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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_and_emplacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Formation and emplacement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formation_and_emplacement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formation and emplacement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formation_and_emplacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ophiolite_emplacement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ophiolite_emplacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Ophiolite emplacement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ophiolite_emplacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypotheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypotheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Hypotheses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypotheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emplacement_by_irregular_continental_margin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emplacement_by_irregular_continental_margin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Emplacement by irregular continental margin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emplacement_by_irregular_continental_margin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_trapped_forearc" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_trapped_forearc"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>As trapped forearc</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_trapped_forearc-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Groups_and_assemblages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groups_and_assemblages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Groups and assemblages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groups_and_assemblages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_evolution_of_the_concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_evolution_of_the_concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Origin and evolution of the concept</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_evolution_of_the_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notable examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ophiolite</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="أفيوليت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أفيوليت" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolitl%C9%99r" title="Ofiolitlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ofiolitlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolita" title="Ofiolita – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ofiolita" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolitov%C3%BD_komplex" title="Ofiolitový komplex – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ofiolitový komplex" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolit" title="Ofiolit – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ofiolit" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiolith" title="Ophiolith – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ophiolith" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofioliit" title="Ofioliit – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ofioliit" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%86%CE%B9%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Οφιόλιθος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οφιόλιθος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolita" title="Ofiolita – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ofiolita" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolita" title="Ofiolita – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ofiolita" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="افیولیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="افیولیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiolite" title="Ophiolite – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ophiolite" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolita" title="Ofiolita – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ofiolita" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%ED%94%BC%EC%98%A4%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8" title="오피오라이트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오피오라이트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A9" title="Օֆիոլիթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օֆիոլիթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolit" title="Ofiolit – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ofiolit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofioliti" title="Ofioliti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ofioliti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98" title="אופיוליט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אופיוליט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ოფიოლითები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოფიოლითები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Офиолиттер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Офиолиттер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolit" title="Ofiolit – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ofiolit" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofioliet" title="Ofioliet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ofioliet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%95%E3%82%A3%E3%82%AA%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E3%83%88" title="オフィオライト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オフィオライト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolitt" title="Ofiolitt – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ofiolitt" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolit" title="Ofiolit – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ofiolit" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolito" title="Ofiolito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ofiolito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Офиолиты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Офиолиты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiolite" title="Ophiolite – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ophiolite" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolitov%C3%BD_komplex" title="Ofiolitový komplex – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ofiolitový komplex" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolit" title="Ofiolit – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ofiolit" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Офиолит – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Офиолит" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofiolit" title="Ofiolit – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ofiolit" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiolite" title="Ophiolite – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ophiolite" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="โอฟิโอไลต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โอฟิโอไลต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Офіоліти – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Офіоліти" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%9B%87%E7%B6%A0%E5%B2%A9%E5%A5%97" title="蛇綠岩套 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="蛇綠岩套" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%9B%87%E7%B6%A0%E5%B2%A9%E5%A5%97" title="蛇綠岩套 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="蛇綠岩套" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q605396#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ophiolite" title="View the content 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Uplifted and exposed oceanic crust</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gros_Morne_moho.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Gros_Morne_moho.jpg/220px-Gros_Morne_moho.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Gros_Morne_moho.jpg/330px-Gros_Morne_moho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Gros_Morne_moho.jpg/440px-Gros_Morne_moho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="810" /></a><figcaption>Ordovician ophiolite in <a href="/wiki/Gros_Morne_National_Park" title="Gros Morne National Park">Gros Morne National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromitic_serpentinite_(Little_Port_Complex,_Bay_of_Islands_Ophiolite,_Middle_Cambrian,_505_Ma;_Springer%27s_Hill_outcrop,_Lewis_Hills,_Newfoundland)_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chromitic_serpentinite_%28Little_Port_Complex%2C_Bay_of_Islands_Ophiolite%2C_Middle_Cambrian%2C_505_Ma%3B_Springer%27s_Hill_outcrop%2C_Lewis_Hills%2C_Newfoundland%29_4.jpg/220px-Chromitic_serpentinite_%28Little_Port_Complex%2C_Bay_of_Islands_Ophiolite%2C_Middle_Cambrian%2C_505_Ma%3B_Springer%27s_Hill_outcrop%2C_Lewis_Hills%2C_Newfoundland%29_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chromitic_serpentinite_%28Little_Port_Complex%2C_Bay_of_Islands_Ophiolite%2C_Middle_Cambrian%2C_505_Ma%3B_Springer%27s_Hill_outcrop%2C_Lewis_Hills%2C_Newfoundland%29_4.jpg/330px-Chromitic_serpentinite_%28Little_Port_Complex%2C_Bay_of_Islands_Ophiolite%2C_Middle_Cambrian%2C_505_Ma%3B_Springer%27s_Hill_outcrop%2C_Lewis_Hills%2C_Newfoundland%29_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chromitic_serpentinite_%28Little_Port_Complex%2C_Bay_of_Islands_Ophiolite%2C_Middle_Cambrian%2C_505_Ma%3B_Springer%27s_Hill_outcrop%2C_Lewis_Hills%2C_Newfoundland%29_4.jpg/440px-Chromitic_serpentinite_%28Little_Port_Complex%2C_Bay_of_Islands_Ophiolite%2C_Middle_Cambrian%2C_505_Ma%3B_Springer%27s_Hill_outcrop%2C_Lewis_Hills%2C_Newfoundland%29_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2505" data-file-height="1415" /></a><figcaption>Chromitic serpentinite, Bay of Islands Ophiolite, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hills" title="Lewis Hills">Lewis Hills</a>, Newfoundland</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>ophiolite</b> is a section of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> and the underlying <a href="/wiki/Upper_mantle_(Earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper mantle (Earth)">upper mantle</a> that has been uplifted and exposed, and often emplaced onto <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crustal</a> rocks. </p><p>The Greek word ὄφις, <i>ophis</i> (<i>snake</i>) is found in the name of ophiolites, because of the superficial texture of some of them. <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">Serpentinite</a> especially evokes a snakeskin. (The suffix <i>-lite</i> is from the Greek <i>lithos</i>, meaning "stone".) Some ophiolites have a green color. The origin of these rocks, present in many mountainous <a href="/wiki/Massif" title="Massif">massifs</a>, remained uncertain until the advent of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate tectonic">plate tectonic</a> theory. </p><p>Their great significance relates to their occurrence within <a href="/wiki/Mountain_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain belt">mountain belts</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>, where they document the existence of former <a href="/wiki/Ocean_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean basin">ocean basins</a> that have now been consumed by <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>. This insight was one of the founding pillars of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, and ophiolites have always played a central role in plate tectonic theory and the interpretation of ancient mountain belts. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pseudostratigraphy_and_definition">Pseudostratigraphy and definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Pseudostratigraphy and definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ofiolite_sequence_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ofiolite_sequence_EN.svg/220px-Ofiolite_sequence_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ofiolite_sequence_EN.svg/330px-Ofiolite_sequence_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ofiolite_sequence_EN.svg/440px-Ofiolite_sequence_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1090" /></a><figcaption>Stratigraphic sequence of an ophiolite.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ophiolite_suite_scheme.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Ophiolite_suite_scheme.jpg/220px-Ophiolite_suite_scheme.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Ophiolite_suite_scheme.jpg/330px-Ophiolite_suite_scheme.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Ophiolite_suite_scheme.jpg/440px-Ophiolite_suite_scheme.jpg 2x" data-file-width="826" data-file-height="634" /></a><figcaption>A simplified structure of an ophiolite suite: <div><ol><li>axial magma chamber</li><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">pelagic sediments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pillow_basalt" class="mw-redirect" title="Pillow basalt">pillow basalts</a></li><li>sheeted basaltic dykes</li><li>intrusive, layered gabbro</li><li>dunite/peridotite cumulates</li></ol></div></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphic</a>-like sequence observed in ophiolites corresponds to the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>-forming processes at <a href="/wiki/Mid-oceanic_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-oceanic ridge">mid-oceanic ridges</a>. From top to bottom, the layers in the sequence are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediments</a>: mostly <a href="/wiki/Siliceous_ooze" title="Siliceous ooze">siliceous oozes</a>, calcareous oozes and <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_red_clay" title="Pelagic red clay">red clays</a> deposited since the crust formed.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusive_rock" title="Extrusive rock">Extrusive</a> sequence: <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> <a href="/wiki/Pillow_lava" title="Pillow lava">pillow lavas</a> show <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>/seawater contact.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheeted_dyke_complex" title="Sheeted dyke complex">Sheeted dike complex</a>: vertical, parallel <a href="/wiki/Dike_(geology)" title="Dike (geology)">dikes</a> that fed lavas above.</li> <li>High level <a href="/wiki/Intrusive_rock" title="Intrusive rock">intrusives</a>: <a href="/wiki/Isotropy#Materials_science" title="Isotropy">isotropic</a> <a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">gabbro</a>, indicative of a fractionated <a href="/wiki/Magma_chamber" title="Magma chamber">magma chamber</a>.</li> <li>Layered gabbro, resulting from settling out of minerals from a magma chamber.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumulate_rock" title="Cumulate rock">Cumulate</a> <a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">peridotite</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dunite" title="Dunite">dunite</a>-rich layers of minerals that settled out from a magma chamber.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonite" title="Tectonite">Tectonized</a> peridotite: <a href="/wiki/Harzburgite" title="Harzburgite">harzburgite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lherzolite" title="Lherzolite">lherzolite</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">mantle</a> rock.</li></ul> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America" title="Geological Society of America">Geological Society of America</a> Penrose Conference on ophiolites in 1972 defined the term "ophiolite" to include all of the layers listed above, including the sediment layer formed independently of the rest of the ophiolite.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This definition has been challenged recently because new studies of oceanic crust by the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Ocean_Drilling_Program" title="Integrated Ocean Drilling Program">Integrated Ocean Drilling Program</a> and other research cruises have shown that <i><a href="/wiki/In_situ#Earth_and_atmospheric_sciences" title="In situ">in situ</a></i> ocean crust can be quite variable in thickness and composition, and that in places sheeted dikes sit directly on <a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">peridotite</a> <a href="/wiki/Tectonite" title="Tectonite">tectonite</a>, with no intervening <a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">gabbros</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation_and_emplacement"><span class="anchor" id="Formation_and_emplacement"></span> Formation and emplacement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation and emplacement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ophiolites have been identified in most of the world's <a href="/wiki/Orogenic_belt" title="Orogenic belt">orogenic belts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, two components of ophiolite formation are under debate: the origin of the sequence and the mechanism for ophiolite emplacement. Emplacement is the process of the sequence's uplift over lower density <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust.</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several studies support the conclusion that ophiolites formed as oceanic <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>. <a href="/wiki/Seismic_tomography" title="Seismic tomography">Seismic velocity structure studies</a> have provided most of the current knowledge of the oceanic crust's composition. For this reason, researchers carried out a seismic study on an ophiolite complex (<a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Islands,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Bay of Islands, Newfoundland and Labrador">Bay of Islands, Newfoundland</a>) in order to establish a comparison. The study concluded that oceanic and ophiolitic velocity structures were identical, pointing to the origin of ophiolite complexes as oceanic crust.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The observations that follow support this conclusion. Rocks originating on the seafloor show chemical composition comparable to unaltered ophiolite layers, from primary composition elements such as silicon and titanium to trace elements. Seafloor and ophiolitic rocks share a low occurrence of silica-rich minerals; those present have a high sodium and low potassium content.<sup id="cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason,_R.,_1985-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The temperature gradients of the metamorphosis of ophiolitic <a href="/wiki/Pillow_lava" title="Pillow lava">pillow lavas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dike_(geology)" title="Dike (geology)">dykes</a> are similar to those found beneath ocean ridges today.<sup id="cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason,_R.,_1985-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence from the <a href="/wiki/Ore_deposit" class="mw-redirect" title="Ore deposit">metal-ore deposits</a> present in and near ophiolites and from oxygen and hydrogen isotopes suggests that the passage of seawater through hot basalt in the vicinity of ridges dissolved and carried elements that precipitated as sulfides when the heated seawater came into contact with cold seawater. The same phenomenon occurs near oceanic ridges in a formation known as <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason,_R.,_1985-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final line of evidence supporting the origin of ophiolites as seafloor is the region of formation of the sediments over the pillow lavas: they were deposited in water over 2 km deep, far removed from land-sourced sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason,_R.,_1985-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the above observations, there are inconsistencies in the theory of ophiolites as oceanic crust, which suggests that newly generated ocean crust follows the full <a href="/wiki/Wilson_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilson cycle">Wilson cycle</a> before emplacement as an ophiolite. This requires ophiolites to be much older than the orogenies on which they lie, and therefore old and cold. However, <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphic</a> dating has found ophiolites to have undergone emplacement when young and hot:<sup id="cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason,_R.,_1985-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most are less than 50 million years old.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ophiolites therefore cannot have followed the full Wilson cycle and are considered atypical ocean crust. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ophiolite_emplacement">Ophiolite emplacement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ophiolite emplacement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is yet no consensus on the mechanics of emplacement, the process by which oceanic crust is uplifted onto continental margins despite the relatively low density of the latter. All emplacement procedures share the same steps nonetheless: <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> initiation, thrusting of the ophiolite over a continental margin or an overriding plate at a subduction zone, and contact with air.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypotheses">Hypotheses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hypotheses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emplacement_by_irregular_continental_margin">Emplacement by irregular continental margin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Emplacement by irregular continental margin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A hypothesis based on research conducted on the Bay of Islands complex in Newfoundland as well as the East Vardar complex in the Apuseni Mountains of Romania<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggest that an irregular continental margin colliding with an <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc complex</a> causes ophiolite generation in a <a href="/wiki/Back-arc_basin" title="Back-arc basin">back-arc basin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Obduction" title="Obduction">obduction</a> due to compression.<sup id="cite_ref-Cawood,_P.A._and_Suhr,_G.,_1992_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cawood,_P.A._and_Suhr,_G.,_1992-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The continental margin, <a href="/wiki/Promontory" title="Promontory">promontories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Draw_(terrain)" title="Draw (terrain)">reentrants</a> along its length, is attached to the subducting oceanic crust, which dips away from it underneath the island arc complex. As subduction takes place, the buoyant continent and island arc complex converge, initially colliding with the promontories. However, oceanic crust is still at the surface between the promontories, not having been subducted beneath the island arc yet. The subducting oceanic crust is thought to split from the continental margin to aid subduction. In the event that the rate of trench retreat is greater than that of the island arc complex's progression, <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">trench rollback</a> will take place, and by consequence, extension of the overriding plate will occur to allow the island arc complex to match the trench retreat's speed. The extension, a back-arc basin, generates oceanic crust: ophiolites. Finally, when the oceanic lithosphere is entirely subducted, the island arc complex's extensional regime becomes compressional. The hot, positively buoyant ocean crust from the extension will not subduct, instead obducting onto the island arc as an ophiolite. As compression persists, the ophiolite is emplaced onto the continental margin.<sup id="cite_ref-Cawood,_P.A._and_Suhr,_G.,_1992_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cawood,_P.A._and_Suhr,_G.,_1992-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on Sr and Nd isotope analyses, ophiolites have a similar composition to mid-ocean-ridge basalts, but typically have slightly elevated large ion lithophile elements and a Nb depletion. These chemical signatures support the ophiolites having formed in a back-arc basin of a subduction zone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_trapped_forearc">As trapped forearc</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: As trapped forearc"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ophiolite generation and subduction may also be explained, as suggested from evidence from the Coast Range ophiolite of California and Baja California, by a change in subduction location and polarity.<sup id="cite_ref-Wakabayashi,_J_2000_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wakabayashi,_J_2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oceanic crust attached to a continental margin subducts beneath an island arc. Pre-ophiolitic ocean crust is generated by a back-arc basin. The collision of the continent and island arc initiates a new subduction zone at the back-arc basin, dipping in the opposite direction as the first. The created ophiolite becomes the tip of the new subduction's forearc and is uplifted (over the <a href="/wiki/Accretionary_wedge" title="Accretionary wedge">accretionary wedge</a>) by <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9collement" title="Décollement">detachment</a> and compression.<sup id="cite_ref-Wakabayashi,_J_2000_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wakabayashi,_J_2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Verification of the two above hypotheses requires further research, as do the other hypotheses available in current literature on the subject. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientists have drilled only about 1.5 km into the 6- to 7-kilometer-thick oceanic crust, so scientific understanding of oceanic crust comes largely from comparing ophiolite structure to seismic soundings of <i>in situ</i> oceanic crust. Oceanic crust generally has a layered velocity structure that implies a layered rock series similar to that listed above. But in detail there are problems, with many ophiolites exhibiting thinner accumulations of igneous rock than are inferred for oceanic crust. Another problem relating to oceanic crust and ophiolites is that the thick gabbro layer of ophiolites calls for large magma chambers beneath mid-ocean ridges. However, seismic sounding of mid-ocean ridges has revealed only a few magma chambers beneath ridges, and these are quite thin. A few deep drill holes into oceanic crust have intercepted gabbro, but it is not layered like ophiolite gabbro.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The circulation of <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a> fluids through young oceanic crust causes <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentinization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metasomatism" title="Metasomatism">alteration</a> of the peridotites and alteration of minerals in the gabbros and basalts to lower temperature assemblages. For example, <a href="/wiki/Plagioclase" title="Plagioclase">plagioclase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxenes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> in the sheeted dikes and lavas will alter to <a href="/wiki/Albite" title="Albite">albite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorite_group" title="Chlorite group">chlorite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_subgroup" title="Serpentine subgroup">serpentine</a>, respectively. Often, <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> bodies such as <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfide</a> deposits are found above highly altered <a href="/wiki/Epidosite" title="Epidosite">epidosites</a> (<a href="/wiki/Epidote" title="Epidote">epidote</a>-<a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> rocks) that are evidence of relict <a href="/wiki/Black_smoker" class="mw-redirect" title="Black smoker">black smokers</a>, which continue to operate within the seafloor spreading centers of ocean ridges today.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Thus, there is reason to believe that ophiolites are indeed oceanic mantle and crust; however, certain problems arise when looking closer. Beyond issues of layer thicknesses mentioned above, a problem arises concerning compositional differences of <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> (SiO<sub>2</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">titania</a> (TiO<sub>2</sub>). Ophiolite basalt contents place them in the domain of subduction zones (~55% silica, <1% TiO<sub>2</sub>), whereas mid-ocean ridge basalts typically have ~50% silica and 1.5–2.5% TiO<sub>2</sub>. These chemical differences extend to a range of <a href="/wiki/Trace_element" title="Trace element">trace elements</a> as well (that is, chemical elements occurring in amounts of 1000 <a href="/wiki/Parts-per_notation" title="Parts-per notation">ppm</a> or less). In particular, trace elements associated with subduction zone (island arc) volcanics tend to be high in ophiolites, whereas trace elements that are high in ocean ridge basalts but low in subduction zone volcanics are also low in ophiolites.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Bowen%27s_reaction_series" title="Bowen's reaction series">crystallization order</a> of <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxene</a> (clino- and orthopyroxene) in the gabbros is reversed, and ophiolites also appear to have a multi-phase magmatic complexity on par with subduction zones. Indeed, there is increasing evidence that most ophiolites are generated when subduction begins and thus represent fragments of <a href="/wiki/Fore-arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Fore-arc">fore-arc</a> lithosphere. This led to introduction of the term "supra-subduction zone" (SSZ) ophiolite in the 1980s to acknowledge that some ophiolites are more closely related to island arcs than ocean ridges. Consequently, some of the classic ophiolite occurrences thought of as being related to seafloor spreading (Troodos in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, Semail in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>) were found to be "SSZ" ophiolites, formed by rapid extension of fore-arc crust during subduction initiation.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A fore-arc setting for most ophiolites also solves the otherwise-perplexing problem of how oceanic lithosphere can be emplaced on top of continental crust. It appears that continental accretion sediments, if carried by the downgoing plate into a subduction zone, will jam it up and cause subduction to cease, resulting in the rebound of the <a href="/wiki/Accretionary_prism" class="mw-redirect" title="Accretionary prism">accretionary prism</a> with fore-arc lithosphere (ophiolite) on top of it. Ophiolites with compositions comparable with <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspot</a>-type eruptive settings or normal <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic ridge">mid-oceanic ridge</a> <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> are rare, and those examples are generally strongly dismembered in subduction zone accretionary complexes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Groups_and_assemblages">Groups and assemblages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Groups and assemblages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/45/Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg/220px-Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/45/Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg/330px-Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/45/Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg/440px-Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>Classic ophiolite assemblage in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> showing sheeted lava intersected by a dyke with pillow lava on top.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ophiolites are common in <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenic belts</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> age, like those formed by the <a href="/wiki/Suture_(geology)" title="Suture (geology)">closure</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Ocean</a>. Ophiolites in <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a> domains are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Peltonen_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peltonen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most ophiolites can be divided into one of two groups: Tethyan and Cordilleran. Tethyan ophiolites are characteristic of those that occur in the eastern Mediterranean sea area, e.g. Troodos in Cyprus, and in the Middle East, such as Semail in Oman, which consist of relatively complete rock series corresponding to the classic ophiolite assemblage and which have been emplaced onto a passive <a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">continental margin</a> more or less intact (Tethys is the name given to the ancient sea that once separated Europe and Africa). Cordilleran ophiolites are characteristic of those that occur in the mountain belts of western North America (the "<a href="/wiki/Cordillera" title="Cordillera">Cordillera</a>" or backbone of the continent). These ophiolites sit on subduction zone accretionary complexes (subduction complexes) and have no association with a passive continental margin. They include the <a href="/wiki/Coast_Range_ophiolite" class="mw-redirect" title="Coast Range ophiolite">Coast Range ophiolite</a> of California, the Josephine ophiolite of the <a href="/wiki/Klamath_Mountains" title="Klamath Mountains">Klamath Mountains</a> (California, Oregon), and ophiolites in the southern <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> of South America. Despite their differences in mode of emplacement, both types of ophiolite are exclusively supra-subduction zone (SSZ) in origin.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on mode of occurrences, the <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> ophiolites appear to show characteristics of both mid-oceanic ridge basalt (MORB)-type and SSZ-type ophiolites and are classified from oldest to youngest into: (1) MORB intact ophiolites (MIO); (2) dismembered ophiolites (DO); and (3) arc-associated ophiolites (AAO) (El Bahariya, 2018). Collectively, the investigated ophiolites of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Desert" title="Eastern Desert">Central Eastern Desert (CED)</a> fall into both MORB/back-arc basin basalt (BABB) ophiolites and SSZ ophiolites. They are spatially and temporally unrelated, and thus, it seems likely that the two types are not <a href="/wiki/Petrogenesis" title="Petrogenesis">petrogenetically</a> related. Ophiolites occur in different geological settings, and they represent change of the tectonic setting of the ophiolites from MORB to SSZ with time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_evolution_of_the_concept">Origin and evolution of the concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Origin and evolution of the concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>ophiolite</i> originated from publications of <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Brongniart" title="Alexandre Brongniart">Alexandre Brongniart</a> in 1813 and 1821. In the first, he used <i>ophiolite</i> for <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentinite</a> rocks found in large-scale <a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">breccias</a> called <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9lange" title="Mélange">mélanges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the second publication, he expanded the definition to encompass a variety of <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous rocks</a> as well such as <a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">gabbro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabase" title="Diabase">diabase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultramafic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultramafic">ultramafic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">volcanic</a> rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ophiolites thus became a name for a well-known association of rocks occurring in the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a> of Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following work in these two mountains systems, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Steinmann" title="Gustav Steinmann">Gustav Steinmann</a> defined what later became known as the "Steinmann Trinity": the mixture of <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpentine group">serpentine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabase" title="Diabase">diabase</a>-<a href="/wiki/Spilite" title="Spilite">spilite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">chert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recognition of the Steinmann Trinity served years later to build up the theory around <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seibold2010_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seibold2010-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A key observation by Steinmann was that ophiolites were associated to <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a> reflecting former deep sea environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steinmann himself interpreted ophiolites (the Trinity) using the <a href="/wiki/Geosyncline" title="Geosyncline">geosyncline</a> concept.<sup id="cite_ref-SN682_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SN682-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He held that Alpine ophiolites were "submarine effusions issuing along thrust faults into the active flank of an asymmetrically shortening geosyncline".<sup id="cite_ref-SN681_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SN681-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The apparent lack of ophiolites in the Peruvian <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, Steinmann theorized, was either due to the Andes being preceded by a shallow geosyncline or representing just the margin of a geosyncline.<sup id="cite_ref-SN682_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SN682-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, Cordilleran-type and Alpine-type mountains were to be different in this regard.<sup id="cite_ref-SN682_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SN682-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Hans_Stille" title="Hans Stille">Hans Stille</a>'s models a type of geosyncline called eugeosynclines were characterized by producing an "initial magmatism" that in some cases corresponded to ophiolitic magmatism.<sup id="cite_ref-SN682_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SN682-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate tectonic">plate tectonic</a> theory prevailed in geology<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and geosyncline theory became outdated<sup id="cite_ref-Sen44_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sen44-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ophiolites were interpreted in the new framework.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were recognized as fragments of <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere#Oceanic_lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">oceanic lithosphere</a>, and dykes were viewed as the result of <a href="/wiki/Extensional_tectonics" title="Extensional tectonics">extensional tectonics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-4_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-4-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pluton_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluton (geology)">plutonic rocks</a> found in ophiolites were understood as remnants of former magma chambers.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilek2003-5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1973, <a href="/wiki/Akiho_Miyashiro" title="Akiho Miyashiro">Akiho Miyashiro</a> revolutionized common conceptions of ophiolites and proposed an <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a> origin for the famous <a href="/wiki/Troodos_Ophiolite" title="Troodos Ophiolite">Troodos Ophiolite</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, arguing that numerous lavas and dykes in the ophiolite had <a href="/wiki/Calc-alkaline_magma_series" title="Calc-alkaline magma series">calc-alkaline chemistries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_examples">Notable examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notable examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ophiolites" title="List of ophiolites">List of ophiolites</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg/220px-ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg/330px-ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg/440px-ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pillow_lava" title="Pillow lava">pillow lava</a> from an ophiolite sequence, Northern <a href="/wiki/Apennines" class="mw-redirect" title="Apennines">Apennines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Examples of ophiolites that have been influential in the study of these rocks bodies are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Range_Ophiolite" title="Coast Range Ophiolite">Coast Range Ophiolite</a> in the <a href="/wiki/California_Coast_Ranges" title="California Coast Ranges">California Coast Ranges</a>, from Santa Barbara through San Francisco Counties, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semail_Ophiolite" class="mw-redirect" title="Semail Ophiolite">Semail Ophiolite</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, widely considered one of the best exposed ophiolite sequences</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troodos_Ophiolite" title="Troodos Ophiolite">Troodos Ophiolite</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Troodos_Mountains" title="Troodos Mountains">Troodos Mountains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, of economic interest since it contains the <a href="/wiki/Copper_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper mining">copper deposits</a> of Cyprus (from which copper is named)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macquarie_Island" title="Macquarie Island">Macquarie Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> was named a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> in 1997, as "the only known example of an ophiolite...complex in the process of being formed and currently in its original geological setting".<sup id="cite_ref-DoEMacquarie_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DoEMacquarie-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Bay of Islands Ophiolite in <a href="/wiki/Gros_Morne_National_Park" title="Gros Morne National Park">Gros Morne National Park</a>, Newfoundland, named a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> in 1987 because of its superbly exposed complete ophiolite stratigraphic sequence</li> <li>Yakuno, <a href="/wiki/Horokanai_Ophiolite" title="Horokanai Ophiolite">Horokanai</a>, and Poroshiri, three full ophiolite sequences in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dun_Mountain_Ophiolite_Belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt">Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt</a>, South Island, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. The rocktype <a href="/wiki/Dunite" title="Dunite">dunite</a> is named after this locality.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zambales_Ophiolite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zambales Ophiolite (page does not exist)">Zambales ophiolite complex</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the Coto and Acoje blocks, Luzon, Philippines. The ~45 Myr old<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zambales ophiolite forms part of the basement of the Luzon island arc complex.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Naga Hills and Andaman ophiolite belt, Northeast India<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Neoproterozoic ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert, Egypt (El Bahariya, 2018).</li> <li>Himalayan Ophiolites, Nidar, Shergol (Manas et al., 2021)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ophiolite&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Dilek2003-5-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-5_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDilek2003">Dilek 2003</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ben-Avraham, Z., (1982)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kearey, P., et al., (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salisbury, M.H., and Christensen, N.I., (1978)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mason,_R.,_1985-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mason,_R.,_1985_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason, R., (1985)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Moores, E.M., (1982)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wakabayashi, J. and Dilek, Y., (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGallhofer,_Daniela" class="citation book cs1">Gallhofer, Daniela. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1188715024"><i>Magmatic and tectonic history of Jurassic ophiolites and associated granitoids from the South Apuseni Mountains (Romania)</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1188715024">1188715024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magmatic+and+tectonic+history+of+Jurassic+ophiolites+and+associated+granitoids+from+the+South+Apuseni+Mountains+%28Romania%29&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1188715024&rft.au=Gallhofer%2C+Daniela&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1188715024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOphiolite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cawood,_P.A._and_Suhr,_G.,_1992-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cawood,_P.A._and_Suhr,_G.,_1992_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cawood,_P.A._and_Suhr,_G.,_1992_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cawood, P.A. and Suhr, G., (1992)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wakabayashi,_J_2000-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wakabayashi,_J_2000_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wakabayashi,_J_2000_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wakabayashi, J. and Dilek, Y., (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Metcalf, R.V. and Shervais, J.W., (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shervais, J.W., (2001), Metcalf, R.V. and Shervais, J.W., (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peltonen-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peltonen_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeltonen2005" class="citation book cs1">Peltonen, P. (2005). "Ophiolites". In Lehtinen, Martti; Nurmi, Pekka A. (eds.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/precambriangeolo00leht"><i>Precambrian Geology of Finland</i></a></span>. Elsevier Science. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/precambriangeolo00leht/page/n251">237</a>–277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080457598" title="Special:BookSources/9780080457598"><bdi>9780080457598</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ophiolites&rft.btitle=Precambrian+Geology+of+Finland&rft.pages=237-277&rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780080457598&rft.aulast=Peltonen&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprecambriangeolo00leht&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOphiolite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. Shervais, J.W., (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brogniart, A. (1813)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dilek2003-1-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-1_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDilek2003">Dilek 2003</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seibold2010-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seibold2010_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeiboldSeibold2010" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Seibold, Eugen; Seibold, Ilse (2010), "Gustav Steinmann (1856–1929): Ein deutscher Ordinarius der Kaiserzeit", <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences" title="International Journal of Earth Sciences">International Journal of Earth Sciences</a></i> (in German), <b>99</b> (Supplement 1): 3–15, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010IJEaS..99....3S">2010IJEaS..99....3S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00531-010-0561-y">10.1007/s00531-010-0561-y</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128688781">128688781</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Earth+Sciences&rft.atitle=Gustav+Steinmann+%281856%E2%80%931929%29%3A+Ein+deutscher+Ordinarius+der+Kaiserzeit&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=Supplement+1&rft.pages=3-15&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128688781%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00531-010-0561-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010IJEaS..99....3S&rft.aulast=Seibold&rft.aufirst=Eugen&rft.au=Seibold%2C+Ilse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOphiolite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SN682-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SN682_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SN682_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SN682_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SN682_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#SenNat">Şengör & Natal'in (2004)</a>, p. 682</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SN681-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SN681_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#SenNat">Şengör & Natal'in (2004)</a>, p. 681</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sen44-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sen44_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Sengor1982">Şengör (1982)</a>, p. 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dilek2003-4-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dilek2003-4_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDilek2003">Dilek 2003</a>, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDilek2003">Dilek 2003</a>, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DoEMacquarie-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DoEMacquarie_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120417225654/http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/world/macquarie/values.html">"Macquarie Island World Heritage values"</a>. <i>World heritage places</i>. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ophiolite" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ophiolite">Ophiolite</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIshiwatari2001" 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(2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earth.s.kanazawa-u.ac.jp/ishiwata/ophiol_e.htm">"Introduction to opholites"</a>. Kanazawa University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+opholites&rft.pub=Kanazawa+University&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Ishiwatari&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearth.s.kanazawa-u.ac.jp%2Fishiwata%2Fophiol_e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOphiolite" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShervais2001" class="citation journal cs1">Shervais, J. W. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usu.edu/geo/shervais/Shervais%20-%20My%20Articles/ShervaisG3_2000.pdf">"Birth, death, and resurrection: The life cycle of suprasubduction zone ophiolites"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</i>. <b>2</b> (1): n/a. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GGG.....2.1010S">2001GGG.....2.1010S</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.538.2375">10.1.1.538.2375</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000gc000080">10.1029/2000gc000080</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128443724">128443724</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160110175240/http://ofioliti.it/">Ofioliti, an international journal on ophiolites and modern oceanic lithosphere</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/sets/72157646104447616/">Gallery of ophiolitic rocks</a> published on Flickr by <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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