">Pliontanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punk_visual_art" title="Punk visual art">Punk art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-expressionism" title="Neo-expressionism">Neo-expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transavantgarde" title="Transavantgarde">Transavantgarde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_art#Saint_Soleil_School" title="Haitian art">Saint Soleil school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_art" title="Guerrilla art">Guerrilla art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowbrow_(art_movement)" title="Lowbrow (art movement)">Lowbrow art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telematic_art" title="Telematic art">Telematic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-conceptual_art" title="Neo-conceptual art">Neo-conceptual art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_European_Painting" title="New European Painting">New European Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_collaborative_painting" title="Tunisian collaborative painting">Tunisian collaborative painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_Group" title="Memphis Group">Memphis Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberdelic" title="Cyberdelic">Cyberdelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Slowenische_Kunst" title="Neue Slowenische Kunst">Neue Slowenische Kunst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scratch_video" title="Scratch video">Scratch video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrofuturism" title="Retrofuturism">Retrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_British_Artists" title="Young British Artists">Young British Artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfiction" title="Superfiction">Superfiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taring_Padi" title="Taring Padi">Taring Padi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superflat" title="Superflat">Superflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Leipzig_School" title="New Leipzig School">New Leipzig school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artist-run_initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Artist-run initiative">Artist-run initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artivism" title="Artivism">Artivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Designers_Republic" title="The Designers Republic">The Designers Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grunge#Graphic_design" title="Grunge">Grunge design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdadism" title="Verdadism">Verdadism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">2000–<br />present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_pop_art" title="Amazonian pop art">Amazonian pop art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altermodern" title="Altermodern">Altermodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art" title="Art for art">Art for art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_game" title="Art game">Art game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_intervention" title="Art intervention">Art intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandalism" title="Brandalism">Brandalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_African_art" title="Contemporary African art">Contemporary African art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Contemporary Indigenous Australian art">Contemporary Indigenous Australian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-fungible_token#Digital_art" title="Non-fungible token">Crypto art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_art" title="Cyborg art">Cyborg art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessivism" title="Excessivism">Excessivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictive_art" title="Fictive art">Fictive art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_design" title="Flat design">Flat design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_Memphis" title="Corporate Memphis">Corporate Memphis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypermodernism_(art)" title="Hypermodernism (art)">Hypermodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperrealism_(visual_arts)" title="Hyperrealism (visual arts)">Hyperrealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea_art" title="Idea art">Idea art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_art" title="Internet art">Internet art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-Internet" title="Post-Internet">Post-Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPhone_art" title="IPhone art">iPhone art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch_movement" title="Kitsch movement">Kitsch movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightpainting" title="Lightpainting">Lightpainting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massurrealism" title="Massurrealism">Massurrealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_European_ink_painting" title="Modern European ink painting">Modern European ink painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-futurism" title="Neo-futurism">Neo-futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern#Artist_group" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neosymbolism" title="Neosymbolism">Neosymbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passionism" title="Passionism">Passionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-YBAs" title="Post-YBAs">Post-YBAs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_art" title="Relational art">Relational art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeuomorph#In_design" title="Skeuomorph">Skeuomorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_art" title="Software art">Software art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_art" title="Sound art">Sound art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuckism" title="Stuckism">Stuckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superflat" title="Superflat">Superflat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SoFlo_Superflat" title="SoFlo Superflat">SoFlo Superflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstroke" title="Superstroke">Superstroke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyism" title="Toyism">Toyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking_Artists_Network" title="Walking Artists Network">Walking Artists Network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">History of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">Abstract art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asemic_writing" title="Asemic writing">Asemic writing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-art" title="Anti-art">Anti-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballets_Russes" title="Ballets Russes">Ballets Russes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Catholic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Lutheran art</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_art" title="Fantastic art">Fantastic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">Folk art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_genres" title="Hierarchy of genres">Hierarchy of genres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genre_painting" title="Genre painting">Genre painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_painting" title="History painting">History painting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated manuscript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustration" title="Illustration">Illustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_art" title="Interactive art">Interactive art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Jewish art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_painting" title="Landscape painting">Landscape painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_sculpture" title="Modern sculpture">Modern sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">Late modernism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_art" title="Naïve art">Naïve art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outsider_art" title="Outsider art">Outsider art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrait" title="Portrait">Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art#Europe" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric European art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_art" title="Queer art">Queer art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_art" title="Shock art">Shock art</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il" title="Trompe-l'œil">Trompe-l'œil</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Western painting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Art_movements" title="Category:Art movements">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aesthetics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aesthetics" title="Template:Aesthetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aesthetics" title="Template talk:Aesthetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aesthetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aesthetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aesthetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_aesthetics" title="Ancient aesthetics">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_aesthetic" title="African aesthetic">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_aesthetic" title="Internet aesthetic">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_aesthetics" title="Medieval aesthetics">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science" title="Aesthetics of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_aesthetics" title="Theological aesthetics">Theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism#Aesthetics" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_Realism" title="Aesthetic Realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Alberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs" title="Béla Balázs">Balázs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Coomaraswamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Danto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Hanslick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Langer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Lipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xie" title="Liu Xie">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fun" title="Fun">Fun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 390 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 335 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 100)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 500)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1757)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1891)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1933)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1946)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1977)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Continental_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Continental_philosophy" title="Template:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Continental_philosophy" title="Template talk:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Continental_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Continental_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Bataille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Blanchot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Castoriadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Cioran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Cixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Kojève</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9" title="Alexandre Koyré">Koyré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Serres" title="Michel Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Freudo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-philosophy" title="Non-philosophy">Non-philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">Speculative realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always_already" title="Always already">Always already</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian" title="Apollonian and Dionysian">Apollonian and Dionysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_oppositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary oppositions">Binary oppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">Critique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanent_critique" title="Immanent critique">Immanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of God">Death of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diff%C3%A9rance" title="Différance">Différance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence precedes essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">Existential crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facticity" title="Facticity">Facticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy_(philosophy)" title="Genealogy (philosophy)">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauntology" title="Hauntology">Hauntology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpellation_(philosophy)" title="Interpellation (philosophy)">Interpellation (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">Intersubjectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Leap of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master–slave dialectic">Master–slave dialectic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_morality" title="Master–slave morality">Master–slave morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontic">Ontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontopoetics" title="Ontopoetics">Ontopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_(deconstruction)" title="Trace (deconstruction)">Trace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaluation_of_values" title="Transvaluation of values">Transvaluation of values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence#Philosophical_perspectives" title="Violence">Violence § Philosophical perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">Will to power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics_of_suspicion" title="Hermeneutics of suspicion">Hermeneutics of suspicion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic theory">Linguistic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Continental_philosophy" title="Category:Continental philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_continental_philosophy_articles" title="Index of continental philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37068#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37068#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37068#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4050491-8">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85115078">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Romantisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932798f">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Romantisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932798f">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569675">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="romantismus"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125200&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="romantismus (umění)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125203&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525357">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543889205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/043710">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\R\O\Romanticism">Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&oldid=1258958524">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&oldid=1258958524</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Romanticism" title="Category:Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th_century_in_art" title="Category:18th century in art">18th century in 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