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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germans_in_Czechoslovakia_at_the_end_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Germans in Czechoslovakia at the end of the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germans_in_Czechoslovakia_at_the_end_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology_of_the_expulsions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology_of_the_expulsions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Chronology of the expulsions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chronology_of_the_expulsions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chronology of the expulsions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chronology_of_the_expulsions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_of_the_Czechoslovak_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_the_Czechoslovak_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Role of the Czechoslovak army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_the_Czechoslovak_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beneš_decrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beneš_decrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Beneš decrees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beneš_decrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massacres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massacres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Massacres</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massacres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internment_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internment_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Internment camps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internment_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expulsions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expulsions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Expulsions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expulsions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Act_No._115/1946_Coll." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Act_No._115/1946_Coll."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Act No. 115/1946 Coll.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Act_No._115/1946_Coll.-sublist" 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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compensation_to_expellees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation_to_expellees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Compensation to expellees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation_to_expellees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vys%C3%ADdlen%C3%AD_N%C4%9Bmc%C5%AF_z_%C4%8Ceskoslovenska" title="Vysídlení Němců z Československa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vysídlení Němců z Československa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertreibung_der_Deutschen_aus_der_Tschechoslowakei" title="Vertreibung der Deutschen aus der Tschechoslowakei – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vertreibung der Deutschen aus der Tschechoslowakei" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudeedisakslaste_v%C3%A4ljasaatmine" title="Sudeedisakslaste väljasaatmine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sudeedisakslaste väljasaatmine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsi%C3%B3n_de_alemanes_de_Checoslovaquia" title="Expulsión de alemanes de Checoslovaquia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Expulsión de alemanes de Checoslovaquia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellandigo_de_germanoj_el_%C4%88e%C4%A5oslovakio" title="Ellandigo de germanoj el Ĉeĥoslovakio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ellandigo de germanoj el Ĉeĥoslovakio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsion_des_Allemands_de_Tch%C3%A9coslovaquie_apr%C3%A8s_la_Seconde_Guerre_mondiale" title="Expulsion des Allemands de Tchécoslovaquie après la Seconde Guerre mondiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Expulsion des Allemands de Tchécoslovaquie après la Seconde Guerre mondiale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordrivelsen_av_tyskere_fra_Tsjekkoslovakia" title="Fordrivelsen av tyskere fra Tsjekkoslovakia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fordrivelsen av tyskere fra Tsjekkoslovakia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Депортация немцев из Чехословакии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Депортация немцев из Чехословакии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vys%C3%ADdlenie_Nemcov_z_%C4%8Cesko-Slovenska" title="Vysídlenie Nemcov z Česko-Slovenska – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vysídlenie Nemcov z Česko-Slovenska" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Протеривање Немаца из Чехословачке – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Протеривање Немаца из Чехословачке" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Вигнання німців з Чехословаччини – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вигнання німців з Чехословаччини" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8D%B7%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E6%B4%9B%E4%BC%90%E5%85%8B%E5%B0%8D%E5%BE%B7%E6%84%8F%E5%BF%97%E4%BA%BA%E7%9A%84%E9%A9%85%E9%80%90" title="捷克斯洛伐克對德意志人的驅逐 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="捷克斯洛伐克對德意志人的驅逐" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q542945#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile plainlist" style="width:20em; background:#fff; border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertreibung.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Expulsion of Sudeten Germans following the end of World War II"><img alt="Expulsion of Sudeten Germans following the end of World War II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Vertreibung.jpg/200px-Vertreibung.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Vertreibung.jpg/300px-Vertreibung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Vertreibung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="285" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/1944%E2%80%9350_flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="1944–50 flight and expulsion of Germans">Flight and expulsion of Germans during<br />and after <span class="nowrap">World War II</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> (<a href="/wiki/Demographic_estimates_of_the_flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans" title="Demographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans">demographic estimates</a>)</td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> Background</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1944%E2%80%9350_flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="1944–50 flight and expulsion of Germans">1944–50 flight and expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_population_transfers" title="German–Soviet population transfers">German–Soviet population transfers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">Potsdam Agreement</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> Wartime flight and evacuation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_evacuation_from_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="German evacuation from Central and Eastern Europe">German evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_East_Prussia" title="Evacuation of East Prussia">East Prussia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> Post-war flight and expulsion</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_from_Poland_during_and_after_World_War_II" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II">Poland <span style="font-size:85%;">(incl. former German territories)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Black_Tulip" title="Operation Black Tulip">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Germans_from_Romania_after_World_War_II" title="Deportation of Germans from Romania after World War II">Romania</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> Later emigration</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_in_Schleswig-Holstein_after_the_Second_World_War" title="Refugees in Schleswig-Holstein after the Second World War">Refugees in Schleswig-Holstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_Poland_to_Germany_after_World_War_II" title="Emigration from Poland to Germany after World War II">Emigration from Poland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> Other themes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_children" title="Wolf children">Wolf children</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding:0.2em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Expulsion_of_Germans" title="Template:Expulsion of Germans"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Expulsion_of_Germans" title="Template talk:Expulsion of Germans"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Expulsion_of_Germans" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Expulsion of Germans"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia</b> after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> was part of a series of <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">evacuations and deportations of Germans from Central and Eastern Europe during and after World War II</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">German occupation of Czechoslovakia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Czech_resistance_to_Nazi_occupation" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech resistance to Nazi occupation">Czech resistance groups</a> demanded the deportation of ethnic Germans from Czechoslovakia. The decision to deport the Germans was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_government-in-exile" title="Czechoslovak government-in-exile">Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile</a> which, beginning in 1943, sought the support of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> for this proposal.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dokumenty_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dokumenty-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final agreement for the expulsion of the German population however was not reached until 2 August 1945 at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference#Agreements" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>. </p><p>In the months following the end of the war, "wild" expulsions happened from May until August 1945. Czechoslovak President <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Bene%C5%A1" title="Edvard Beneš">Edvard Beneš</a> on 28 October 1945 called for the "final solution of the German question" (<a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">konečné řešení německé otázky</i>) which would have to be solved by deportation of the ethnic Germans from Czechoslovakia.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expulsions were carried out by order of local authorities, mostly by groups of armed volunteers. However, in some cases it was initiated or pursued with the assistance of the regular army.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several thousand died violently during the expulsion and more died from hunger and illness as a consequence. The expulsion according to the Potsdam Conference proceeded from 25 January 1946 until October of that year. Roughly 1.3 million ethnic Germans were deported to the American zone (West Germany), and an estimated 800,000 were deported to the Soviet zone (East Germany).<sup id="cite_ref-radio1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radio1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expulsions ended in 1948, but not all Germans were expelled; estimates for the total number of non-expulsions range from approximately 160,000<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 250,000.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West German</a> government in 1958 estimated the ethnic German death toll during the expulsion period to be about 270,000,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a figure that has been cited in historical literature since then.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research by a joint German and Czech commission of historians in 1995 found that the previous demographic estimates of 220,000 to 270,000 deaths were overstated and based on faulty information; they concluded that the actual death toll was at least 15,000 persons, and that it could range up to a maximum of 30,000 dead if one assumes that some deaths were not reported. The Commission statement also said that German records show 18,889 confirmed deaths including 3,411 suicides. Czech records indicated 22,247 deaths including 6,667 unexplained cases or suicides.<sup id="cite_ref-fronta.cz_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fronta.cz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tschechien-portal.info_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tschechien-portal.info-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dt-ds-historikerkommission.de_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dt-ds-historikerkommission.de-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wallace_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallace-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The German Church Search Service was able to confirm the deaths of 14,215 persons during the expulsions from Czechoslovakia (6,316 violent deaths, 6,989 in internment camps and 907 in the USSR as forced laborers).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plans_to_expel_the_Sudeten_Germans">Plans to expel the Sudeten Germans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Plans to expel the Sudeten Germans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">Potsdam Agreement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sudetendeutsche.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Sudetendeutsche.png/220px-Sudetendeutsche.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Sudetendeutsche.png/330px-Sudetendeutsche.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Sudetendeutsche.png/440px-Sudetendeutsche.png 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="719" /></a><figcaption>Czech districts with an ethnic German population in 1934 of 20% or more (pink), 50% or more (red), and 80% or more (dark red)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1935</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a> of 1938, and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Occupation of Bohemia and Moravia</a> by Hitler in March 1939, <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Bene%C5%A1" title="Edvard Beneš">Edvard Beneš</a> set out to convince the Allies during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> that the expulsion of ethnic Germans was the best solution. Expulsion was even supported by Czechs who had moderate views about the Germans.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pro-Nazi <a href="/wiki/Sudeten_German_Party" title="Sudeten German Party">Sudeten German Party</a> had gained 88% of ethnic German votes in May 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost as soon as German troops occupied the Sudetenland in October 1938, Edvard Beneš and, later, the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_government-in-exile" title="Czechoslovak government-in-exile">Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile</a>, pursued a twofold policy: the restoration of Czechoslovakia to its pre-Munich boundaries, and the removal, through a combination of minor border rectifications and <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a>, of the state's German minority, so as to bolster the territorial integrity of state. Although the details changed, along with British public and official opinion, and pressure from <a href="/wiki/Czech_resistance_to_Nazi_occupation" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech resistance to Nazi occupation">Czech resistance groups</a>, the broad goals of the Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile remained the same throughout the war. </p><p>The pre-war policy of minority protection was viewed as counterproductive (and the minorities themselves saw it as the source of unrest and instability), because it was associated with the destruction of the Czechoslovak state and its democratic regime. Therefore, Czechoslovak leaders <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2010)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> made a decision to change the multi-ethnic character of the state to a state of two or three ethnicities (Czechs, Slovaks and, initially, <a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenians</a>). That goal was to be reached by the expulsion of most of the other minority groups and the successive assimilation of the rest. Because almost all people of German and <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian people">Magyar</a> ethnicity gained German or Hungarian citizenship during the occupation of Czechoslovakia, the expulsion could be legalized as the banishment (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Ausweisung</i>) of foreigners.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 22 June 1942, after plans for the expulsion of the <a href="/wiki/Sudeten_Germans" title="Sudeten Germans">Sudeten Germans</a> had become known, <a href="/wiki/Wenzel_Jaksch" title="Wenzel Jaksch">Wenzel Jaksch</a> (a Sudeten German <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democrat</a> in exile) wrote a letter to Beneš protesting about the proposed plans.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially, only a few hundred thousand Sudeten Germans were to be affected — people who were perceived as being disloyal to Czechoslovakia and who, according to Beneš and Czech public opinion, had acted as Hitler's "<a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">fifth column</a>". Due to the escalation of Nazi atrocities in the <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Protectorate</a> as the war progressed, there were increasing demands by the Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile, Czech resistance groups, and the majority of Czechs, for the expulsion of more and more Germans, with no individual investigations or inference of guilt on their part. The only exception were to be 160,000 to 250,000 ethnic German anti-fascists, and those ethnic Germans crucial for industries. The Czechs and their government did not want a future Czechoslovakia to be burdened with a sizable German minority. </p><p>The idea of expelling ethnic Germans from Czechoslovakia was supported by the British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Britain's Foreign Secretary <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Anthony Eden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-consent_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-consent-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1942, the Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile received the formal support of the United Kingdom for the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia and, in March 1943, President Beneš received Moscow's support. In June 1943, Beneš traveled to <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and obtained support for the evolving expulsion plans from President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-consent_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-consent-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">German occupation of Czechoslovakia</a>, especially after the Nazis' brutal <a href="/wiki/Operation_Anthropoid#Consequences" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Anthropoid">reprisal</a> for the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Heydrich</a>, most of the <a href="/wiki/Czech_resistance_to_Nazi_occupation" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech resistance to Nazi occupation">Czech resistance groups</a> demanded the final solution of the German question, which would have to be achieved by transfer or expulsion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Those demands were adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia#Czechoslovak_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia">Government-in-Exile</a> which, beginning in 1943, sought the support of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> for the proposal.<sup id="cite_ref-Dokumenty_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dokumenty-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The April 1945 <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice_Program" title="Košice Program">Košice Program</a>, which outlined the postwar political settlement of Czechoslovakia, stipulated an expulsion of Germans and Hungarians from the country.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final agreement for the transfer of the German minority however was not reached until 2 August 1945 at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference#Agreements" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Harrison" title="Geoffrey Harrison">Geoffrey Harrison</a>, who drafted article XIII of the Potsdam Communique concerning the expulsions, wrote on 31 July 1945 to <a href="/wiki/John_Troutbeck_(diplomat)" title="John Troutbeck (diplomat)">John Troutbeck</a>, head of the German Department at the Foreign Office: "The Sub-Committee met three times, taking as a basis of discussion a draft which I circulated ... <a href="/wiki/Arkady_Sobolev" title="Arkady Sobolev">Sobolov</a> took the view that the Polish and Czechoslovak wish to expel their German populations was the fulfilment of an historic mission which the Soviet Government were unwilling to try to impede. ... <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_W._Cannon" title="Cavendish W. Cannon">Cannon</a> and I naturally strongly opposed this view. We made it clear that we did not like the idea of mass transfers anyway. As, however, we could not prevent them, we wished to ensure that they were carried out in as orderly and humane manner as possible". (FO 371/46811, published in facsimile in <a href="/wiki/Alfred-Maurice_de_Zayas" title="Alfred-Maurice de Zayas">A. de Zayas</a>, <i>Nemesis at Potsdam</i>, pp. 232–34). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Germans_in_Czechoslovakia_at_the_end_of_the_war">Germans in Czechoslovakia at the end of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Germans in Czechoslovakia at the end of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VolarydeadJews.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/VolarydeadJews.jpg/200px-VolarydeadJews.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/VolarydeadJews.jpg/300px-VolarydeadJews.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/VolarydeadJews.jpg/400px-VolarydeadJews.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2240" data-file-height="2792" /></a><figcaption>Sudeten Germans are forced to walk past the bodies of 30 Jewish women starved to death by German SS troops in <a href="/wiki/Volary" title="Volary">Volary</a> (total of 95 women were tortured to death here)</figcaption></figure> <p>Developing a clear picture of the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia is difficult because of the chaotic conditions that existed at the end of the war. There was no stable central government and record-keeping was non-existent. Many of the events that occurred during the period were spontaneous and local rather than being the result of coordinated policy directives from a central government. Among these spontaneous events was the removal and detention of the Sudeten Germans which was triggered by the strong anti-German sentiment at the grass-roots level and organized by local officials. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Schieder_commission" title="Schieder commission">Schieder commission</a>, records of food rationing coupons show approximately 3,070,899 inhabitants of occupied Sudetenland in January 1945, which included Czechs or other non-Germans. In addition, most of the roughly 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Germans" title="Carpathian Germans">Carpathian Germans</a> from Slovakia were evacuated on <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Himmler</a>'s orders to the <a href="/wiki/Bohemia-Moravia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemia-Moravia">Czechia</a> region just before the end of the war. During April and May 1945, an estimated 1.6 million Germans from Polish <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> fled the advancing Soviet forces and became refugees in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia-Moravia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemia-Moravia">Bohemia-Moravia</a>. Thus according to German estimates there were 4.5 million German civilians present in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia-Moravia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemia-Moravia">Bohemia-Moravia</a> in May 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology_of_the_expulsions">Chronology of the expulsions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chronology of the expulsions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From London and Moscow, Czech and Slovak political agents in exile followed an advancing Soviet army pursuing German forces westward, to reach the territory of the <a href="/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="First Czechoslovak Republic">first former Czechoslovak Republic</a>. Beneš proclaimed the programme of the newly appointed Czechoslovak government on 5 April 1945, in the northeastern city of <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice" title="Košice">Košice</a>, which included oppression and persecution of the non-Czech and non-Slovak populations of the partially restored Czechoslovak Republic. After the proclamation of the Košice program, the German and Hungarian population living in the reborn Czechoslovak state were subjected to various forms of court procedures, citizenship revocations, property confiscation, condemnation to forced labour camps, and appointment of government managers to German and Hungarian owned businesses and farms, referred to euphemistically as "reslovakization".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_the_Czechoslovak_army">Role of the Czechoslovak army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Role of the Czechoslovak army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potsdam_conference_1945-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Potsdam_conference_1945-3.jpg/220px-Potsdam_conference_1945-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Potsdam_conference_1945-3.jpg/330px-Potsdam_conference_1945-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Potsdam_conference_1945-3.jpg/440px-Potsdam_conference_1945-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">sanctioned</a> the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia</figcaption></figure> <p>Western Czechoslovakia was liberated by U.S. forces under General <a href="/wiki/George_S._Patton" title="George S. Patton">Patton</a>. General <a href="/wiki/Zden%C4%9Bk_Nov%C3%A1k" title="Zdeněk Novák">Zdeněk Novák</a>, head of the Prague military command "Alex", issued an order to "deport all Germans from territory within the historical borders."<sup id="cite_ref-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A pamphlet issued on 5 June 1945 titled "Ten Commandments for Czechoslovak Soldiers in the Border Regions" directed soldiers that "The Germans have remained our irreconcilable enemies. Do not cease to hate the Germans ... Behave towards Germans like a victor ... Be harsh to the Germans ... German women and the Hitler Youth also bear the blame for the crimes of the Germans. Deal with them too in an uncompromising way."<sup id="cite_ref-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 15 June, a government decree directed the army to implement measures to apprehend Nazi criminals and carry out the transfer of the German population. On 27 July, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Czechoslovakia)" title="Ministry of Defence (Czechoslovakia)">Ministry of National Defence</a> issued a secret order<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2010)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> directing the transfer should be carried out on as large a scale as possible, and as expeditiously as possible to present the Western powers with a <i>fait accompli</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beneš_decrees"><span id="Bene.C5.A1_decrees"></span>Beneš decrees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Beneš decrees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bene%C5%A1_decrees" title="Beneš decrees">Beneš decrees</a></div> <p>Between 1945 and 1948, a series of Czechoslovak government decrees, edicts, laws and statutes were proclaimed by the president of the republic, the Prague-based Czechoslovak Parliament, the Slovak National Council (Parliament) in <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a> and by the Board of Slovak Commissioners (an appendage of the Czechoslovak government in Bratislava). </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>After the revocation of Munich Agreement had been publicly announced in the British Parliament in August 1942, the British government gave its consent to the transfer of German population from the Czech Crown Lands. President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt joined the relocation policy in June 1943. Moscow gave its consent by a declaration on June 5, 1943. The transfer was internationally approved at the Potsdam Conference in July 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Potsdam Agreement: XIII. Orderly Transfers of German Populations</i>. </p><p>"The Conference reached the following agreement on the removal of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary:— The three Governments (The United States, Great Britain and Soviet Union), having considered the question in all its aspects, recognize that the transfer to Germany of German populations or elements thereof, remaining in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, will have to be undertaken. They agree that any transfers that take place should be effected in an orderly and humane manner."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </p><p> The conclusions of the Potsdam Conference were confirmed by its signatory states in 1996. The US government, said: "The decisions made at Potsdam ... were soundly based in international law. The conference conclusions have been endorsed many times since in various multilateral and bilateral contexts. ... The conclusions of Potsdam are historical fact and the United States is confident that no country wishes to call them into question".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-President_Decrees_2.a_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-President_Decrees_2.a-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No Czechoslovak/Czech/Slovak legal norm (decree, law, etc.) ever existed that would have dealt with the displacement of the German population.<sup id="cite_ref-President_Decrees_2.a_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-President_Decrees_2.a-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><i>Decrees 5, 12, 33, 108/1945</i> concerned the expropriation of <a href="/wiki/Pursuit_of_Nazi_collaborators" title="Pursuit of Nazi collaborators">wartime traitors and collaborators</a>. Decrees 33/1945 and 108/1945 explicitly stated that the sanctions did not apply to anti-fascists. Typically it was up to the decision of local municipalities. 160,000–250,000 Germans, some anti-fascists, but mostly people crucial for the industry<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> remained in Czechoslovakia. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Decree No. 33/1945 of 2 August 1945</i>. (After the decision made at Potsdam). On the basis of this decree, the Czechoslovak State released from its citizenship those persons who, "in compliance with the regulations of the foreign occupation forces had acquired German or Hungarian citizenship". Czechoslovak citizenship was maintained in the cases of those Germans (280 000) who, at the time of the increasing threat to the Czechoslovak Republic, had officially supported the Czechs, or those who had manifested "their loyalty to the Czechoslovak Republic, had never committed any offence against the Czech and Slovak nations, and who had either actively participated in the struggle for the liberation of the country, or had suffered under Nazi or fascist terror".<sup id="cite_ref-President_Decrees_2.a_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-President_Decrees_2.a-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> The decree was in accordance with the Czechoslovak constitution which did not allow dual citizenship.</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Decree No. 5/1945 of 3 June 1945</i>, determining that "any form of property transfer and transaction affecting property rights in terms of movable and immovable assets, and public and private property shall be invalidated, if it was adopted after September 29, 1938, under pressure of the Nazi occupation or national, racial or political persecution" (i.e. this Decree repealed the Nazi confiscation measures adopted against the victims of Nazism).</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Decree No. 108/1945 of 25 October 1945: (After the decision made at Potsdam) </i> "There is confiscated, without any compensation properties and property rights which are owned by: </p><ul><li>The German Empire; the Hungarian Kingdom ...</li> <li>Private persons of German and Hungarian nationality, (cf. Decree No. 33/1945) except for persons who have proved that they kept loyal to the Czechoslovak Republic ...</li> <li>Private persons who have performed activities against independence, autonomy ..., security and defense of the Czechoslovakian Republic ..."</li></ul><p> The confiscation was based on the international consensus declared in the documents of the Potsdam Conference and the 1945 Paris Agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-President_Decrees_2.a_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-President_Decrees_2.a-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar confiscation measure were also taken in other states such as the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg and Denmark.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massacres">Massacres</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Massacres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1945 expulsion was referred to as the "wild transfer" (<i>divoký odsun</i>) due to the widespread violence and brutality that were not only perpetuated by mobs but also by soldiers, police, and others acting under the colour of authority.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the summer of 1945, for instance, there were localised massacres of the German population. The following examples are described in a study done by the <a href="/wiki/European_University_Institute" title="European University Institute">European University Institute in Florence</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-EU_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EU-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>18–19 June 1945, in the <a href="/wiki/P%C5%99erov" title="Přerov">Přerov</a> incident, 71 men, 120 women and 74 children (265 Germans) who were <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Germans" title="Carpathian Germans">Carpathian Germans</a> from <a href="/wiki/Dob%C5%A1in%C3%A1" title="Dobšiná">Dobšiná</a> were passing through <a href="/wiki/Horn%C3%AD_Mo%C5%A1t%C4%9Bnice" title="Horní Moštěnice">Horní Moštěnice</a> near <a href="/wiki/P%C5%99erov" title="Přerov">Přerov</a> railway station. Here they were taken out of the train by Czechoslovakian soldiers, taken outside the city to a hill named "Švédské šance", where they were forced to dig their own graves and all were shot.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The massacre did not become publicly known until the fall of the Communist regime in 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>20,000 Germans were <a href="/wiki/Brno_death_march" title="Brno death march">forced to leave Brno</a> for camps in <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>. Z. Beneš reported 800 deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-Beneš_1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beneš_1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Estimates of those killed in the <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Ast%C3%AD_massacre" title="Ústí massacre">Ústí massacre</a> range from not less than 42 up to 2,000 civilians. Recent estimates range from 80 to 100 deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>763 ethnic Germans were shot dead in and around Postelberg (now <a href="/wiki/Postoloprty" title="Postoloprty">Postoloprty</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Beneš_1_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beneš_1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>During the wild transfer phase, it is estimated that the number of murdered Germans was between 19,000 and 30,000.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accounts indicated that the Czechoslovak government was not averse to "popular justice" as long it did not excessively blacken the country's reputation abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were even government officials who maintained that the massacres at Usti would not have happened if the government dealt with the Germans more harshly.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internment_camps">Internment camps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Internment camps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the German "Society against Expulsion", some Germans were sent to what the society terms "concentration camps".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1964 report by the German Red Cross stated that 1,215 "internment camps" were established, as well as 846 <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced labour</a> and "disciplinary centres", and 215 prisons, on Czechoslovak territory. Special Courts sentenced 21,469 persons to prison and 713 were executed for crimes committed during the Nazi occupation. They made rough estimate claiming 350,000 Germans in Czechoslovakia passed through one or more of these institutions and 100,000 perished.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However the Red Cross was able to confirm only 6,989 deaths in the internment camps.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Zayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred de Zayas">Alfred de Zayas</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>One of the worst camps in post-war Czechoslovakia was the old Nazi concentration camp of <a href="/wiki/Theresienstadt" class="mw-redirect" title="Theresienstadt">Theresienstadt</a>. Conditions under the new Czech administration are described by <a href="/wiki/H._G._Adler" title="H. G. Adler">H. G. Adler</a>, a former Jewish inmate as follows: ... in the majority they were children and juveniles, who had been locked up only because they were Germans. Only because they were Germans ...? This sentence sounds frighteningly familiar; only the word 'Jews' had been changed to 'Germans'. ... The people were abominably fed and maltreated, and they were no better off than one was used to from German concentration camps.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The civilian internees who survived to be expelled recorded the horrors of months and years of slow starvation and maltreatment in many thousands of affidavits. Allied authorities in the American and British zones were able to investigate several cases, including the notorious concentration camp at <a href="/wiki/%C4%8Cesk%C3%A9_Bud%C4%9Bjovice" title="České Budějovice">České Budějovice</a> in Southern Bohemia. The deputy commander of this camp in the years 1945–6, <a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%A1clav_Hrne%C4%8Dek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Václav Hrneček (page does not exist)">Václav Hrneček</a>, later fled Czechoslovakia and came to Bavaria where he was recognized by former German inmates of the camp. Hrneček was brought to trial before an American Court of the Allied High Commission for Germany presided by Judge Leo M. Goodman. The Court based an eight-year sentence against Hrneček upon findings that the Budějovice camp was run in a criminal and cruel way, that although there were no gas chambers and no systematic, organized extermination, the camp was a centre of sadism, where human life and human dignity had no meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Hrneček, who'd spent two years in pre-trial custody, was pardoned by the <a href="/wiki/Allied_High_Commission" title="Allied High Commission">Allied High Commission</a> after serving another 7 months in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expulsions">Expulsions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Expulsions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Germans living in the border regions of Czechoslovakia were expelled from the country in late 1945. The joint German and Czech commission of historians estimated that there were about 15,000 violent deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tschechien-portal.info_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tschechien-portal.info-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dt-ds-historikerkommission.de_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dt-ds-historikerkommission.de-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Czech records report 15,000–16,000 deaths not including an additional 6,667 unexplained cases or suicides during the expulsion,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others died from hunger and illness in Germany as a consequence. In 1946, an estimated 1.3 million ethnic Germans were deported to the American zone of what would become West Germany. An estimated 800,000 were deported to the Soviet zone (in what would become East Germany).<sup id="cite_ref-radio1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radio1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Act_No._115/1946_Coll."><span id="Act_No._115.2F1946_Coll."></span>Act No. 115/1946 Coll.</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Act No. 115/1946 Coll."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 8 May 1946 the Czechoslovak provisional National Assembly passed Act No. 115/1946 Coll. It was enacted in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/Bene%C5%A1_decrees" title="Beneš decrees">Beneš decrees</a> and it specifies that "Any act committed between 30 September 1938 and 28 October 1945 "the object of which was to aid the struggle for liberty of the Czechs and Slovaks or which represented just reprisals for actions of the occupation forces and their accomplices", is not illegal, even when such acts may otherwise be punishable by law." This law, which is still in force, has <i>de facto</i> ensured that no atrocities against Germans during the time-period in question have been prosecuted in Czechoslovakia.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Decree No. 115/1946 of 8 May 1946</i>. Activities (which would otherwise be considered criminal), were not illegal if their "objective was to contribute to the fight for regaining of freedom of Czechs and Slovaks or were aimed at righteous retaliation for deeds of occupants or their collaborators". Inappropriate violence or any other similar excesses were not amnestied. They were always crimes and were always punishable as crimes.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mzv.cz/file/14024/Dekrety_angl.doc">Decrees of the President of the Republic, page 27</a> Without such act, many resistance combatants would be open to criminal prosecutions for their activities against Nazis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The law stipulating that the sentences pronounced against the Czech Resistance fighters during the war had been lawful were valid in Germany until 1997.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mzv.cz/berlin/de/informationen_uber_tschechien/bilaterale_beziehungen/kriegs_und_nachkriegsfolgen.html">President Decrees 2.a</a></p></blockquote> <p>However, the Czech government did express its regret in the 1997 Joint Czech–German Declaration on the Mutual Relations and their Future Development: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>III. The Czech side regrets that, by the forcible expulsion and forced resettlement of Sudeten Germans from the former Czechoslovakia after the war as well as by the expropriation and deprivation of citizenship, much suffering and injustice was inflicted upon innocent people, also in view of the fact that guilt was attributed collectively. It particularly regrets the excesses which were contrary to elementary humanitarian principles as well as legal norms existing at that time, and it furthermore regrets that Law No. 115 of 8 May 1946 made it possible to regard these excesses as not being illegal and that in consequence these acts were not punished.</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>II. "The German side acknowledges Germany's responsibility for its role in a historical development, which led to the 1938 Munich Agreement, the flight and forcible expulsion of people from the Czech border area and the forcible breakup and occupation of the Czechoslovak Republic. It regrets the suffering and injustice inflicted upon the Czech people through National Socialist crimes committed by Germans. The German side pays tribute to the victims of National Socialist tyranny and to those who resisted it."<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mzv.cz/file/198499/CzechGermanDeclaration.pdf">Czech–German Declaration 1997</a></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Results">Results</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The joint Czech–German commission of historians in 1996 stated the following numbers: the deaths caused by violence and abnormal living conditions amount approximately to 10,000 persons killed; another 5,000–6,000 persons died of unspecified reasons related to expulsion; making the total number of victims of the expulsion 15,000–16,000 (this excludes suicides, which make another approximately 3,400 cases).<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tschechien-portal.info_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tschechien-portal.info-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dt-ds-historikerkommission.de_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dt-ds-historikerkommission.de-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Communist Party controlled the distribution of seized German assets, contributing to its popularity in the border areas, where it won 75 per cent of votes in the <a href="/wiki/1946_Czechoslovak_parliamentary_election" title="1946 Czechoslovak parliamentary election">1946 election</a>. Without these votes, the Communist Party would not have achieved a plurality in the Czech lands. The expulsions of Germans are therefore considered a key factor in the success of the <a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 coup</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETesta202126_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETesta202126-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_impact">Long-term impact</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Long-term impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a 2020 study, the expulsion of the Germans triggered a depopulation and de-urbanization of the border areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETesta202130_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETesta202130-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to adjacent areas outside the Sudetenland, fewer people work in high-skill sectors such as finance and healthcare. Significantly lower educational enrollment was first observed in 1947 and lower educational achievement is still evident from the results of the <a href="/wiki/2011_Czech_census" title="2011 Czech census">2011 Czech census</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETesta20213,_20_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETesta20213,_20-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Human Rights Committee">UN Human Rights Committee</a> issued decisions in three cases concerning Sudeten Germans (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Des_Fours_Walderode&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Des Fours Walderode (page does not exist)">Des Fours Walderode</a> v. Czech Republic; Petzoldova v. Czech Republic; Czernin v. Czech Republic) in which violations of articles 26 and 14 of the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> were established and the Czech Republic was ordered to return the property to the rightful owners. As of 2010, they have not been returned.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (November 2018)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public opinion surveys indicate that the public<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (August 2023)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup> is opposed to such measures.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to an article in the <i><a href="/wiki/Prague_Daily_Monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague Daily Monitor">Prague Daily Monitor</a></i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Czech–German Declaration [of] 1997 has achieved a compromise and expressed regret over the wrongs caused to innocent people by "the post-war expulsions as well as forced deportations of Sudeten Germans from Czechoslovakia, expropriation and stripping of citizenship" on the basis of the principle of <a href="/wiki/Collective_guilt" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective guilt">collective guilt</a>.</p></blockquote> <p>In the <i>Czech–German Declaration of August, 1997</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The German side took full responsibility for the crimes of the Nazi regime and their consequences (the allied expulsion).<br /> "The German side is conscious of the fact that the National Socialist policy of violence towards the Czech people helped to prepare the ground for post-war flight, forcible expulsion and forced resettlement."</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The Czech side regrets that, by the forcible expulsion and forced resettlement of Sudeten Germans from the former Czechoslovakia after the war ..., much suffering and injustice was inflicted upon innocent people."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Czech Republic has not expressed regret for the allied transfer of Sudeten Germans with Nazi-German citizenship or those who had not manifested "their loyalty to the Czechoslovak Republic".</p></blockquote> <p>German politicians and the deported Sudeten Germans widely use the word "expulsion" for the events. However, political representatives in both the Czech Republic and Poland, from where millions of Germans had to leave after WW2, usually avoid this expression and rather use the word <i>deportation</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the prominent human rights expert, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Ermacora" title="Felix Ermacora">Felix Ermacora</a>, who served in the army of Nazi Germany, the expulsion was "by <a href="/wiki/Genocide_definitions" title="Genocide definitions">definition an act of genocide</a>, that is, planned in advance, with the intention to destroy a people or group of people on their native soil."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compensation_to_expellees">Compensation to expellees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Compensation to expellees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British Foreign Office and the U.S. State Department planned a "population transfer commission" similar to the <a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey" title="Population exchange between Greece and Turkey">arrangement</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a> of 1923 to provide compensation for private property to transferred Greeks and Turks following the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Kemalist war</a> of 1919–1923. But events went faster and the expulsions began in May 1945, long before the Potsdam Conference and before any agreement on a commission had been settled. No population transfer commission with competence to evaluate the claims of the German expellees was ever established. (See Public Record Office documents FO 371/46810 and FO 371/46811). </p><p>Since the Czechoslovak government-in-exile decided that population transfer was the only solution of the German question, the problem of reparation (war indemnity) was closely associated. The proposed population transfer as presented in negotiations with the governments of U.S., UK and U.S.S.R., presumed the confiscation of the Germans' property to cover the <a href="/wiki/War_reparations#Post-World_War_II" title="War reparations">reparation demands</a> of Czechoslovakia; then Germany should pay the compensation to satisfy its citizens. This <i>fait accompli</i> was to prevent Germany's evasion of reparation payment as happened after World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This plan was suggested to the Inter-Allied Reparation Agency (IARA) in 1945, but because of the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> was never confirmed by any treaty with Germany. The IARA ended its activity in 1959 and the <i>status quo</i> is as follows: the Czech Republic kept the property of expelled ethnic Germans while Germany did not pay any reparations (only about 0.5% of Czechoslovak demands were satisfied <sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). For this reason, every time the Sudeten Germans request compensation or the abolition of the Beneš decrees, the Czech side strikes back by the threat of reparation demands. </p><p>Even during the preparation of the Czech–German declaration, the German side avoided the Czech demand to confirm the <i>status quo</i> by the agreement. However, Germany adopted the Czechoslovak <i>fait accompli</i> and has paid compensation to the expellees. One source claims the German government paid about 141bn <a href="/wiki/German_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="German mark">DM</a> to the expellees until 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other sources state an overall amount of roughly 60bn EUR paid out as partial compensation to <i>all</i> citizens of Germany and ethnic-German expellees — a group of 15m people alone — affected by property loss due to consequences of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The payout to Germans from Czechoslovakia can be assumed to represent a much smaller fraction of that sum. </p><p>In contrast to Germany, the issue of compensation of expellees was, at least nominally, closed by several treaties with Austria and Hungary.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important follow: </p> <ul><li>Treaty of 3 February 1964: According to this treaty, Czechoslovakia pledged to satisfy all demands of Hungary and Hungarian citizens related to confiscations by paying 20,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_koruna" title="Czechoslovak koruna">Kčs</a>.</li> <li>Treaty of 19 December 1974: According to this treaty, Czechoslovakia pledged to pay 1,000,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Austrian_schilling" title="Austrian schilling">ATS</a> to cover the property demands of Austrian citizens and waived all former territory and all other demands of country or individuals against Austria. The Austrian side waived all demands against ČSSR and pledged to not support any demands of individuals against the ČSSR related to expulsion.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Events">Events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Ast%C3%AD_massacre" title="Ústí massacre">Ústí massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brno_death_march" title="Brno death march">Brno death march</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psp.cz/eknih/1945pns/stenprot/002schuz/s002002.htm">"Prozatimní NS RČS 1945–1946, 2. schůze, část 2/4 (28. 10. 1945)"</a>. Psp.cz<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prozatimn%C3%AD+NS+R%C4%8CS+1945%E2%80%931946%2C+2.+sch%C5%AFze%2C+%C4%8D%C3%A1st+2%2F4+%2828.+10.+1945%29&rft.pub=Psp.cz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsp.cz%2Feknih%2F1945pns%2Fstenprot%2F002schuz%2Fs002002.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dokumenty-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dokumenty_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dokumenty_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Československo-sovětské vztahy v diplomatických jednáních 1939–1945. Dokumenty. Díl 2 (červenec 1943 – březen 1945). Praha. 1999. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-85475-57-X" title="Special:BookSources/80-85475-57-X">80-85475-57-X</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150105132609/http://bohumildolezal.lidovky.cz/texty/rs830.html">"Bohumil Doležal"</a>. Bohumildolezal.lidovky.cz. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bohumildolezal.lidovky.cz/texty/rs830.html">the original</a> on 5 January 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bohumil+Dole%C5%BEal&rft.pub=Bohumildolezal.lidovky.cz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbohumildolezal.lidovky.cz%2Ftexty%2Frs830.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Routledge history of genocide</i>. Maguire, Richard, 1966–, Carmichael, Cathie. London. 2015. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52996-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52996-9"><bdi>978-0-415-52996-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/908389544">908389544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+history+of+genocide&rft.place=London&rft.pages=80&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F908389544&rft.isbn=978-0-415-52996-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Biman, S.; Cílek, R.: Poslední mrtví, první živí. Ústí nad Labem 1989. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-7047-002-X" title="Special:BookSources/80-7047-002-X">80-7047-002-X</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-radio1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-radio1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-radio1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radio.cz/en/article/65421">"Memories of World War II in the Czech Lands: the expulsion of Sudeten Germans – Radio Prague"</a>. Radio.cz. 14 April 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memories+of+World+War+II+in+the+Czech+Lands%3A+the+expulsion+of+Sudeten+Germans+%E2%80%93+Radio+Prague&rft.pub=Radio.cz&rft.date=2005-04-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radio.cz%2Fen%2Farticle%2F65421&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Piotr Eberhardt, Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-Century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis M.E. Sharpe, 2002 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-0665-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-0665-8">0-7656-0665-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 1939/50. Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt – Wiesbaden. Stuttgart: <a href="/wiki/Kohlhammer_Verlag" title="Kohlhammer Verlag">Kohlhammer Verlag</a>, 1958</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 1939/50</i>. Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt Wiesbaden. Stuttgart: <a href="/wiki/Kohlhammer_Verlag" title="Kohlhammer Verlag">Kohlhammer Verlag</a>, 1958</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred M. de Zayas: <i>A Terrible Revenge</i>. Palgrave/Macmillan, New York, 1994. p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fronta.cz-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fronta.cz_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fronta.cz/dotaz/odsun-pocet-umrti#pozn1">"Odsun – počet úmrtí"</a>. Fronta.cz<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2015</span>. <q>Beneš, Z. — Kuklík, J. ml. — Kural, V. — Pešek, J., Odsun — Vertreibung (Transfer Němců z Československa 1945–1947), Ministerstvo mládeže a tělovýchovy ČR 2002, pp. 49–50.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Odsun+%E2%80%93+po%C4%8Det+%C3%BAmrt%C3%AD&rft.pub=Fronta.cz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fronta.cz%2Fdotaz%2Fodsun-pocet-umrti%23pozn1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haar, Ingo (2009). "Die deutschen "Vertreibungsverluste": Forschungsstand, Kontexte und Probleme". In Mackensen, Rainer (in German). Ursprünge, Arten und Folgen des Konstrukts "Bevölkerung" vor, im und nach dem "Dritten Reich": Zur Geschichte der deutschen Bevölkerungswissenschaft. VS Verlag. p. 371. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-531-16152-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-531-16152-0">3-531-16152-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoensch, Jörg K. und Hans Lemberg, <i>Begegnung und Konflikt. 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(1989). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-88557-067-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-88557-067-X">3-88557-067-X</a>. p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Statistický lexikon obcí v Republice československé I. Země česká</i>. 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Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018982-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018982-7"><bdi>978-3-11-018982-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victims+and+Perpetrators%3A+1933%E2%80%931945%3A+%28Re%29Presenting+the+Past+in+Post-Unification+Culture&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018982-7&rft.aulast=Cohen-Pfister&rft.aufirst=Laurel&rft.au=Wienroeder-Skinner%2C+Dagmar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHruška2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hruška, E. (2013). <i>Boj o pohraničí: Sudetoněmecký Freikorps v roce 1938</i> (in Czech). Prague: Nakladatelství epocha. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boj+o+pohrani%C4%8D%C3%AD%3A+Sudeton%C4%9Bmeck%C3%BD+Freikorps+v+roce+1938&rft.place=Prague&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Nakladatelstv%C3%AD+epocha&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Hru%C5%A1ka&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miroslav Trávníček: <i>Osidlování s hlediska mezinárodního a vnitrostátního právního řádu</i>. In Časopis pro právní a státní vědu XXVII (1946).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sudeten German Inferno. Part 4: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wintersonnenwende.com/scriptorium/english/archives/sginferno/sgi04.html#jaksch">The hushed-up tragedy of the ethnic Germans in Czechoslovakia</a>. Ingomar Pust</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/the-man-who-saved-europe-how-winston-churchill-stopped-the-nazis-a-712259-9.html">Churchill's Role in the Explusion of Germans from Easter Europe</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a></i>. 20 August 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-consent-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-consent_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-consent_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EWz5oFDQhaUC&pg=PA113"><i>The Myriad Chronicles</i></a>. Johannes Rammund De Balliel-Lawrora, 2010. p. 113. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4500-9791-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4500-9791-X">1-4500-9791-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcEnchroe2019" class="citation news cs1">McEnchroe, Tom (5 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radio.cz/en/section/czech-history/the-kosice-manifesto-the-1945-document-that-sealed-czechoslovakias-eastern-orientation">"The Košice manifesto – the 1945 document that sealed Czechoslovakia's eastern orientation"</a>. <i>Radio Prague</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+Prague&rft.atitle=The+Ko%C5%A1ice+manifesto+%E2%80%93+the+1945+document+that+sealed+Czechoslovakia%27s+eastern+orientation&rft.date=2019-04-05&rft.aulast=McEnchroe&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.radio.cz%2Fen%2Fsection%2Fczech-history%2Fthe-kosice-manifesto-the-1945-document-that-sealed-czechoslovakias-eastern-orientation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050220231512/http://www.z-g-v.de/doku/archiv/frameset04_1.htm">"Die Vertreibung der deutschen Bevölkerung aus der Tschechoslowakei Band 1"</a> (in German). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Die+Vertreibung+der+deutschen+Bev%C3%B6lkerung+aus+der+Tschechoslowakei+Band+1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fz-g-v.de%2Fdoku%2Farchiv%2Fframeset04_1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zdeněk_Beneš_p.216,217_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenešKural2002" class="citation book cs1">Beneš, Z.; Kural, V. 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Charles University in Prague, Karolinum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-246-2860-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-80-246-2860-8"><bdi>978-80-246-2860-8</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Czech+law+in+historical+contexts&rft.pub=Charles+University+in+Prague%2C+Karolinum+Press&rft.date=2018-10-26&rft.isbn=978-80-246-2860-8&rft.aulast=Jan&rft.aufirst=Kukl%C3%ADk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds5pwCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodfrey_Lias2018" class="citation web cs1">Godfrey Lias (26 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoriesofdredua008583mbp">"Memories Of Dr Eduard Benes From Munich To New War And New Victory"</a>. Houghton Minfflin Company Boston – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memories+Of+Dr+Eduard+Benes+From+Munich+To+New+War+And+New+Victory&rft.pub=Houghton+Minfflin+Company+Boston&rft.date=2018-10-26&rft.au=Godfrey+Lias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemoriesofdredua008583mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2985">"GHDI – Document – Page"</a>. <i>www.germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org&rft.atitle=GHDI+%E2%80%93+Document+%E2%80%93+Page&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org%2Fdocpage.cfm%3Fdocpage_id%3D2985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sreview.soc.cas.cz/uploads/12eaa8ddb3d82e1e9c8ebee2c78660d26975a5ca_415_149KUNST.pdf">"Institute for International Studies, Charles University, Prague, page 165"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Institute+for+International+Studies%2C+Charles+University%2C+Prague%2C+page+165&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsreview.soc.cas.cz%2Fuploads%2F12eaa8ddb3d82e1e9c8ebee2c78660d26975a5ca_415_149KUNST.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-President_Decrees_2.a-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-President_Decrees_2.a_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-President_Decrees_2.a_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-President_Decrees_2.a_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-President_Decrees_2.a_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mzv.cz/berlin/de/informationen_uber_tschechien/bilaterale_beziehungen/kriegs_und_nachkriegsfolgen.html">"Kriegs- und Nachkriegsfolgen"</a>. <i>www.mzv.cz</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mzv.cz&rft.atitle=Kriegs-+und+Nachkriegsfolgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mzv.cz%2Fberlin%2Fde%2Finformationen_uber_tschechien%2Fbilaterale_beziehungen%2Fkriegs_und_nachkriegsfolgen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mzv.cz/file/14024/Dekrety_angl.doc">"Decrees of the President of the Republic"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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HEC No. 2004/1. pg. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/europa/verbrechen-an-vertriebenen-das-massaker-in-prerau-13646843.html">Verbrechen an Vertriebenen: Das Massaker von Prerau</a> <a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung" title="Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung">Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung</a>, 18 June 2015 <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201107224015/http://www.praguemonitor.com/2018/02/12/big-cross-near-p%C5%99erov-commemorate-germans-killed-after-ww2">"Big cross near Přerov to commemorate Germans killed after WW2 – Prague Monitor"</a>. <i>www.praguemonitor.com</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.praguemonitor.com&rft.atitle=Big+cross+near+P%C5%99erov+to+commemorate+Germans+killed+after+WW2+%E2%80%93+Prague+Monitor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.praguemonitor.com%2F2018%2F02%2F12%2Fbig-cross-near-p%25C5%2599erov-commemorate-germans-killed-after-ww2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beneš_1-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beneš_1_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beneš_1_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Z. Beneš, et al., p. 221</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRada2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rada, Uwe (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y6i2hjyI7vIC&q=aussig+massaker+2000&pg=PT100"><i>Die Elbe: Europas Geschichte im Fluß</i></a> (in German). Siedler. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-641-09237-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-641-09237-5"><bdi>978-3-641-09237-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Elbe%3A+Europas+Geschichte+im+Flu%C3%9F&rft.pub=Siedler&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-641-09237-5&rft.aulast=Rada&rft.aufirst=Uwe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy6i2hjyI7vIC%26q%3Daussig%2Bmassaker%2B2000%26pg%3DPT100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/revenge-on-ethnic-germans-czech-town-divided-over-how-to-commemorate-1945-massacre-a-646757-2.html">Revenge on Ethnic Germans: Czech Town Divided over How to Commemorate 1945 Massacre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a>, 4 September 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassheim2016" class="citation book cs1">Glassheim, Eagle (2016). <i>Cleansing the Czechoslovak Borderlands: Migration, Environment, and Health in the Former Sudetenland</i>. 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De Zayas, "Nemesis at Potsdam: the Anglo-Americans and the expulsion of the Germans", p.125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred M. de Zayas, Nemesis at Potsdam, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1977 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-8468-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-8468-4">0-7100-8468-4</a> pp. 124ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16. März 1955.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fronta.cz/dotaz/odsun-pocet-umrti">"Odsun – počet úmrtí"</a>. Fronta.cz<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memorandum+on+the+Bene%C5%A1+Decrees&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kbdesign.sk%2Fcla%2Fprojects%2Fproject.php%3Fmelyik%3Dbenes%26nyelv%3Dsk%26direkturl%3Dbenes%2Fcla_analysis%2Fbenes_decrees.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.idnes.cz/?idvideo=V100504_141525_tv-zpravy_zkl">Execution of German Civilians in Prague (9 May 1945)</a> (Czech TV documentary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radio.cz/en/article/127639">perpetration disputed</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flash_Player" title="Adobe Flash Player">Adobe Flash Player</a>, 2:32 min)</li> <li>Bracey, S. (2019). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/central-european-history/article/symmetry-of-hypocrisy-in-czechgerman-legal-conciliation-19891997/D3610D87CE58A7EE4B79102C29EB9EBB">The Symmetry of Hypocrisy in Czech-German Legal Conciliation, 1989–1997.</a>" <i>Central European History</i>, 52 (3), 496–526.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFČapková2018" class="citation journal cs1">Čapková, Kateřina (2018). "Between Expulsion and Rescue: The Transports for German-speaking Jews of Czechoslovakia in 1946". <i>Holocaust and Genocide Studies</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 66–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhgs%2Fdcy005">10.1093/hgs/dcy005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+and+Genocide+Studies&rft.atitle=Between+Expulsion+and+Rescue%3A+The+Transports+for+German-speaking+Jews+of+Czechoslovakia+in+1946&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-92&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fhgs%2Fdcy005&rft.aulast=%C4%8Capkov%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=Kate%C5%99ina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>R.M. Douglas: Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16660-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16660-6">978-0-300-16660-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassheim2000" class="citation journal cs1">Glassheim, Eagle (2000). "National Mythologies and Ethnic Cleansing: The Expulsion of Czechoslovak Germans in 1945". <i>Central European History</i>. <b>33</b> (4): 463–486. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156916100746428">10.1163/156916100746428</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145302399">145302399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Central+European+History&rft.atitle=National+Mythologies+and+Ethnic+Cleansing%3A+The+Expulsion+of+Czechoslovak+Germans+in+1945&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=463-486&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156916100746428&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145302399%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Glassheim&rft.aufirst=Eagle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassheim2016" class="citation book cs1">Glassheim, Eagle (2016). <i>Cleansing the Czechoslovak Borderlands: Migration, Environment, and Health in the Former Sudetenland</i>. University of Pittsburgh Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-6426-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-6426-1"><bdi>978-0-8229-6426-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleansing+the+Czechoslovak+Borderlands%3A+Migration%2C+Environment%2C+and+Health+in+the+Former+Sudetenland&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-6426-1&rft.aulast=Glassheim&rft.aufirst=Eagle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKittelMöller2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kittel, Manfred; Möller, Horst (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2FVfZg.2006.54.4.541">"Die Beneš-Dekrete und die Vertreibung der Deutschen im europäischen Vergleich"</a>. <i>Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte</i>. <b>54</b> (4): 541–581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2FVfZg.2006.54.4.541">10.1524/VfZg.2006.54.4.541</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2196-7121">2196-7121</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144450653">144450653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vierteljahrshefte+f%C3%BCr+Zeitgeschichte&rft.atitle=Die+Bene%C5%A1-Dekrete+und+die+Vertreibung+der+Deutschen+im+europ%C3%A4ischen+Vergleich&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=541-581&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144450653%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2196-7121&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2FVfZg.2006.54.4.541&rft.aulast=Kittel&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft.au=M%C3%B6ller%2C+Horst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1524%252FVfZg.2006.54.4.541&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMrňka2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mrňka, Jaromír (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=923160">"The Moment between Occupation and Freedom: Forms of Collective Violence at the End of World War II in the Czech Lands"</a>. <i>Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung</i>. <b>69</b> (4): 471–494. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0948-8294">0948-8294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung&rft.atitle=The+Moment+between+Occupation+and+Freedom%3A+Forms+of+Collective+Violence+at+the+End+of+World+War+II+in+the+Czech+Lands&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=471-494&rft.date=2020&rft.issn=0948-8294&rft.aulast=Mr%C5%88ka&rft.aufirst=Jarom%C3%ADr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D923160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTesta2021" class="citation journal cs1">Testa, Patrick A (2021). "The Economic Legacy of Expulsion: Lessons from Post-War Czechoslovakia". <i>The Economic Journal</i>. <b>131</b> (637): 2233–2271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fej%2Fueaa132">10.1093/ej/ueaa132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Economic+Legacy+of+Expulsion%3A+Lessons+from+Post-War+Czechoslovakia&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=637&rft.pages=2233-2271&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fej%2Fueaa132&rft.aulast=Testa&rft.aufirst=Patrick+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Stan%C4%9Bk_(historian)" title="Tomáš Staněk (historian)">Tomáš Staněk</a> <i>Internierung und Zwangsarbeit: das Lagersystem in den böhmischen Ländern 1945–1948</i> (Originaltitel: <i>Tábory v českých zemích 1945–1948</i>, übersetzt von Eliška und Ralph Melville, ergänzt und aktualisiert vom Autor, mit einer Einführung von Andreas R. Hofmann) Oldenbourg / <a href="/wiki/Collegium_Carolinum_e.V." class="mw-redirect" title="Collegium Carolinum e.V.">Collegium Carolinum</a>, München 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-486-56519-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-486-56519-5">978-3-486-56519-5</a> / <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-944396-29-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-944396-29-3">978-3-944396-29-3</a> (= <i>Veröffentlichungen des Collegium Carolinum</i>, Band 92).</li> <li>Tomáš Staněk, <i>Verfolgung 1945: die Stellung der Deutschen in Böhmen, Mähren und Schlesien (außerhalb der Lager und Gefängnisse)</i>, übersetzt von Otfrid Pustejovsky, bearbeitet und teilweise übersetzt von Walter Reichel, Böhlau, Wien / Köln / Weimar 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-205-99065-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-205-99065-X">3-205-99065-X</a> (= <i>Buchreihe des Institutes für den Donauraum und Mitteleuropa</i>, Band 8).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuppan2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Suppan" title="Arnold Suppan">Suppan, Arnold</a> (2019). <a href="/wiki/Hitler%E2%80%93Bene%C5%A1%E2%80%93Tito" title="Hitler–Beneš–Tito"><i>Hitler–Beneš–Tito: National Conflicts, World Wars, Genocides, Expulsions, and Divided Remembrance in East-Central and Southeastern Europe, 1848–2018</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Academy_of_Sciences_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian Academy of Sciences Press">Austrian Academy of Sciences Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvvh867x">10.2307/j.ctvvh867x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-8410-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-8410-2"><bdi>978-3-7001-8410-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvh867x">j.ctvvh867x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214097654">214097654</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%E2%80%93Bene%C5%A1%E2%80%93Tito%3A+National+Conflicts%2C+World+Wars%2C+Genocides%2C+Expulsions%2C+and+Divided+Remembrance+in+East-Central+and+Southeastern+Europe%2C+1848%E2%80%932018&rft.pub=Austrian+Academy+of+Sciences+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctvvh867x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A214097654%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvvh867x%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-3-7001-8410-2&rft.aulast=Suppan&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZückertSchvarcFiamová2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zückert, Martin; Schvarc, Michal; Fiamová, Martina (2020). <i>Die Evakuierung der Deutschen aus der Slowakei 1944/45: Verlauf, Kontexte, Folgen</i> (in German). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-31075-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-31075-5"><bdi>978-3-525-31075-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Evakuierung+der+Deutschen+aus+der+Slowakei+1944%2F45%3A+Verlauf%2C+Kontexte%2C+Folgen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-525-31075-5&rft.aulast=Z%C3%BCckert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Schvarc%2C+Michal&rft.au=Fiamov%C3%A1%2C+Martina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpulsion+of+Germans+from+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Munich_Agreement" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Munich_Agreement" title="Template:Munich Agreement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Munich_Agreement" title="Template talk:Munich Agreement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Munich_Agreement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Munich Agreement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Munich_Agreement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Prelude</li><li><span class="nobold">(Oct 1925 – Sep 1938)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Locarno_Treaties" title="Locarno Treaties">Locarno Treaties</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sudeten_German_Party" title="Sudeten German Party">Sudeten German Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1935_Czechoslovak_parliamentary_election" title="1935 Czechoslovak parliamentary election">Parliamentary election, 1935</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_border_fortifications" title="Czechoslovak border fortifications">Border fortifications</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fall_Gr%C3%BCn_(Czechoslovakia)" title="Fall Grün (Czechoslovakia)"><i>Fall Grün</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hossbach_Memorandum" title="Hossbach Memorandum">Hossbach Memorandum</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Heim_ins_Reich" title="Heim ins Reich">Heim ins Reich</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/May_Crisis" title="May Crisis">May Crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Runciman_Mission" title="Runciman Mission">Runciman Mission</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bled_agreement_(1938)" title="Bled agreement (1938)">Bled Agreement</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Runciman_Report_(1938)" title="Runciman Report (1938)">Runciman Report</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Godesberg_Memorandum" title="Godesberg Memorandum">Godesberg Memorandum</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oster_conspiracy" title="Oster conspiracy">Oster Conspiracy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sudeten_German_uprising" title="Sudeten German uprising">Sudeten German uprising</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Consequences</li><li><span class="nobold">(Nov 1938 – Sep 1939)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/First_Vienna_Award" title="First Vienna Award">First Vienna Award</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="Second Czechoslovak Republic">Second Czechoslovak Republic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">German invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_government-in-exile" title="Czechoslovak government-in-exile">Czechoslovak government-in-exile</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Bohemia and Moravia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carpatho-Ukraine#Hungarian_invasion" title="Carpatho-Ukraine">Hungarian invasion of Carpatho-Ukraine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak%E2%80%93Hungarian_War" title="Slovak–Hungarian War">Slovak–Hungarian War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_invasion_of_Poland" title="Slovak invasion of Poland">Slovak invasion of Poland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost#Phases_of_the_plan_and_its_implementation" title="Generalplan Ost"><i>Generalplan Ost</i></a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Nullification</li><li><span class="nobold">(Mar 1945 – Dec 1973)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Third_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="Third Czechoslovak Republic">Third Czechoslovak Republic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_evacuation_from_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="German evacuation from Central and Eastern Europe">German evacuation from Central and Eastern Europe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">German expulsion from Czechoslovakia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">Potsdam Agreement</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bene%C5%A1_decrees" title="Beneš decrees">Beneš decrees</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a 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href="/wiki/Peace_for_our_time" title="Peace for our time">Peace for our time</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lesson_of_Munich" title="Lesson of Munich">Lesson of Munich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia_(1918%E2%80%931938)" title="History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)">History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Germans_in_Czechoslovakia_(1918%E2%80%931938)" title="Germans in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)">Germans in Czechoslovakia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal#Czechoslovakia" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Arms_and_the_Covenant" title="Arms and the Covenant">Arms and the Covenant</a></i> (1938)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Why_England_Slept" title="Why England Slept">Why England Slept</a></i> (1940)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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