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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Conflict </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Development </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Development subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Codebase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Codebase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Codebase </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Codebase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Contributions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Programming_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Programming_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Programming language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Programming_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coding_style" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coding_style"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Coding style </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coding_style-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Versioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Versioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Versioning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Versioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toolchain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toolchain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Toolchain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toolchain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debugging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debugging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Debugging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debugging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Change_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Change_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Change process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Change_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mainline_Linux" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainline_Linux"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Mainline Linux </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainline_Linux-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linux-like_kernel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linux-like_kernel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.10 Linux-like kernel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linux-like_kernel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linux_forks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linux_forks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.11 Linux forks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linux_forks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.12 Long-term support </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.13 Size </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture_and_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture_and_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Architecture and features </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Architecture_and_features-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Architecture and features subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Architecture_and_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interfaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interfaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Interfaces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interfaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kernel-to-userspace_API" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kernel-to-userspace_API"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Kernel-to-userspace API </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kernel-to-userspace_API-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kernel-to-userspace_ABI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kernel-to-userspace_ABI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Kernel-to-userspace ABI </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kernel-to-userspace_ABI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In-kernel_API" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In-kernel_API"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.3 In-kernel API </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In-kernel_API-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In-kernel_ABI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In-kernel_ABI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.4 In-kernel ABI </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In-kernel_ABI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Process management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scheduling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scheduling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Scheduling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scheduling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synchronization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synchronization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Synchronization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synchronization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interrupts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrupts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Interrupts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrupts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Memory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtual_filesystem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtual_filesystem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Virtual filesystem </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtual_filesystem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supported_architectures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supported_architectures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Supported architectures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supported_architectures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supported_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supported_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.9 Supported devices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supported_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Live_patching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Live_patching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.10 Live patching </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Live_patching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.11 Security </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Legal </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legal subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Licensing_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Licensing_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Licensing terms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Licensing_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loadable_kernel_modules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loadable_kernel_modules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Loadable kernel modules </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loadable_kernel_modules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Firmware_binary_blobs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Firmware_binary_blobs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Firmware binary blobs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Firmware_binary_blobs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trademark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trademark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Trademark </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trademark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Removal_of_Russian_maintainers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Removal_of_Russian_maintainers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Removal of Russian maintainers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Removal_of_Russian_maintainers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Linux kernel</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" > 64 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(cyrnel)" title="Linux (cyrnel) – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Linux (cyrnel)" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%83%D8%B3" title="نواة لينكس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نواة لينكس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_n%C3%BCv%C9%99si" title="Linux nüvəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Linux nüvəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="লিনাক্স কার্নেল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিনাক্স কার্নেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81_(%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE)" title="Линукс (ядро) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Линукс (ядро)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel" title="Linux kernel – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Linux kernel" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(nucli)" title="Linux (nucli) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Linux (nucli)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(j%C3%A1dro)" title="Linux (jádro) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Linux (jádro)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(Kernel)" title="Linux (Kernel) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Linux (Kernel)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(tuum)" title="Linux (tuum) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Linux (tuum)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82_Linux" title="Πυρήνας Linux – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρήνας Linux" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAcleo_Linux" title="Núcleo Linux – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Núcleo Linux" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87_%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="هسته لینوکس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هسته لینوکس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noyau_Linux" title="Noyau Linux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Noyau Linux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" title="Linux – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Linux" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAcleo_Linux" title="Núcleo Linux – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Núcleo Linux" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A6%AC%EB%88%85%EC%8A%A4_%EC%BB%A4%EB%84%90" title="리눅스 커널 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="리눅스 커널" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(jezgra)" title="Linux (jezgra) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Linux (jezgra)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel) – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Linux (kernel)" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_Linux" title="Kernel Linux – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kernel Linux" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linuxkjarninn" title="Linuxkjarninn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Linuxkjarninn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Linux (kernel)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A1_(%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9F)" title="לינוקס (גרעין) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לינוקס (גרעין)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(j%C4%85dro)" title="Linux (jądro) – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Linux (jądro)" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" title="Linux – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Linux" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(branduolys)" title="Linux (branduolys) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Linux (branduolys)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" title="Linux – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Linux" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_Linux" title="Kernel Linux – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Kernel Linux" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(rendszermag)" title="Linux (rendszermag) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Linux (rendszermag)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%BD" title="ലിനക്സ് കെർണൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലിനക്സ് കെർണൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(inti)" title="Linux (inti) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Linux (inti)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linuxkernel" title="Linuxkernel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Linuxkernel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8D%E3%83%AB" title="Linuxカーネル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="Linuxカーネル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linuxkjernen" title="Linuxkjernen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Linuxkjernen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux-kjernen" title="Linux-kjernen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Linux-kjernen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucl%C3%A8u_Linux" title="Nuclèu Linux – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nuclèu Linux" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B8_%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B2" title="ଲିନକ୍ସ କର୍ନେଲ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଲିନକ୍ସ କର୍ନେଲ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B2" title="ਲੀਨਕਸ ਕਰਨਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲੀਨਕਸ ਕਰਨਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(Kernel)" title="Linux (Kernel) – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Linux (Kernel)" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(j%C4%85dro)" title="Linux (jądro) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Linux (jądro)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(n%C3%BAcleo)" title="Linux (núcleo) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Linux (núcleo)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(nucleul)" title="Linux (nucleul) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Linux (nucleul)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_chira" title="Linux chira – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Linux chira" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_Linux" title="Ядро Linux – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядро Linux" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(n%C3%B9cleu)" title="Linux (nùcleu) – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Linux (nùcleu)" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel" title="Linux kernel – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Linux kernel" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(n%C3%B9cliu)" title="Linux (nùcliu) – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Linux (nùcliu)" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%9A%27%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%BA" title="ලිනක්ස් ක'නලය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ලිනක්ස් ක'නලය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel" title="Linux kernel – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Linux kernel" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(jadro)" title="Linux (jadro) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Linux (jadro)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel) – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Linux (kernel)" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="ناوکی لینوکس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ناوکی لینوکس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Linux кернел – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Linux кернел" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(ydin)" title="Linux (ydin) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Linux (ydin)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_(k%C3%A4rna)" title="Linux (kärna) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Linux (kärna)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="லினக்சு கருனி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="லினக்சு கருனி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D" title="లినక్స్ కెర్నల్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="లినక్స్ కెర్నల్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%8C" title="ใจกลางลินุกซ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ใจกลางลินุกซ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_%C3%A7ekirde%C4%9Fi" title="Linux çekirdeği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Linux çekirdeği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_%D1%88%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BC" title="Linux шорсюлэм – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Linux шорсюлэм" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Free Unix-like operating system kernel</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Linux kernel</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><a href="/wiki/File:Tux.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tux"><img alt="Tux" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Tux.svg/120px-Tux.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Tux.svg/180px-Tux.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Tux.svg/240px-Tux.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="607" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Tux_(mascot)" title="Tux (mascot)">Tux</a> the penguin, mascot of Linux<a href="#cite_note-HvDj4-1">[1]</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><a href="/wiki/File:Linux_6.1.0-27_kernel_(running_on_Debian_Bookworm).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Linux_6.1.0-27_kernel_%28running_on_Debian_Bookworm%29.png/250px-Linux_6.1.0-27_kernel_%28running_on_Debian_Bookworm%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Linux_6.1.0-27_kernel_%28running_on_Debian_Bookworm%29.png/330px-Linux_6.1.0-27_kernel_%28running_on_Debian_Bookworm%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Linux_6.1.0-27_kernel_%28running_on_Debian_Bookworm%29.png/500px-Linux_6.1.0-27_kernel_%28running_on_Debian_Bookworm%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="766" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Linux kernel 6.1.0 kernel booting, under <a href="/wiki/Debian_Bookworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Debian Bookworm">Debian</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">Original author(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">Developer(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Community contributors <a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Initial release</th><td class="infobox-data">0.02 (5 October 1991; 33 years ago (1991-10-05))</td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">6.14<a href="#cite_note-wikidata-21ad55b51fc9bd1ebb984d37b5b86806ff6606b0-v18-2">[2]</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14579?uselang=en#P348" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> / 24 March 2025</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Repository_(version_control)" title="Repository (version control)">Repository</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git">git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14579#P1324" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Written in</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> (<a href="/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)" title="C11 (C standard revision)">C11</a> since 5.18, <a href="/wiki/C89_(C_version)" class="mw-redirect" title="C89 (C version)">C89</a> before),<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly language</a>, others</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Available in</th><td class="infobox-data">English</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GPL-2.0-only</a> with Linux-syscall-note<a href="#cite_note-COPYING_File-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-spdx.org_GPL-2.0-only-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-spdx.org_Linux-syscall-note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[a]</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kernel.org">kernel.org</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14579?uselang=en#P856" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> The Linux kernel is a <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">free and open source</a>,<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 4  <a href="/wiki/Unix-like" title="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> <a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">kernel</a> that is used in many <a href="/wiki/Computer_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer systems">computer systems</a> worldwide. The kernel was created by <a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a> in 1991 and was soon adopted as the kernel for the <a href="/wiki/GNU" title="GNU">GNU</a> <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> (OS) which was created to be a <a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free</a> replacement for <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>. Since the late 1990s, it has been included in many <a href="/wiki/Linux_distributions" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux distributions">operating system distributions</a>, many of which are called <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>. One such Linux kernel operating system is <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> which is used in many mobile and embedded devices. Most of the kernel code is written in <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> as supported by the <a href="/wiki/GNU_compiler_collection" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU compiler collection">GNU compiler collection</a> (GCC) which has extensions beyond standard C.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 18 <a href="#cite_note-oounl-12">[11]</a> The code also contains <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly</a> code for architecture-specific logic such as optimizing memory use and task execution.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 379–380  The kernel has a <a href="/wiki/Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">modular</a> design such that modules can be integrated as <a href="/wiki/Software_component" title="Software component">software components</a> – including dynamically loaded. The kernel is <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">monolithic</a> in an architectural sense since the entire OS runs in <a href="/wiki/Kernel_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Kernel space">kernel space</a>. Linux is provided under the <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GNU General Public License version 2</a>, although it contains files under other <a href="/wiki/GPL_compatibility" class="mw-redirect" title="GPL compatibility">compatible licenses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Linux_Licensing-9">[9]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Linux" title="History of Linux">History of Linux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_version_history" title="Linux kernel version history">Linux kernel version history</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LinuxCon_Europe_Linus_Torvalds_03_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LinuxCon_Europe_Linus_Torvalds_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-LinuxCon_Europe_Linus_Torvalds_03_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LinuxCon_Europe_Linus_Torvalds_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-LinuxCon_Europe_Linus_Torvalds_03_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LinuxCon_Europe_Linus_Torvalds_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-LinuxCon_Europe_Linus_Torvalds_03_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="975" data-file-height="1357" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a> at the LinuxCon Europe 2014</figcaption></figure> In 1991, Linus Torvalds was a <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> student enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Helsinki" title="University of Helsinki">University of Helsinki</a>. During his time there, he began to develop an operating system as a side-project inspired by UNIX, for a personal computer.<a href="#cite_note-qqGYY-13">[12]</a> He started with a <a href="/wiki/Context_switch" title="Context switch">task switcher</a> in <a href="/wiki/X86_assembly_language" title="X86 assembly language">Intel 80386 assembly language</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Pseudo_terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo terminal">terminal driver</a>.<a href="#cite_note-qqGYY-13">[12]</a> On 25 August 1991, Torvalds posted the following to comp.os.minix, a <a href="/wiki/Usenet_newsgroup" title="Usenet newsgroup">newsgroup</a> on <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a>:<a href="#cite_note-Torvlads25Aug91-14">[13]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) <a href="/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer/AT" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Personal Computer/AT">AT</a> clones. This has been brewing since April, and is starting to get ready. I'd like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-system (due to practical reasons) among other things). I've currently ported <a href="/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)" title="Bash (Unix shell)">bash</a>(1.08) and <a href="/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">gcc</a>(1.40), and things seem to work. This implies that I'll get something practical within a few months [...] Yes - it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT protable [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] (uses 386 task switching etc), and it probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that's all I have :-(.</blockquote> On 17 September 1991, Torvalds prepared version 0.01 of Linux and put on the "ftp.funet.fi" – FTP server of the Finnish University and Research Network (<a href="/wiki/FUNET" title="FUNET">FUNET</a>). It was not even executable since its code still needed Minix to compile and test it.<a href="#cite_note-Running_Linux-15">[14]</a> On 5 October 1991, Torvalds announced the first "official" version of Linux, version 0.02.<a href="#cite_note-Free_minix-like_kernel_sources_for_386-AT-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Running_Linux-15">[14]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">[As] I mentioned a month ago, I'm working on a free version of a Minix-lookalike for AT-386 computers. It has finally reached the stage where it's even usable (though may not be depending on what you want), and I am willing to put out the sources for wider distribution. It is just version 0.02...but I've successfully run bash, gcc, gnu-make, gnu-sed, compress, etc. under it.</blockquote> Linux grew rapidly as many developers, including the <a href="/wiki/MINIX" class="mw-redirect" title="MINIX">MINIX</a> community, contributed to the project.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] At the time, the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Project" title="GNU Project">GNU Project</a> had completed many components for its free UNIX replacement, <a href="/wiki/GNU" title="GNU">GNU</a>, but its kernel, the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Hurd" title="GNU Hurd">GNU Hurd</a>, was incomplete. The project adopted the Linux kernel for its OS.<a href="#cite_note-2Ifyf-17">[16]</a> Torvalds labeled the kernel with major version 0 to indicate that it was not yet intended for general use.<a href="#cite_note-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_107-18">[17]</a> Version 0.11, released in December 1991, was the first version to be <a href="/wiki/Self-hosting_(compilers)" title="Self-hosting (compilers)">self-hosted</a>; compiled on a computer running the Linux kernel. When Torvalds released version 0.12 in February 1992, he adopted the <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GNU General Public License</a> version 2 (GPLv2) over his previous self-drafted license, which had not permitted commercial redistribution.<a href="#cite_note-Relnotes-0.12-19">[18]</a> In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>, all <a href="/wiki/Source_files" class="mw-redirect" title="Source files">source files</a> of Linux are freely available, including <a href="/wiki/Device_drivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Device drivers">device drivers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-XzMje-20">[19]</a> The initial success of Linux was driven by programmers and testers across the world. With the support of the <a href="/wiki/POSIX" title="POSIX">POSIX</a> APIs, through the libC that, whether needed, acts as an entry point to the kernel address space, Linux could run software and applications that had been developed for Unix.<a href="#cite_note-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_16-21">[20]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linux_kernel_ubiquity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Linux_kernel_ubiquity.svg/330px-Linux_kernel_ubiquity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Linux_kernel_ubiquity.svg/500px-Linux_kernel_ubiquity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Linux_kernel_ubiquity.svg/960px-Linux_kernel_ubiquity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>The Linux kernel supports various hardware architectures, providing a common platform for software, including <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">proprietary software</a>.</figcaption></figure> On 19 January 1992, the first post to the new newsgroup alt.os.linux was submitted.<a href="#cite_note-QFvMn-22">[21]</a> On 31 March 1992, the newsgroup was renamed comp.os.linux.<a href="#cite_note-paK4Z-23">[22]</a> The fact that Linux is a <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">monolithic kernel</a> rather than a <a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernel</a> was the topic of a debate between <a href="/wiki/Andrew_S._Tanenbaum" title="Andrew S. Tanenbaum">Andrew S. Tanenbaum</a>, the creator of MINIX, and Torvalds.<a href="#cite_note-2BA6C-24">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tanenbaum%E2%80%93Torvalds_debate" title="Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate">Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate</a> started in 1992 on the <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a> group comp.os.minix as a general discussion about kernel architectures.<a href="#cite_note-vghTe-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-pUfrR-26">[25]</a> Version 0.95 was the first capable of running the <a href="/wiki/X_Window_System" title="X Window System">X Window System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HR4Vb-27">[26]</a> In March 1994, Linux 1.0.0 was released with 176,250 lines of code.<a href="#cite_note-Jqib7-28">[27]</a> As indicated by the version number, it was the first version considered suitable for a <a href="/wiki/Deployment_environment" title="Deployment environment">production environment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_107-18">[17]</a> In June 1996, after release 1.3, Torvalds decided that Linux had evolved enough to warrant a new major number, and so labeled the next release as version 2.0.0.<a href="#cite_note-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_108-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-2.0.0_release-30">[29]</a> Significant features of 2.0 included <a href="/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing" title="Symmetric multiprocessing">symmetric multiprocessing</a> (SMP), support for more processors types and support for selecting specific hardware targets and for enabling architecture-specific features and optimizations.<a href="#cite_note-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_16-21">[20]</a> The make *config family of commands of kbuild enable and configure options for building ad hoc kernel executables (<a href="/wiki/Vmlinux" title="Vmlinux">vmlinux</a>) and loadable modules.<a href="#cite_note-:10-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-32">[31]</a> Version 2.2, released on 20 January 1999,<a href="#cite_note-2.2.0_release-33">[32]</a> improved locking granularity and SMP management, added <a href="/wiki/M68k" class="mw-redirect" title="M68k">m68k</a>, <a href="/wiki/PowerPC" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a>, <a href="/wiki/SPARC" title="SPARC">Sparc64</a>, <a href="/wiki/DEC_Alpha" title="DEC Alpha">Alpha</a>, and other 64-bit platforms support.<a href="#cite_note-:16-34">[33]</a> Furthermore, it added new <a href="/wiki/File_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="File systems">file systems</a> including <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s <a href="/wiki/NTFS" title="NTFS">NTFS</a> read-only capability.<a href="#cite_note-:16-34">[33]</a> In 1999, IBM published its patches to the Linux 2.2.13 code for the support of the <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/390" title="IBM System/390">S/390</a> architecture.<a href="#cite_note-df5gk-35">[34]</a> Version 2.4.0, released on 4 January 2001,<a href="#cite_note-2.4.0_release-36">[35]</a> contained support for <a href="/wiki/Industry_Standard_Architecture" title="Industry Standard Architecture">ISA</a> <a href="/wiki/Plug_and_Play" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug and Play">Plug and Play</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Serial Bus">USB</a>, and <a href="/wiki/PC_Card" title="PC Card">PC Cards</a>. Linux 2.4 added support for the <a href="/wiki/Pentium_4" title="Pentium 4">Pentium 4</a> and <a href="/wiki/Itanium" title="Itanium">Itanium</a> (the latter introduced the <a href="/wiki/IA-64" title="IA-64">ia64</a> ISA that was jointly developed by Intel and Hewlett-Packard to supersede the older <a href="/wiki/PA-RISC" title="PA-RISC">PA-RISC</a>), and for the newer <a href="/wiki/MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">64-bit MIPS</a> processor.<a href="#cite_note-WWOL24-37">[36]</a> Development for 2.4.x changed a bit in that more features were made available throughout the series, including support for <a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logical_Volume_Manager_(Linux)" title="Logical Volume Manager (Linux)">Logical Volume Manager</a> (LVM) version 1, <a href="/wiki/RAID" title="RAID">RAID</a> support, <a href="/wiki/InterMezzo_(file_system)" title="InterMezzo (file system)">InterMezzo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ext3" title="Ext3">ext3</a> file systems. Version 2.6.0 was released on 17 December 2003.<a href="#cite_note-2.6.0_release-38">[37]</a> The development for 2.6.x changed further towards including new features throughout the series. Among the changes that have been made in the 2.6 series are: integration of <a href="/wiki/%CE%9CClinux" title="ΜClinux">μClinux</a> into the mainline kernel sources, <a href="/wiki/Physical_Address_Extension" title="Physical Address Extension">PAE</a> support, support for several new lines of <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPUs</a>, integration of Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA) into the mainline kernel sources, support for up to 232 users (up from 216), support for up to 229 process IDs (64-bit only, 32-bit architectures still limited to 215),<a href="#cite_note-Lguxu-39">[38]</a> substantially increased the number of device types and the number of devices of each type, improved <a href="/wiki/64-bit" class="mw-redirect" title="64-bit">64-bit</a> support, support for <a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">file systems</a> which support file sizes of up to 16 <a href="/wiki/Terabyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Terabyte">terabytes</a>, in-kernel <a href="/wiki/Preemption_(computing)" title="Preemption (computing)">preemption</a>, support for the <a href="/wiki/Native_POSIX_Thread_Library" title="Native POSIX Thread Library">Native POSIX Thread Library</a> (NPTL), <a href="/wiki/User-mode_Linux" title="User-mode Linux">User-mode Linux</a> integration into the mainline kernel sources, <a href="/wiki/Security-Enhanced_Linux" title="Security-Enhanced Linux">SELinux</a> integration into the mainline kernel sources, <a href="/wiki/InfiniBand" title="InfiniBand">InfiniBand</a> support, and considerably more. Starting with 2.6.x releases, the kernel supported a large number of file systems; some designed for Linux, like <a href="/wiki/Ext3" title="Ext3">ext3</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ext4" title="Ext4">ext4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filesystem_in_Userspace" title="Filesystem in Userspace">FUSE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Btrfs" title="Btrfs">Btrfs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rY8Ml-40">[39]</a> and others native to other operating systems like <a href="/wiki/JFS_(file_system)" title="JFS (file system)">JFS</a>, <a href="/wiki/XFS" title="XFS">XFS</a>, Minix, <a href="/wiki/Xenix" title="Xenix">Xenix</a>, <a href="/wiki/IRIX" title="IRIX">Irix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solaris (operating system)">Solaris</a>, <a href="/wiki/System_V" class="mw-redirect" title="System V">System V</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> and <a href="/wiki/MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_1–2-41">[40]</a> Though development had not used a <a href="/wiki/Version_control" title="Version control">version control system</a> thus far, in 2002, Linux developers adopted <a href="/wiki/BitKeeper" title="BitKeeper">BitKeeper</a>, which was made freely available to them even though it was not <a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free software</a>. In 2005, because of efforts to <a href="/wiki/Reverse-engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse-engineer">reverse-engineer</a> it, the company which owned the software revoked its support of the Linux community. In response, Torvalds and others wrote <a href="/wiki/Git_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Git (software)">Git</a>. The new system was written within weeks, and in two months the first official kernel made using it was released.<a href="#cite_note-0eXeT-42">[41]</a> In 2005 the stable team was formed as a response to the lack of a kernel tree where people could work on <a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">bug fixes</a>, and it would keep updating stable versions.<a href="#cite_note-2.6.16-longterm-43">[42]</a> In February 2008 the linux-next tree was created to serve as a place where patches aimed to be merged during the next development cycle gathered.<a href="#cite_note-zZKMh-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-CY4pJ-45">[44]</a> Several subsystem maintainers also adopted the suffix -next for trees containing code which they mean to submit for inclusion in the next release cycle. As of January 2014<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit">[update]</a>, the in-development version of Linux is held in an unstable branch named linux-next.<a href="#cite_note-4hjhG-46">[45]</a> The 20th anniversary of Linux was celebrated by Torvalds in July 2011 with the release of version 3.0.0.<a href="#cite_note-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_108-29">[28]</a> As 2.6 had been the version number for 8 years, a new uname26 personality that reports 3.x as 2.6.40+x had to be added to the kernel so that old programs would work.<a href="#cite_note-To3tT-47">[46]</a> Version 3.0 was released on 22 July 2011.<a href="#cite_note-3.0_release-48">[47]</a> On 30 May 2011, Torvalds announced that the big change was "NOTHING. Absolutely nothing." and asked, "...let's make sure we really make the next release not just an all new shiny number, but a good kernel too."<a href="#cite_note-q0tsu-49">[48]</a> After the expected 6–7 weeks of the development process, it would be released near the 20th anniversary of Linux. On 11 December 2012, Torvalds decided to reduce kernel complexity by removing support for <a href="/wiki/I386" title="I386">i386</a> processors—specifically by not having to <a href="/wiki/Emulator" title="Emulator">emulate</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic (computer science)">atomic</a> <a href="/wiki/X86_instruction_listings#Added_with_80486" title="X86 instruction listings">CMPXCHG</a> instruction introduced with the <a href="/wiki/I486" title="I486">i486</a> to allow reliable <a href="/wiki/Mutex" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutex">mutexes</a>—making the 3.7 kernel series the last one still supporting the original processor.<a href="#cite_note-KPoEx-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-l9vgy-52">[51]</a> The same series unified support for the <a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="ARM architecture">ARM</a> processor.<a href="#cite_note-0lwal-53">[52]</a> The numbering change from 2.6.39 to 3.0, and from 3.19 to 4.0, involved no meaningful technical differentiation; the major version number was increased simply to avoid large minor numbers.<a href="#cite_note-3.0_release-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-4.0_release-54">[53]</a> Stable 3.x.y kernels were released until 3.19 in February 2015. Version 3.11, released on 2 September 2013,<a href="#cite_note-3.11.0_release-55">[54]</a> added many new features such as new <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style>O_TMPFILE flag for <code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://manned.org/open.2">open(2)</a></code> to reduce temporary file vulnerabilities, experimental AMD <a href="/wiki/Radeon" title="Radeon">Radeon</a> dynamic power management, low-latency network polling, and <a href="/wiki/Zswap" title="Zswap">zswap</a> (compressed swap cache).<a href="#cite_note-n7jTp-56">[55]</a> In April 2015, Torvalds released kernel version 4.0.<a href="#cite_note-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_108-29">[28]</a> By February 2015, Linux had received contributions from nearly 12,000 programmers from more than 1,200 companies, including some of the world's largest software and hardware vendors.<a href="#cite_note-3eoKz-57">[56]</a> Version 4.1 of Linux, released in June 2015, contains over 19.5 million lines of code contributed by almost 14,000 programmers.<a href="#cite_note-lx7F0-58">[57]</a> Linus Torvalds announced that kernel version 4.22 would instead be numbered 5.0 in March 2019, stating that "'5.0' doesn't mean anything more than that the 4.x numbers started getting big enough that I ran out of fingers and toes."<a href="#cite_note-:17-59">[58]</a> It featured many major additions such as support for the AMD Radeon <a href="/wiki/FreeSync" title="FreeSync">FreeSync</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nvidia" title="Nvidia">NVIDIA</a> Xavier display, fixes for <a href="/wiki/F2FS" title="F2FS">F2FS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ext4" title="Ext4">EXT4</a> and <a href="/wiki/XFS" title="XFS">XFS</a>, restored support for swap files on the <a href="/wiki/Btrfs" title="Btrfs">Btrfs</a> <a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">file system</a> and continued work on the <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a> <a href="/wiki/Ice_Lake_(microprocessor)" title="Ice Lake (microprocessor)">Icelake</a> Gen11 graphics and on the <a href="/wiki/NXP_Semiconductors" title="NXP Semiconductors">NXP</a> <a href="/wiki/I.MX" title="I.MX">i.MX8</a> SoCs.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> This release was noticeably larger than the rest, Torvalds mentioning that "The overall changes for all of the 5.0 release are much bigger."<a href="#cite_note-:17-59">[58]</a> A total of 1,991 developers, of whom 334 were first-time collaborators, added more than 553,000 lines of code to version 5.8, breaking the record previously held by version 4.9.<a href="#cite_note-xkq10-62">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popularity">Popularity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Popularity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_operating_systems" title="Usage share of operating systems">Usage share of operating systems</a></div> According to the Stack Overflow's annual Developer Survey of 2019, more than the 53% of all respondents have developed software for <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> and about 27% for <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a>,<a href="#cite_note-MqCDa-63">[62]</a> although only about 25% develop with Linux-based operating systems.<a href="#cite_note-sXZWF-64">[63]</a> Most websites run on <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux-based operating systems</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vjxfE-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-qUSpE-66">[65]</a> and all of the <a href="/wiki/TOP500" title="TOP500">world's 500 most powerful supercomputers</a> run on Linux.<a href="#cite_note-top500stats2-67">[66]</a> <a href="/wiki/Linux_distributions" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux distributions">Linux distributions</a> bundle the kernel with <a href="/wiki/System_software" title="System software">system software</a> (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/GNU_C_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU C Library">GNU C Library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systemd" title="Systemd">systemd</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> <a href="/wiki/Utility_software" title="Utility software">utilities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daemon_(computing)" title="Daemon (computing)">daemons</a>) and a wide selection of <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application software</a>, but their <a href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_desktop_operating_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Usage share of desktop operating systems">usage share</a> in desktops is low in comparison to other operating systems. Since <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a>, which is Linux, accounts for the majority of mobile device operating systems,<a href="#cite_note-OVx4S-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-oQC5P-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-2c2eU-70">[69]</a> and due to its rising use in <a href="/wiki/Linux_on_embedded_systems" title="Linux on embedded systems">embedded devices</a>, Android is significantly responsible for rising use of Linux overall.<a href="#cite_note-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_16-21">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Value">Value</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Value">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Redevelopment_costs_of_Linux_kernel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Redevelopment_costs_of_Linux_kernel.png/250px-Redevelopment_costs_of_Linux_kernel.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Redevelopment_costs_of_Linux_kernel.png/330px-Redevelopment_costs_of_Linux_kernel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Redevelopment_costs_of_Linux_kernel.png/500px-Redevelopment_costs_of_Linux_kernel.png 2x" data-file-width="699" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption>Redevelopment costs of Linux kernel</figcaption></figure> The cost to redevelop version 2.6.0 of the Linux kernel in a traditional proprietary development setting has been estimated to be US$612 million (€467M, £394M) in 2004 prices using the <a href="/wiki/COCOMO" title="COCOMO">COCOMO</a> person-month estimation model.<a href="#cite_note-a4RtJ-71">[70]</a> In 2006, a study funded by the European Union put the redevelopment cost of kernel version 2.6.8 higher, at €882M ($1.14bn, £744M).<a href="#cite_note-yORjV-72">[71]</a> This topic was revisited in October 2008 by Amanda McPherson, Brian Proffitt, and Ron Hale-Evans. Using David A. Wheeler's methodology, they estimated redevelopment of the 2.6.25 kernel now costs $1.3bn (part of a total $10.8bn to redevelop Fedora 9).<a href="#cite_note-e80cn-73">[72]</a> Again, Garcia-Garcia and Alonso de Magdaleno from University of Oviedo (Spain) estimate that the value annually added to kernel was about €100M between 2005 and 2007 and €225M in 2008, it would cost also more than €1bn (about $1.4bn as of February 2010) to develop in the European Union.<a href="#cite_note-mvmLl-74">[73]</a> As of 7 March 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit">[update]</a>, using then-current <a href="/wiki/Source_lines_of_code" title="Source lines of code">LOC</a> (lines of code) of a 2.6.x Linux kernel and wage numbers with David A. Wheeler's calculations it would cost approximately $3bn (about €2.2bn) to redevelop the Linux kernel as it keeps getting bigger. An updated calculation as of 26 September 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit">[update]</a>, using then-current 20,088,609 LOC (lines of code) for the 4.14.14 Linux kernel and the current US national average programmer salary of $75,506 show that it would cost approximately $14,725,449,000 (£11,191,341,000) to rewrite the existing code.<a href="#cite_note-rjeGU-75">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Distribution">edit</a>]</div> Most who use Linux do so via a <a href="/wiki/Linux_distribution" title="Linux distribution">Linux distribution</a>. Some distributions ship the vanilla or stable kernel. However, several vendors (such as <a href="/wiki/Red_Hat" title="Red Hat">Red Hat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Debian" title="Debian">Debian</a>) maintain a customized source tree. These are usually updated at a slower pace than the vanilla branch, and they usually include all fixes from the relevant stable branch, but at the same time they can also add support for drivers or features which had not been released in the vanilla version the distribution vendor started basing its branch from. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developers">Developers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Developers">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Community">Community</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Community">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linux_Kernel_Sizes_Graph.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Linux_Kernel_Sizes_Graph.png/330px-Linux_Kernel_Sizes_Graph.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Linux_Kernel_Sizes_Graph.png/500px-Linux_Kernel_Sizes_Graph.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Linux_Kernel_Sizes_Graph.png/960px-Linux_Kernel_Sizes_Graph.png 2x" data-file-width="1979" data-file-height="980" /></a><figcaption>Graph of the sizes of Linux Kernel versions in millions of lines of code.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a></figcaption></figure> </div></div> The community of Linux kernel developers comprises about 5000–6000 members. According to the "2017 State of Linux Kernel Development", a study issued by the Linux Foundation, covering the commits for the releases 4.8 to 4.13, about 1500 developers were contributing from about 200–250 companies on average. The top 30 developers contributed a little more than 16% of the code. For companies, the top contributors are Intel (13.1%) and Red Hat (7.2%), Linaro (5.6%), IBM (4.1%), the second and fifth places are held by the 'none' (8.2%) and 'unknown' (4.1%) categories.<a href="#cite_note-bXrVc-77">[76]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">"Instead of a roadmap, there are technical guidelines. Instead of a central resource allocation, there are persons and companies who all have a stake in the further development of the Linux kernel, quite independently from one another: People like Linus Torvalds and I don’t plan the kernel evolution. We don’t sit there and think up the roadmap for the next two years, then assign resources to the various new features. That's because we don’t have any resources. The resources are all owned by the various corporations who use and contribute to Linux, as well as by the various independent contributors out there. It's those people who own the resources who decide..."<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Morton_(computer_programmer)" title="Andrew Morton (computer programmer)">Andrew Morton</a>, 2005</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="center"><div class="thumb tnone" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:902px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:900px;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1275957564">.mw-parser-output .stackedbar{border:1px solid grey;height:10px;width:100%;line-height:0;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate>div:first-child{font-size:14px;width:100%;text-align:center;display:flex}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate>div:first-child>div>span{padding:0.15em}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_lean>div:first-child>div{transform:translateX(1em)rotate(200deg)}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_lean>div:first-child>div>span{text-align:left;writing-mode:vertical-rl}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_vertical>div:first-child>div{transform:rotate(180deg)}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_vertical>div:first-child>div>span{text-align:left;writing-mode:vertical-rl}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_color p{line-height:0;font-size:0;margin-top:0}</style> <div class="StackedBarTemplate"><div style=""> <div style="flex:13.1"><a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a></div><div style="flex:8.2">None</div><div style="flex:7.2"><a href="/wiki/Red_Hat" title="Red Hat">Red Hat</a></div><div style="flex:5.6"><a href="/wiki/Linaro" title="Linaro">Linaro</a></div><div style="flex:4.1">Unknown</div><div style="flex:4.1"><a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a></div><div style="flex:3.3">Consultants</div><div style="flex:3.2"><a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a></div><div style="flex:3">SUSE</div><div style="flex:3">Google</div><div style="flex:45.2">nearly 500 other companies</div> </div> <table class="stackedbar" cellspacing="1" style="height:18px"> <tbody><tr> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #0072c6; width: 13.1%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #ccc; width: 8.2%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #e00; width: 7.2%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #96c72e; width: 5.6%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #ccc; width: 4.1%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #1870c0; width: 4.1%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #ccc; width: 3.3%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #004da4; width: 3.2%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #30BA78; width: 3%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #fbbc05; width: 3%" title=""> </td> <td class="StackedBarTemplate_color" style="font-size:0px; -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; background: #eee; width: 45.2%" title=""> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Corporate affiliation of contributions to the Linux kernel, 4.8–4.13<a href="#cite_note-bXrVc-77">[76]</a></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict">Conflict</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conflict">edit</a>]</div> Notable conflicts among Linux kernel developers: <ul><li>In July 2007, <a href="/wiki/Con_Kolivas" title="Con Kolivas">Con Kolivas</a> announced that he would cease developing for the Linux kernel.<a href="#cite_note-ConKolivas-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-hbWwd-79">[78]</a></li> <li>In July 2009, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cox_(computer_programmer)" title="Alan Cox (computer programmer)">Alan Cox</a> quit his role as the <a href="/wiki/Tty_(Unix)" title="Tty (Unix)">TTY</a> layer maintainer after disagreement with Torvalds.<a href="#cite_note-Cqshf-80">[79]</a></li> <li>In December 2010, there was a discussion between Linux SCSI maintainer James Bottomley and SCST maintainer Vladislav Bolkhovitin about which SCSI target stack should be included in the Linux kernel.<a href="#cite_note-LnsQz-81">[80]</a> This made some Linux users upset.<a href="#cite_note-mvbGZ-82">[81]</a></li> <li>In June 2012, Torvalds made it very clear that he did not agree with <a href="/wiki/NVIDIA" class="mw-redirect" title="NVIDIA">NVIDIA</a> releasing its drivers as closed.<a href="#cite_note-TYyez-83">[82]</a></li> <li>In April 2014, Torvalds banned <a href="/wiki/Kay_Sievers" title="Kay Sievers">Kay Sievers</a> from submitting patches to the Linux kernel for failing to deal with <a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">bugs</a> that caused <a href="/wiki/Systemd" title="Systemd">systemd</a> to negatively interact with the kernel.<a href="#cite_note-SkO7Y-84">[83]</a></li> <li>In October 2014, <a href="/wiki/Lennart_Poettering" title="Lennart Poettering">Lennart Poettering</a> accused Torvalds of tolerating the rough discussion style on Linux kernel related mailing lists and of being a bad role model.<a href="#cite_note-LWM1n-85">[84]</a></li> <li>In March 2015, Christoph Hellwig filed a lawsuit against <a href="/wiki/VMware" title="VMware">VMware</a> for infringement of the copyright on the Linux kernel.<a href="#cite_note-vMANt-86">[85]</a> Linus Torvalds made it clear that he did not agree with this and similar initiatives by calling lawyers a festering disease.<a href="#cite_note-7mJER-87">[86]</a></li> <li>In April 2021, a team from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> was found to be submitting "bad faith" patches to the kernel as part of its research. This resulted in the immediate reversion of all patches ever submitted by a member of the university. In addition, a warning was issued by a senior maintainer that any future patch from the university would be rejected on sight.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></li></ul> Prominent Linux kernel developers have been aware of the importance of avoiding conflicts between developers.<a href="#cite_note-zcauf-90">[89]</a> For a long time there was no code of conduct for kernel developers due to opposition by Torvalds.<a href="#cite_note-Dfxum-91">[90]</a> However, a Linux Kernel Code of Conflict was introduced on 8 March 2015.<a href="#cite_note-a51oD-92">[91]</a> It was replaced on 16 September 2018 by a new Code of Conduct based on the <a href="/wiki/Contributor_Covenant" title="Contributor Covenant">Contributor Covenant</a>. This coincided with a public apology by Torvalds and a brief break from kernel development.<a href="#cite_note-gluP1-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-bLQrs-94">[93]</a> On 30 November 2018, complying with the Code of Conduct, Jarkko Sakkinen of Intel sent out patches replacing instances of "fuck" appearing in source code comments with suitable versions focused on the word 'hug'.<a href="#cite_note-6hCGb-95">[94]</a> Developers who feel treated unfairly can report this to the <a href="/wiki/Linux_Foundation" title="Linux Foundation">Linux Foundation</a> Technical Advisory Board.<a href="#cite_note-9XiLD-96">[95]</a> In July 2013, the maintainer of the USB 3.0 driver <a href="/wiki/Sage_Sharp" title="Sage Sharp">Sage Sharp</a> asked Torvalds to address the abusive commentary in the kernel development community. In 2014, Sharp backed out of Linux kernel development, saying that "The focus on technical excellence, in combination with overloaded maintainers, and people with different cultural and social norms, means that Linux kernel maintainers are often blunt, rude, or brutal to get their job done".<a href="#cite_note-XFXHf-97">[96]</a> At the linux.conf.au (LCA) conference in 2018, developers expressed the view that the culture of the community has gotten much better in the past few years. Daniel Vetter, the maintainer of the Intel drm/i915 graphics kernel driver, commented that the "rather violent language and discussion" in the kernel community has decreased or disappeared.<a href="#cite_note-R8yIB-98">[97]</a> Laurent Pinchart asked developers for feedback on their experiences with the kernel community at the 2017 Embedded Linux Conference Europe. The issues brought up were discussed a few days later at the Maintainers Summit. Concerns over the lack of consistency in how maintainers responded to patches submitted by developers were echoed by <a href="/wiki/Shuah_Khan" title="Shuah Khan">Shuah Khan</a>, the maintainer of the kernel self-test framework. Torvalds contended that there would never be consistency in the handling of patches because different kernel subsystems have, over time, adopted different development processes. Therefore, it was agreed upon that each kernel subsystem maintainer would document the rules for patch acceptance.<a href="#cite_note-I88RB-99">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Development">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">Linux is evolution, not <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a>!<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Linus Torvalds, 2005<a href="#cite_note-dk5Lm-100">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-BSPdA-101">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-mv11e-102">[101]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Codebase">Codebase</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Codebase">edit</a>]</div> The kernel source code, a.k.a. source tree, is managed in the <a href="/wiki/Git" title="Git">Git</a> <a href="/wiki/Version_control_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Version control system">version control system</a> – also created by Torvalds.<a href="#cite_note-eL0QP-103">[102]</a> As of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit">[update]</a>, the 5.11 release of the Linux kernel had around 30.34 million lines of code. Roughly 14% of the code is part of the "core," including architecture-specific code, kernel code, and memory management code, while 60% is drivers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contributions">Contributions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Contributions">edit</a>]</div> Contributions are submitted as patches, in the form of text messages on the <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_mailing_list" title="Linux kernel mailing list">Linux kernel mailing list</a> (LKML) (and often also on other mailing lists dedicated to particular subsystems). The patches must conform to a set of rules and to a formal language that, among other things, describes which lines of code are to be deleted and what others are to be added to the specified files. These patches can be automatically processed so that system administrators can apply them in order to make just some changes to the code or to incrementally upgrade to the next version.<a href="#cite_note-vRGYk-104">[103]</a> Linux is distributed also in <a href="/wiki/GNU_zip" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU zip">GNU zip</a> (gzip) and <a href="/wiki/Bzip2" title="Bzip2">bzip2</a> formats. A developer who wants to change the Linux kernel writes and tests a code change. Depending on how significant the change is and how many subsystems it modifies, the change will either be submitted as a single patch or in multiple patches of <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>. In case of a single subsystem that is maintained by a single maintainer, these patches are sent as e-mails to the maintainer of the subsystem with the appropriate mailing list in Cc. The maintainer and the readers of the mailing list will review the patches and provide feedback. Once the review process has finished the subsystem maintainer accepts the patches in the relevant <a href="/wiki/Git" title="Git">Git</a> kernel tree. If the changes to the Linux kernel are bug fixes that are considered important enough, a pull request for the patches will be sent to Torvalds within a few days. Otherwise, a pull request will be sent to Torvalds during the next merge window. The merge window usually lasts two weeks and starts immediately after the release of the previous kernel version.<a href="#cite_note-nOVy6-105">[104]</a> The Git kernel source tree names all developers who have contributed to the Linux kernel in the Credits directory and all subsystem maintainers are listed in Maintainers.<a href="#cite_note-45qbF-106">[105]</a> As with many large open-source software projects, developers are required to adhere to the <a href="/wiki/Contributor_Covenant" title="Contributor Covenant">Contributor Covenant</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">code of conduct</a> intended to address harassment of minority contributors.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> Additionally, to prevent offense the use of <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_language" title="Inclusive language">inclusive terminology</a> within the source code is mandated.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Programming_language">Programming language</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Programming language">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rust_for_Linux" title="Rust for Linux">Rust for Linux</a></div> Linux is written in a special <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C programming language</a> supported by <a href="/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GCC</a>, a compiler that extends the C standard in many ways, for example using <a href="/wiki/Inline_assembler" title="Inline assembler">inline sections of code</a> written in the <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a> (in GCC's "AT&T-style" syntax) of the target architecture. In September 2021, the GCC version requirement for compiling and building the Linux kernel increased from GCC 4.9 to 5.1, allowing the potential for the kernel to be moved from using C code based on the <a href="/wiki/ANSI_C#C89" title="ANSI C">C89</a> standard to using code written with the <a href="/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)" title="C11 (C standard revision)">C11</a> standard,<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> with the migration to the standard taking place in March 2022, with the release of Linux 5.18.<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> Initial support for the <a href="/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust</a> programming language was added in Linux 6.1<a href="#cite_note-rust-112">[111]</a> which was released in December 2022,<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> with later kernel versions, such as Linux 6.2 and Linux 6.3, further improving the support.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coding_style">Coding style</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Coding style">edit</a>]</div> Since 2002, code must adhere to the 21 rules comprising the Linux Kernel Coding Style.<a href="#cite_note-tJSfW-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-EugD6-117">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Versioning">Versioning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Versioning">edit</a>]</div> As for most software, the kernel is versioned as a series of dot-separated numbers. For early versions, the version consisted of three or four dot-separated numbers called major release, minor release and revision.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 9  At that time, odd-numbered minor releases were for development and testing, while even numbered minor releases for production. The optional fourth digit indicated a patch level.<a href="#cite_note-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_107-18">[17]</a> Development releases were indicated with a release candidate suffix (-rc). The current versioning conventions are different. The odd/even number implying dev/prod has been dropped, and a major version is indicated by the first two numbers together. While the time-frame is open for the development of the next major, the -rcN suffix is used to identify the n'th release candidate for the next version.<a href="#cite_note-:2-118">[117]</a> For example, the release of the version 4.16 was preceded by seven 4.16-rcN (from -rc1 to -rc7). Once a stable version is released, its maintenance is passed to the stable team. Updates to a stable release are identified by a three-number scheme (e.g., 4.16.1, 4.16.2, ...).<a href="#cite_note-:2-118">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toolchain">Toolchain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Toolchain">edit</a>]</div> The kernel is usually built with the <a href="/wiki/GNU_toolchain" title="GNU toolchain">GNU toolchain</a>. The GNU C compiler, GNU cc, part of the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GNU Compiler Collection</a> (GCC), is the default <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> for mainline Linux. Sequencing is handled by GNU <a href="/wiki/Make_(Unix)" class="mw-redirect" title="Make (Unix)">make</a>. The <a href="/wiki/GNU_Assembler" title="GNU Assembler">GNU Assembler</a> (often called GAS or GNU as) outputs the <a href="/wiki/Object_file" title="Object file">object files</a> from the GCC generated <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly</a> code. Finally, the <a href="/wiki/GNU_linker" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU linker">GNU Linker</a> (GNU ld) produces a statically linked executable kernel file called <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><a href="/wiki/Vmlinux" title="Vmlinux">vmlinux</a>. Both <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />as and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />ld are part of <a href="/wiki/GNU_Binary_Utilities" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU Binary Utilities">GNU Binary Utilities</a> (binutils). GNU cc was for a long time the only compiler capable of correctly building Linux. In 2004, <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a> claimed to have modified the kernel so that <a href="/wiki/Intel_C%2B%2B_Compiler" title="Intel C++ Compiler">its C compiler</a> was also capable of compiling it.<a href="#cite_note-yXTuf-119">[118]</a> There was another such reported success in 2009, with a modified 2.6.22 version.<a href="#cite_note-y2O2m-120">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-CdkkU-121">[120]</a> Support for the Intel compiler has been dropped in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> Since 2010, effort has been underway to build Linux with <a href="/wiki/Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a>, an alternative compiler for the C language;<a href="#cite_note-ksPmC-123">[122]</a> as of 12 April 2014, the official kernel could almost be compiled by Clang.<a href="#cite_note-05DS8-124">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-QlWNo-125">[124]</a> The project dedicated to this effort is named LLVMLinux after the <a href="/wiki/LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> compiler infrastructure upon which Clang is built.<a href="#cite_note-CMJPf-126">[125]</a> LLVMLinux does not aim to fork either Linux or the LLVM, therefore it is a meta-project composed of patches that are eventually submitted to the upstream projects. By enabling Linux to be compiled by Clang, developers may benefit from shorter compilation times.<a href="#cite_note-dl3QL-127">[126]</a> In 2017, developers completed upstreaming patches to support building the Linux kernel with <a href="/wiki/Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a> in the 4.15 release, having <a href="/wiki/Backporting" title="Backporting">backported</a> support for <a href="/wiki/X86-64" title="X86-64">X86-64</a> and <a href="/wiki/AArch64" title="AArch64">AArch64</a> to the 4.4, 4.9, and 4.14 branches of the stable kernel tree. Google's <a href="/wiki/Pixel_2" title="Pixel 2">Pixel 2</a> shipped with the first <a href="/wiki/Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a> built <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> kernel,<a href="#cite_note-9uQ4P-128">[127]</a> though patches for <a href="/wiki/Pixel_(1st_generation)" title="Pixel (1st generation)">Pixel (1st generation)</a> did exist.<a href="#cite_note-6Qqwa-129">[128]</a> 2018 saw <a href="/wiki/ChromeOS" title="ChromeOS">ChromeOS</a> move to building kernels with <a href="/wiki/Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a> by default,<a href="#cite_note-G7ATP-130">[129]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> made <a href="/wiki/Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a><a href="#cite_note-Rc53w-131">[130]</a> and <a href="/wiki/LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a>'s linker LLD<a href="#cite_note-VI8HH-132">[131]</a> required for kernel builds in 2019. <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> moved its production kernel used throughout its datacenters to being built with <a href="/wiki/Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a> in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-1XmKl-133">[132]</a> Today, the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clangbuiltlinux.github.io/">ClangBuiltLinux</a> group coordinates fixes to both <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> and <a href="/wiki/LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> to ensure compatibility, both composed of members from LLVMLinux and having upstreamed patches from LLVMLinux. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debugging">Debugging</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Debugging">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/KGDB" title="KGDB">KGDB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kernel_panic" title="Kernel panic">Kernel panic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_oops" title="Linux kernel oops">Linux kernel oops</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kernel-panic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kernel-panic.jpg/220px-Kernel-panic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kernel-panic.jpg/330px-Kernel-panic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kernel-panic.jpg/440px-Kernel-panic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1706" /></a><figcaption>Linux kernel panic output</figcaption></figure> As with any software, problems with the Linux kernel can be difficult to <a href="/wiki/Troubleshoot" class="mw-redirect" title="Troubleshoot">troubleshoot</a>. Common challenges relate to userspace vs. kernel space access, misuse of synchronization primitives, and incorrect hardware management.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 364  An <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_oops" title="Linux kernel oops">oops</a> is a non-fatal error in the kernel. After such an error, operations continue with suspect reliability.<a href="#cite_note-z2qVY-134">[133]</a> A panic (generated by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><a href="/wiki/Kernel_panic" title="Kernel panic">panic()</a>) is a fatal error. After such an error, the kernel prints a message and halts the computer.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 371  The kernel provides for debugging by printing via <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><a href="/wiki/Printk" title="Printk">printk</a>() which stores messages in a circular buffer (overwriting older entries with newer). The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />syslog(2) system call provides for reading and clearing the message buffer and for setting the maximum log level of the messages to be sent to the console.<a href="#cite_note-a2s1L-135">[134]</a> Kernel messages are also exported to userland through the /dev/kmsg interface.<a href="#cite_note-2qZWO-136">[135]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ftrace" title="Ftrace">ftrace</a> mechanism allow for debugging by tracing. It is used for monitoring and debugging Linux at runtime and it can analyze user space latencies due to kernel misbehavior.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zi5c2-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-l6A6o-139">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-smtxG-140">[139]</a> Furthermore, ftrace allows users to trace Linux at boot-time.<a href="#cite_note-LM95V-141">[140]</a> kprobes and kretprobes can break into kernel execution (like debuggers in userspace) and collect information non-disruptively.<a href="#cite_note-cvH1K-142">[141]</a> kprobes can be inserted into code at (almost) any address, while kretprobes work at function return. uprobes have similar purposes but they also have some differences in usage and implementation.<a href="#cite_note-RQ9e7-143">[142]</a> With <a href="/wiki/KGDB" title="KGDB">KGDB</a> Linux can be debugged in much the same way as userspace programs. KGDB requires an additional machine that runs <a href="/wiki/GNU_Debugger#Remote_debugging" title="GNU Debugger">GDB</a> and that is connected to the target to be debugged using a <a href="/wiki/Serial_cable" title="Serial cable">serial cable</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6e5gH-144">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Change_process">Change process</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Change process">edit</a>]</div> The Linux kernel project integrates new code on a rolling basis. Standard operating procedure is that software checked into the project must work and <a href="/wiki/Compiling" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiling">compile</a> without error. Each kernel subsystem is assigned a maintainer who is responsible for reviewing patches against the kernel code standards and keeping a queue of patches that can be submitted to Torvalds within a merge window that is usually several weeks. Patches are merged by Torvalds into the source code of the prior stable Linux kernel release, creating the release candidate (-rc) for the next stable release. Once the merge window is closed, only fixes to the new code in the development release are accepted. The -rc development release of the kernel goes through <a href="/wiki/Regression_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Regression tests">regression testing</a> and once it is considered stable by Torvalds and the subsystem maintainers, a new version is released and the development process starts over again.<a href="#cite_note-0v6Bk-145">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainline_Linux">Mainline Linux</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mainline Linux">edit</a>]</div> The Git tree that contains the Linux kernel source code is referred to as mainline Linux. Every stable kernel release originates from the mainline tree,<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> and is frequently published on <a href="/wiki/Kernel.org" title="Kernel.org">kernel.org</a>. Mainline Linux has only solid support for a small subset of the many devices that run Linux. Non-mainline support is provided by independent projects, such as <a href="/wiki/Yocto_Project" title="Yocto Project">Yocto</a> or <a href="/wiki/Linaro" title="Linaro">Linaro</a>, but in many cases the kernel from the device vendor is needed.<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> Using a vendor kernel likely requires a <a href="/wiki/Board_support_package" title="Board support package">board support package</a>. Maintaining a kernel tree outside of mainline Linux has proven to be difficult.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a> Mainlining refers to the effort of adding support for a device to the mainline kernel,<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> while there was formerly only support in a fork or no support at all. This usually includes adding drivers or <a href="/wiki/Device_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Device tree">device tree</a> files. When this is finished, the feature or security fix is considered mainlined.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linux-like_kernel">Linux-like kernel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Linux-like kernel">edit</a>]</div> The maintainer of the stable branch, <a href="/wiki/Greg_Kroah-Hartman" title="Greg Kroah-Hartman">Greg Kroah-Hartman</a>, has applied the term Linux-like to <a href="/wiki/Downstream_(software_development)" title="Downstream (software development)">downstream</a> kernel forks by vendors that add millions of lines of code to the mainline kernel.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> In 2019, <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> stated that it wanted to use the mainline Linux kernel in <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> so the number of kernel forks would be reduced.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> The term Linux-like has also been applied to the <a href="/wiki/Embeddable_Linux_Kernel_Subset" title="Embeddable Linux Kernel Subset">Embeddable Linux Kernel Subset</a>, which does not include the full mainline Linux kernel but a small modified subset of the code.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linux_forks">Linux forks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Linux forks">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ipod_linux_booting_kernel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Ipod_linux_booting_kernel.jpg/250px-Ipod_linux_booting_kernel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Ipod_linux_booting_kernel.jpg/330px-Ipod_linux_booting_kernel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Ipod_linux_booting_kernel.jpg/500px-Ipod_linux_booting_kernel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/IPod" title="IPod">iPod</a> booting <a href="/wiki/IPodLinux" title="IPodLinux">iPodLinux</a> </figcaption></figure> There are certain communities that develop kernels based on the official Linux. Some interesting bits of code from these <a href="/wiki/Fork_(software_development)" title="Fork (software development)">forks</a> that include <a href="/wiki/Linux-libre" title="Linux-libre">Linux-libre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compute_Node_Linux" title="Compute Node Linux">Compute Node Linux</a>, <a href="/wiki/INK_(operating_system)" title="INK (operating system)">INK</a>, <a href="/wiki/L4Linux" title="L4Linux">L4Linux</a>, <a href="/wiki/RTLinux" title="RTLinux">RTLinux</a>, and <a href="/wiki/User-mode_Linux" title="User-mode Linux">User-Mode Linux</a> (UML) have been merged into the mainline.<a href="#cite_note-jhbmr-154">[153]</a> Some operating systems developed for mobile phones initially used heavily modified versions of Linux, including Google <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firefox_OS" title="Firefox OS">Firefox OS</a>, HP <a href="/wiki/WebOS" title="WebOS">webOS</a>, Nokia <a href="/wiki/Maemo" title="Maemo">Maemo</a> and Jolla <a href="/wiki/Sailfish_OS" title="Sailfish OS">Sailfish OS</a>. In 2010, the Linux community criticised Google for effectively starting its own kernel tree:<a href="#cite_note-CFIB9-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-s6out-156">[155]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">This means that any drivers written for Android hardware platforms, can not get merged into the main kernel tree because they have dependencies on code that only lives in Google's kernel tree, causing it to fail to build in the kernel.org tree. Because of this, Google has now prevented a large chunk of hardware drivers and platform code from ever getting merged into the main kernel tree. Effectively creating a kernel branch that a number of different vendors are now relying on.<a href="#cite_note-psD9l-157">[156]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Greg_Kroah-Hartman" title="Greg Kroah-Hartman">Greg Kroah-Hartman</a>, 2010</cite></div></blockquote> Today Android uses a customized Linux<a href="#cite_note-Roger_Ye_2017_14-158">[157]</a> where major changes are implemented in device drivers, but some changes to the core kernel code is required. Android developers also submit patches to the official Linux that finally can boot the Android operating system. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Nexus_7" title="Nexus 7">Nexus 7</a> can boot and run the mainline Linux.<a href="#cite_note-Roger_Ye_2017_14-158">[157]</a> At a 2001 presentation at the <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a>, Torvalds had this to say in response to a question about distributions of Linux using precisely the same kernel sources or not: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">They're not... well they are, and they're not. There is no single kernel. Every single distribution has their own changes. That's been going on since pretty much day one. I don't know if you may remember Yggdrasil was known for having quite extreme changes to the kernel and even today all of the major vendors have their own tweaks because they have some portion of the market they're interested in and quite frankly that's how it should be. Because if everybody expects one person, me, to be able to track everything that's not the point of GPL. That's not the point of having an open system. So actually the fact that a distribution decides that something is so important to them that they will add patches for even when it's not in the standard kernel, that's a really good sign for me. So that's for example how something like ReiserFS got added. And the reason why ReiserFS is the first journaling filesystem that was integrated in the standard kernel was not because I love Hans Reiser. It was because SUSE actually started shipping with ReiserFS as their standard kernel, which told me "ok." This is actually in production use. Normal People are doing this. They must know something I don't know. So in a very real sense what a lot of distribution houses do, they are part of this "let's make our own branch" and "let's make our changes to this." And because of the GPL, I can take the best portions of them.<a href="#cite_note-rFl9d-159">[158]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a>, 2001</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_support">Long-term support</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Long-term support">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linux-x86-under-qemu.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Linux-x86-under-qemu.png/330px-Linux-x86-under-qemu.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Linux-x86-under-qemu.png/500px-Linux-x86-under-qemu.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Linux-x86-under-qemu.png 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="377" /></a><figcaption>Boot messages of a Linux kernel 2.6.25.17</figcaption></figure> The latest version and older versions are maintained separately. Most of the latest kernel releases were supervised by Torvalds.<a href="#cite_note-MAINTAINERS-160">[159]</a> The Linux kernel developer community maintains a stable kernel by applying fixes for <a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">software bugs</a> that have been discovered during the development of the subsequent stable kernel. Therefore, www.kernel.org always lists two stable kernels. The next stable Linux kernel is released about 8 to 12 weeks later. Some releases are <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_version_history" title="Linux kernel version history">designated</a> for <a href="/wiki/Long-term_support" title="Long-term support">long-term support</a> as longterm with bug fix releases for two or more years.<a href="#cite_note-A6uRz-161">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size">Size</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Size">edit</a>]</div> Some projects have attempted to reduce the size of the Linux kernel. One of them is <a href="/wiki/TinyLinux" title="TinyLinux">TinyLinux</a>. In 2014, Josh Triplett started the -tiny source tree for a reduced size version.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture_and_features">Architecture and features</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Architecture and features">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vmlinux" title="Vmlinux">vmlinux</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linux_kernel_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Linux_kernel_map.png/290px-Linux_kernel_map.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Linux_kernel_map.png/435px-Linux_kernel_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Linux_kernel_map.png/580px-Linux_kernel_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Linux kernel</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sankey_Diagram_of_Linux_Kernel_Source_Lines_of_Code.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sankey_Diagram_of_Linux_Kernel_Source_Lines_of_Code.jpg/250px-Sankey_Diagram_of_Linux_Kernel_Source_Lines_of_Code.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sankey_Diagram_of_Linux_Kernel_Source_Lines_of_Code.jpg/330px-Sankey_Diagram_of_Linux_Kernel_Source_Lines_of_Code.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sankey_Diagram_of_Linux_Kernel_Source_Lines_of_Code.jpg/500px-Sankey_Diagram_of_Linux_Kernel_Source_Lines_of_Code.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2093" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sankey_diagram" title="Sankey diagram">Sankey diagram</a> of Linux Kernel Source Lines of Code</figcaption></figure> Even though seemingly contradictory, the Linux kernel is both monolithic and modular. The kernel is classified as a <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">monolithic kernel</a> architecturally since the entire OS runs in kernel space. The design is modular since it can be assembled from <a href="/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">modules</a> that in some cases are loaded and unloaded at runtime.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 338 <a href="#cite_note-hS5tR-166">[165]</a> It supports features once only available in closed source kernels of non-free operating systems. The rest of the article makes use of the UNIX and Unix-like operating systems convention of the <a href="/wiki/Man_page" title="Man page">manual pages</a>. The number that follows the name of a command, interface, or other feature specifies the section (i.e. the type of the OS' component or feature) it belongs to. For example <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />execve(2) refers to a system call, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />exec(3) refers to a userspace library wrapper. The following is an overview of architectural design and of noteworthy features. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a> and (with the availability of enough CPU cores for tasks that are ready to run) even <a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">true parallel execution</a> of many <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">processes</a> at once (each of them having one or more <a href="/wiki/Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">threads of execution</a>) on <a href="/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing" title="Symmetric multiprocessing">SMP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-uniform_memory_access" title="Non-uniform memory access">NUMA</a> architectures.</li> <li>Selection and configuration of hundreds of kernel features and drivers (using one of the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />make *config family of commands before building),<a href="#cite_note-:12-167">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-31">[30]</a> modification of kernel parameters before <a href="/wiki/Linux_boot" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux boot">boot</a> (usually by inserting instructions into the lines of the <a href="/wiki/Grub2" class="mw-redirect" title="Grub2">GRUB2</a> menu), and fine tuning of kernel behavior at run-time (using the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />sysctl(8) interface to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />/proc/sys/).<a href="#cite_note-:13-168">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-170">[169]</a></li> <li>Configuration (again using the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />make *config commands) and run-time modifications of the policies<a href="#cite_note-erfu2-171">[170]</a> (via <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />nice(2), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />setpriority(2), and the family of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />sched_*(2) syscalls) of the <a href="/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)" title="Scheduling (computing)">task schedulers</a> that allow <a href="/wiki/Preemptive_multitasking" class="mw-redirect" title="Preemptive multitasking">preemptive multitasking</a> (both in <a href="/wiki/User_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="User mode">user mode</a> and, since the 2.6 series, in <a href="/wiki/Kernel_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Kernel mode">kernel mode</a><a href="#cite_note-TaqW6-172">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-lwn-22912-173">[172]</a>); the <a href="/wiki/Earliest_eligible_virtual_deadline_first_scheduling" title="Earliest eligible virtual deadline first scheduling">earliest eligible virtual deadline first scheduling</a> (EEVDF) scheduler,<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> is the default scheduler of Linux since 2023 and it uses a <a href="/wiki/Red%E2%80%93black_tree" title="Red–black tree">red-black tree</a> which can search, insert and delete process information (<a href="/wiki/Task_struct" class="mw-redirect" title="Task struct">task struct</a>) with <a href="/wiki/Big_O_notation" title="Big O notation">O(log n)</a> <a href="/wiki/Time_complexity" title="Time complexity">time complexity</a>, where n is the number of runnable tasks.<a href="#cite_note-:5-175">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-URgZz-176">[175]</a></li> <li>Advanced <a href="/wiki/Memory_management" title="Memory management">memory management</a> with <a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">paged virtual memory</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-process_communication" title="Inter-process communication">Inter-process communications</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synchronization_(computer_science)" title="Synchronization (computer science)">synchronization</a> mechanism.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">virtual filesystem</a> on top of several concrete filesystems (<a href="/wiki/Ext4" title="Ext4">ext4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Btrfs" title="Btrfs">Btrfs</a>, <a href="/wiki/XFS" title="XFS">XFS</a>, <a href="/wiki/JFS_(file_system)" title="JFS (file system)">JFS</a>, <a href="/wiki/File_Allocation_Table" title="File Allocation Table">FAT32</a>, and many more).</li> <li>Configurable I/O schedulers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />ioctl(2)<a href="#cite_note-9FO10-177">[176]</a> syscall that manipulates the underlying device parameters of special files (it is a non standard system call, since arguments, returns, and semantics depends on the device driver in question), support for POSIX asynchronous I/O<a href="#cite_note-qp47b-178">[177]</a> (however, because they scale poorly with multithreaded applications, a family of Linux specific I/O system calls (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />io_*(2)<a href="#cite_note-Y4P9J-179">[178]</a>) had to be created for the management of asynchronous I/O contexts suitable for concurrent processing).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OS-level_virtualization" title="OS-level virtualization">OS-level virtualization</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Linux-VServer" title="Linux-VServer">Linux-VServer</a>), <a href="/wiki/Paravirtualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Paravirtualization">paravirtualization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hardware-assisted_virtualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardware-assisted virtualization">hardware-assisted virtualization</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Kernel-based_Virtual_Machine" title="Kernel-based Virtual Machine">KVM</a> or <a href="/wiki/Xen" title="Xen">Xen</a>, and using <a href="/wiki/QEMU" title="QEMU">QEMU</a> for hardware emulation);<a href="#cite_note-bn0PK-180">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-XJFnS-181">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-XTTHB-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-nE2IA-183">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-RUx2A-184">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-sPn6b-185">[184]</a> On the Xen <a href="/wiki/Hypervisor" title="Hypervisor">hypervisor</a>, the Linux kernel provides support to build Linux distributions (such as openSUSE Leap and many others) that work as Dom0, that are virtual machine host servers that provide the management environment for the user's virtual machines (DomU).<a href="#cite_note-W3Q0w-186">[185]</a></li> <li>I/O Virtualization with <a href="/wiki/VFIO" class="mw-redirect" title="VFIO">VFIO</a> and <a href="/wiki/SR-IOV" class="mw-redirect" title="SR-IOV">SR-IOV</a>. Virtual Function I/O (VFIO) exposes direct device access to user space in a secure memory (IOMMU) protected environment. With VFIO, a VM Guest can directly access hardware devices on the VM Host Server. This technique improves performance, if compared both to Full virtualization and Paravirtualization. However, with VFIO, devices cannot be shared with multiple VM guests. Single Root I/O Virtualization (SR-IOV) combines the performance gains of VFIO and the ability to share a device with several VM Guests (but it requires special hardware that must be capable to appear to two or more VM guests as different devices).<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a></li> <li>Security mechanisms for <a href="/wiki/Discretionary_access_control" title="Discretionary access control">discretionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_access_control" title="Mandatory access control">mandatory access control</a> (SELinux, AppArmor, POSIX <a href="/wiki/Access-control_list" title="Access-control list">ACLs</a>, and others).<a href="#cite_note-:3-188">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-189">[188]</a></li> <li>Several types of layered <a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">communication protocols</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_multiprocessing" title="Asymmetric multiprocessing">Asymmetric multiprocessing</a> via the <a href="/wiki/RPMsg" title="RPMsg">RPMsg</a> subsystem.</li></ul> Most <a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">device drivers</a> and kernel extensions run in <a href="/wiki/Kernel_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Kernel space">kernel space</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ring_(computer_security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ring (computer security)">ring 0</a> in many <a href="/wiki/CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPU</a> <a href="/wiki/CPU_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU architecture">architectures</a>), with full access to the hardware. Some exceptions run in <a href="/wiki/User_space" class="mw-redirect" title="User space">user space</a>; notable examples are filesystems based on <a href="/wiki/Filesystem_in_Userspace" title="Filesystem in Userspace">FUSE</a>/CUSE, and parts of UIO.<a href="#cite_note-26Lbl-190">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-glzLY-191">[190]</a> Furthermore, the <a href="/wiki/X_Window_System" title="X Window System">X Window System</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wayland_(display_server_protocol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayland (display server protocol)">Wayland</a>, the windowing system and display server protocols that most people use with Linux, do not run within the kernel. Differently, the actual interfacing with <a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">GPUs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">graphics cards</a> is an in-kernel subsystem called <a href="/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Manager" title="Direct Rendering Manager">Direct Rendering Manager</a> (DRM). Unlike standard monolithic kernels, device drivers are easily configured as <a href="/wiki/Module_(Linux)" class="mw-redirect" title="Module (Linux)">modules</a>, and loaded or unloaded while the system is running and can also be pre-empted under certain conditions in order to handle <a href="/wiki/Hardware_interrupt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardware interrupt">hardware interrupts</a> correctly and to better support <a href="/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing" title="Symmetric multiprocessing">symmetric multiprocessing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lwn-22912-173">[172]</a> By choice, Linux has no stable device driver <a href="/wiki/Application_binary_interface" title="Application binary interface">application binary interface</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stable-api-nonsense2-192">[191]</a> Linux typically makes use of <a href="/wiki/Memory_protection" title="Memory protection">memory protection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">virtual memory</a> and can also handle <a href="/wiki/Non-uniform_memory_access" title="Non-uniform memory access">non-uniform memory access</a>,<a href="#cite_note-qKe5b-193">[192]</a> however the project has absorbed <a href="/wiki/%CE%9CClinux" title="ΜClinux">μClinux</a> which also makes it possible to run Linux on <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontrollers</a> without virtual memory.<a href="#cite_note-xWtQ7-194">[193]</a> The hardware is represented in the file hierarchy. User applications interact with device drivers via entries in the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><a href="/wiki/Devfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Devfs">/dev</a> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><a href="/wiki//sys" class="mw-redirect" title="/sys">/sys</a> directories.<a href="#cite_note-tldp_file-195">[194]</a> Process information is mapped into the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><a href="/wiki/Procfs" title="Procfs">/proc</a> directory.<a href="#cite_note-tldp_file-195">[194]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1245122290">.mw-parser-output .linux-layers{border:none;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-sys{background-color:#def;color:#202122}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-other{background-color:#fffdd0;color:#202122}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-cstd{background-color:#dfd;color:#202122}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-kernel{background-color:#ffb7b7;color:#202122}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-hw{background-color:#ffd99c;color:#202122}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .linux-layers{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;width:75%}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-width10{width:10%}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-width15{width:15%}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-width30{width:30%}.mw-parser-output .linux-layers-width80{width:80%}}</style> <table class="wikitable linux-layers"> <caption>Various layers within Linux, also showing separation between the <a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">userland</a> and <a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">kernel space</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="3" class="linux-layers-width10">User mode </th> <td class="linux-layers-width10">User applications </td> <td colspan="5" class="linux-layers-width80"><a href="/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)" title="Bash (Unix shell)">bash</a>, <a href="/wiki/LibreOffice" title="LibreOffice">LibreOffice</a>, <a href="/wiki/GIMP" title="GIMP">GIMP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blender_(software)" title="Blender (software)">Blender</a>, <a href="/wiki/0_A.D._(video_game)" title="0 A.D. (video game)">0 A.D.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firefox" title="Firefox">Mozilla Firefox</a>, ... </td></tr> <tr> <td>System components </td> <td class="linux-layers-width15 linux-layers-sys"><a href="/wiki/Init" title="Init">init daemon</a>: <a href="/wiki/OpenRC" title="OpenRC">OpenRC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Runit" title="Runit">runit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systemd" title="Systemd">systemd</a>... </td> <td class="linux-layers-width15 linux-layers-sys"><a href="/wiki/Daemon_(computing)" title="Daemon (computing)">System daemons</a>: <a href="/wiki/Polkit" title="Polkit">polkitd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samba_(software)" title="Samba (software)">smbd</a>, <a href="/wiki/OpenSSH" title="OpenSSH">sshd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Udevd" class="mw-redirect" title="Udevd">udevd</a>... </td> <td class="linux-layers-width15 linux-layers-sys"><a href="/wiki/Windowing_system" title="Windowing system">Windowing system</a>: <a href="/wiki/X_Window_System" title="X Window System">X11</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wayland_(protocol)" title="Wayland (protocol)">Wayland</a>, <a href="/wiki/SurfaceFlinger" class="mw-redirect" title="SurfaceFlinger">SurfaceFlinger</a> (Android) </td> <td class="linux-layers-width15 linux-layers-sys">Graphics: <a href="/wiki/Mesa_(computer_graphics)" title="Mesa (computer graphics)">Mesa</a>, <a href="/wiki/AMD_Radeon_Software" class="mw-redirect" title="AMD Radeon Software">AMD Catalyst</a>, ... </td> <td class="linux-layers-width30 linux-layers-other">Other libraries: <a href="/wiki/GTK" title="GTK">GTK</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qt_(software)" title="Qt (software)">Qt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_Foundation_Libraries" title="Enlightenment Foundation Libraries">EFL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simple_DirectMedia_Layer" title="Simple DirectMedia Layer">SDL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simple_and_Fast_Multimedia_Library" title="Simple and Fast Multimedia Library">SFML</a>, <a href="/wiki/FLTK" title="FLTK">FLTK</a>, <a href="/wiki/GNUstep" title="GNUstep">GNUstep</a>, ... </td></tr> <tr class="linux-layers-cstd"> <td><a href="/wiki/C_standard_library" title="C standard library">C standard library</a> </td> <td colspan="5"><code><a href="/wiki/Fopen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fopen">fopen</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Exec_(system_call)" title="Exec (system call)">execv</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Malloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Malloc">malloc</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Memcpy" class="mw-redirect" title="Memcpy">memcpy</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Localtime" class="mw-redirect" title="Localtime">localtime</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Pthread_create" class="mw-redirect" title="Pthread create">pthread_create</a></code>... (up to 2000 <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">subroutines</a>) <a href="/wiki/Glibc" title="Glibc">glibc</a> aims to be fast, <a href="/wiki/Musl" title="Musl">musl</a> aims to be lightweight, <a href="/wiki/UClibc" title="UClibc">uClibc</a> targets embedded systems, <a href="/wiki/Bionic_(software)" title="Bionic (software)">bionic</a> was written for <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a>, etc. All aim to be <a href="/wiki/POSIX" title="POSIX">POSIX</a>/<a href="/wiki/Single_UNIX_Specification" title="Single UNIX Specification">SUS</a>-compatible. </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="rowgroup" rowspan="3">Kernel mode </th> <td rowspan="3"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linux kernel</a> </td> <td colspan="5" class="linux-layers-kernel"><code><a href="/wiki/Stat_(system_call)" title="Stat (system call)">stat</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Splice_(system_call)" title="Splice (system call)">splice</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Dup_(system_call)" title="Dup (system call)">dup</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Read_(system_call)" title="Read (system call)">read</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Open_(system_call)" title="Open (system call)">open</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Ioctl" title="Ioctl">ioctl</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Write_(system_call)" title="Write (system call)">write</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Mmap" title="Mmap">mmap</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Close_(system_call)" title="Close (system call)">close</a></code>, <code><a href="/wiki/Exit_(system_call)" title="Exit (system call)">exit</a></code>, etc. (about 380 system calls) The Linux kernel <a href="/wiki/System_call" title="System call">System Call Interface</a> (SCI), aims to be <a href="/wiki/POSIX" title="POSIX">POSIX</a>/<a href="/wiki/Single_UNIX_Specification" title="Single UNIX Specification">SUS</a>-compatible<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a> </td></tr> <tr class="linux-layers-kernel"> <td><a href="/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)" title="Scheduling (computing)">Process scheduling</a> subsystem </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Inter-process_communication" title="Inter-process communication">IPC</a> subsystem </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Memory_management" title="Memory management">Memory management</a> subsystem </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">Virtual files</a> subsystem </td> <td>Networking subsystem </td></tr> <tr class="linux-layers-kernel"> <td colspan="5">Other components: <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Linux_Sound_Architecture" title="Advanced Linux Sound Architecture">ALSA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Infrastructure" title="Direct Rendering Infrastructure">DRI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evdev" title="Evdev">evdev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Klibc" title="Klibc">klibc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logical_Volume_Manager_(Linux)" title="Logical Volume Manager (Linux)">LVM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Device_mapper" title="Device mapper">device mapper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linux_Network_Scheduler" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux Network Scheduler">Linux Network Scheduler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netfilter" title="Netfilter">Netfilter</a> <a href="/wiki/Linux_Security_Modules" title="Linux Security Modules">Linux Security Modules</a>: <a href="/wiki/Security-Enhanced_Linux" title="Security-Enhanced Linux">SELinux</a>, <a href="/wiki/TOMOYO_Linux" class="mw-redirect" title="TOMOYO Linux">TOMOYO</a>, <a href="/wiki/AppArmor" title="AppArmor">AppArmor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smack_(Linux_security_module)" class="mw-redirect" title="Smack (Linux security module)">Smack</a> </td></tr> <tr class="linux-layers-hw"> <th colspan="7" scope="row">Hardware (<a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a>, <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">main memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">data storage devices</a>, etc.) </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interfaces">Interfaces</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Interfaces">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main pages: <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_interfaces" title="Linux kernel interfaces">Linux kernel interfaces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Interfaces_of_the_Linux_kernel" title="Category:Interfaces of the Linux kernel">Interfaces of the Linux kernel (Category)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/System_call" title="System call">System call</a>, <a href="/wiki/POSIX" title="POSIX">POSIX</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Single_UNIX_Specification" title="Single UNIX Specification">Single UNIX Specification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linux_kernel_interfaces.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Linux_kernel_interfaces.svg/330px-Linux_kernel_interfaces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Linux_kernel_interfaces.svg/500px-Linux_kernel_interfaces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Linux_kernel_interfaces.svg/960px-Linux_kernel_interfaces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>Four interfaces are distinguished: two internal to the kernel, and two between the kernel and userspace.</figcaption></figure> Linux started as a clone of UNIX, and aims toward <a href="/wiki/POSIX" title="POSIX">POSIX</a> and <a href="/wiki/Single_UNIX_Specification" title="Single UNIX Specification">Single UNIX Specification</a> compliance.<a href="#cite_note-tXF6O-197">[196]</a> The kernel provides system calls and other interfaces that are Linux-specific. In order to be included in the official kernel, the code must comply with a set of licensing rules.<a href="#cite_note-COPYING_File-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Linux_Licensing-9">[9]</a> The Linux <a href="/wiki/Application_binary_interface" title="Application binary interface">application binary interface</a> (ABI) between the kernel and the user space has four degrees of stability (stable, testing, obsolete, removed);<a href="#cite_note-4Rtud-198">[197]</a> The <a href="/wiki/System_call" title="System call">system calls</a> are expected to never change in order to preserve <a href="/wiki/Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">compatibility</a> for <a href="/wiki/Userspace" class="mw-redirect" title="Userspace">userspace</a> programs that rely on them.<a href="#cite_note-BNYzD-199">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">Loadable kernel modules</a> (LKMs), by design, cannot rely on a stable ABI.<a href="#cite_note-stable-api-nonsense2-192">[191]</a> Therefore, they must always be recompiled whenever a new kernel executable is installed in a system, otherwise they will not be loaded. In-tree drivers that are configured to become an integral part of the kernel executable (<a href="/wiki/Vmlinux" title="Vmlinux">vmlinux</a>) are statically linked by the build process. There is no guarantee of stability of source-level in-kernel API<a href="#cite_note-stable-api-nonsense2-192">[191]</a> and, because of this, <a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">device driver</a> code, as well as the code of any other kernel subsystem, must be kept updated with kernel evolution. Any developer who makes an API change is required to fix any code that breaks as the result of their change.<a href="#cite_note-:9-200">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kernel-to-userspace_API">Kernel-to-userspace API</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Kernel-to-userspace API">edit</a>]</div> The set of the <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_API" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux kernel API">Linux kernel API</a> that regards the interfaces exposed to user applications is fundamentally composed of UNIX and Linux-specific <a href="/wiki/System_call" title="System call">system calls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-201">[200]</a> A system call is an entry point into the Linux kernel.<a href="#cite_note-IeXpN-202">[201]</a> For example, among the Linux-specific ones there is the family of the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><a href="/wiki/Clone_(Linux_system_call)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clone (Linux system call)">clone(2)</a> system calls.<a href="#cite_note-IHsye-203">[202]</a> Most extensions must be enabled by defining the <code>_GNU_SOURCE</code> <a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Header_files" class="mw-redirect" title="Header files">header file</a> or when the user-land code is being compiled.<a href="#cite_note-si1va-204">[203]</a> System calls can only be invoked via assembly instructions that enable the transition from unprivileged user space to privileged kernel space in <a href="/wiki/Ring_0_(computer_security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ring 0 (computer security)">ring 0</a>. For this reason, the <a href="/wiki/C_standard_library" title="C standard library">C standard library</a> (libC) acts as a wrapper to most Linux system calls, by exposing C functions that, if needed,<a href="#cite_note-c0kGr-205">[204]</a> transparently enter the kernel which will execute on behalf of the calling process.<a href="#cite_note-:1-201">[200]</a> For system calls not exposed by libC, such as the <a href="/wiki/Futex" title="Futex">fast userspace mutex</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-206">[205]</a> the library provides a function called <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />syscall(2) which can be used to explicitly invoke them.<a href="#cite_note-Of0EM-207">[206]</a> <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_file_system" title="Synthetic file system">Pseudo filesystems</a> (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Sysfs" title="Sysfs">sysfs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Procfs" title="Procfs">procfs</a> filesystems) and <a href="/wiki/Special_file" class="mw-redirect" title="Special file">special files</a> (e.g., <code>/dev/random</code>, <code>/dev/sda</code>, <code>/dev/tty</code>, and many others) constitute another layer of interface to kernel data structures representing hardware or logical (software) devices.<a href="#cite_note-Xk0xu-208">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-ZQvvs-209">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kernel-to-userspace_ABI">Kernel-to-userspace ABI</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Kernel-to-userspace ABI">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Linux_Standard_Base" title="Linux Standard Base">Linux Standard Base</a></div>Because of the differences existing between the hundreds of various implementations of the Linux OS, executable objects, even though they are compiled, assembled, and linked for running on a specific hardware architecture (that is, they use the <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">ISA</a> of the target hardware), often cannot run on different Linux distributions. This issue is mainly due to distribution-specific configurations and a set of patches applied to the code of the Linux kernel, differences in system libraries, services (daemons), filesystem hierarchies, and environment variables. The main standard concerning application and binary compatibility of Linux distributions is the <a href="/wiki/Linux_Standard_Base" title="Linux Standard Base">Linux Standard Base</a> (LSB).<a href="#cite_note-K8v7f-210">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-xXTn9-211">[210]</a> However, the LSB goes beyond what concerns the Linux kernel, because it also defines the desktop specifications, the X libraries and Qt that have little to do with it.<a href="#cite_note-b18aw-212">[211]</a> The LSB version 5 is built upon several standards and drafts (POSIX, SUS, X/Open, <a href="/wiki/Filesystem_Hierarchy_Standard" title="Filesystem Hierarchy Standard">File System Hierarchy</a> (FHS), and others).<a href="#cite_note-OXb0O-213">[212]</a> The parts of the LSB more relevant to the kernel are the General ABI (gABI),<a href="#cite_note-BvU35-214">[213]</a> especially the <a href="/wiki/System_V_Interface_Definition" title="System V Interface Definition">System V ABI</a><a href="#cite_note-LhnpZ-215">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-vftgf-216">[215]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format" title="Executable and Linkable Format">Executable and Linking Format</a> (ELF),<a href="#cite_note-qXIDV-217">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-ypxud-218">[217]</a> and the Processor Specific ABI (psABI), for example the Core Specification for X86-64.<a href="#cite_note-Ar6xD-219">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-eNx2d-220">[219]</a> The standard ABI for how x86_64 user programs invoke system calls is to load the syscall number into the rax register, and the other parameters into rdi, rsi, rdx, r10, r8, and r9, and finally to put the syscall assembly instruction in the code.<a href="#cite_note-VSMQS-221">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-eIbJy-222">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fa3aZ-223">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In-kernel_API">In-kernel API</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: In-kernel API">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linux_AMD_graphics_stack.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Linux_AMD_graphics_stack.svg/260px-Linux_AMD_graphics_stack.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Linux_AMD_graphics_stack.svg/390px-Linux_AMD_graphics_stack.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Linux_AMD_graphics_stack.svg/520px-Linux_AMD_graphics_stack.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>At XDC2014, Alex Deucher from AMD announced the unified kernel-mode driver.<a href="#cite_note-LRSSt-224">[223]</a> The proprietary Linux graphic driver, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><a href="/wiki/AMD_Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="AMD Catalyst">libGL-fglrx-glx</a>, will share the same <a href="/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Manager" title="Direct Rendering Manager">DRM</a> infrastructure with <a href="/wiki/Mesa_3D" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesa 3D">Mesa 3D</a>. As there is no stable in-kernel <a href="/wiki/Application_binary_interface" title="Application binary interface">ABI</a>, AMD had to constantly adapt the former <a href="/wiki/Binary_blob" title="Binary blob">binary blob</a> used by Catalyst.</figcaption></figure> There are several internal kernel APIs between kernel subsystems. Some are available only within the kernel subsystems, while a somewhat limited set of in-kernel symbols (i.e., variables, data structures, and functions) is exposed to dynamically loadable modules (e.g., device drivers loaded on demand) whether they're exported with the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />EXPORT_SYMBOL() and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL() macros<a href="#cite_note-:6-225">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-226">[225]</a> (the latter reserved to modules released under a GPL-compatible license).<a href="#cite_note-:8-227">[226]</a> Linux provides in-kernel APIs that manipulate data structures (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Linked_list" title="Linked list">linked lists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radix_tree" title="Radix tree">radix trees</a>,<a href="#cite_note-kHdQ8-228">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Red%E2%80%93black_tree" title="Red–black tree">red-black trees</a>,<a href="#cite_note-F2Fpg-229">[228]</a> <a href="/wiki/Queue_(abstract_data_type)" title="Queue (abstract data type)">queues</a>) or perform common routines (e.g., copy data from and to user space, allocate memory, print lines to the system log, and so on) that have remained stable at least since Linux version 2.6.<a href="#cite_note-yA682-230">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-HWCYl-231">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hjefj-232">[231]</a> In-kernel APIs include libraries of low-level common services used by device drivers: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SCSI" title="SCSI">SCSI</a> Interfaces and <a href="/wiki/LibATA" title="LibATA">libATA</a> – respectively, a peer-to-peer packet based communication protocol for storage devices attached to USB, SATA, SAS, Fibre Channel, FireWire, ATAPI device,<a href="#cite_note-6WQLB-233">[232]</a> and an in-kernel library to support [S]ATA host controllers and devices.<a href="#cite_note-qlKWp-234">[233]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Manager" title="Direct Rendering Manager">Direct Rendering Manager</a> (DRM) and <a href="/wiki/Kernel_Mode_Setting" class="mw-redirect" title="Kernel Mode Setting">Kernel Mode Setting</a> (KMS) – for interfacing with GPUs and supporting the needs of modern 3D-accelerated video hardware,<a href="#cite_note-Zd5bj-235">[234]</a> and for setting screen resolution, color depth and refresh rate<a href="#cite_note-RkbFE-236">[235]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_memory_access" title="Direct memory access">DMA</a> buffers (<a href="/wiki/DMA-BUF" class="mw-redirect" title="DMA-BUF">DMA-BUF</a>) – for sharing buffers for hardware direct memory access across multiple device drivers and subsystems<a href="#cite_note-Ux72p-237">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-H845T-238">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-w1T10-239">[238]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video4Linux" title="Video4Linux">Video4Linux</a> – for video capture hardware</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Linux_Sound_Architecture" title="Advanced Linux Sound Architecture">Advanced Linux Sound Architecture</a> (ALSA) – for sound cards</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_API" title="New API">New API</a> – for <a href="/wiki/Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">network interface controllers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac80211" class="mw-redirect" title="Mac80211">mac80211</a> and cfg80211 – for wireless network interface controllers<a href="#cite_note-za5ZK-240">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[240]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In-kernel_ABI">In-kernel ABI</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In-kernel ABI">edit</a>]</div> The Linux developers chose not to maintain a stable in-kernel ABI. Modules compiled for a specific version of the kernel cannot be loaded into another version without being recompiled.<a href="#cite_note-stable-api-nonsense2-192">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process_management">Process management</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Process management">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">Process (computing)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">Thread (computing)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process management (computing)</a></div> Linux, as other <a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)"> kernels</a>, has the ability to manage processes including creating, suspending, resuming and terminating. Unlike other operating systems, the Linux kernel implements processes as a group of threads called tasks. If two tasks share the same <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> TGID, then they are called in the kernel terminology a task group. Each task is represented by a task_struct <a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structure</a>. When a process is created it is assigned a globally unique identifier called PID and cannot be shared<a href="#cite_note-nRDb2-242">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-nefj4-243">[242]</a> A new process can be created by calling <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> clone<a href="#cite_note-JwCDQ-244">[243]</a> family of system calls or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> fork <a href="/wiki/System_call" title="System call">system call</a>. Processes can be suspended and resumed by the kernel by sending signals like <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> SIGSTOP and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> SIGCONT. A process can terminate it's self by calling <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> exit system call, or terminated by another process by sending signals like <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> SIGKILL,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> SIGABRT or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /> SIGINT. If the executable is dynamically linked to shared libraries, a <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_linker" title="Dynamic linker">dynamic linker</a> is used to find and load the needed objects, prepare the program to run and then run it.<a href="#cite_note-D1tjk-245">[244]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Native_POSIX_Thread_Library" title="Native POSIX Thread Library">Native POSIX Thread Library</a> (NPTL)<a href="#cite_note-dS4yu-246">[245]</a> provides the POSIX standard thread interface (pthreads) to userspace. The kernel isn't aware of processes nor threads but it is aware of tasks, thus threads are implemented in userspace. Threads in Linux are implemented as tasks sharing resources, while if they aren't sharing called to be independent processes. The kernel provides the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />futex(7) (fast user-space mutex) mechanisms for user-space locking and synchronization.<a href="#cite_note-dZykS-247">[246]</a> The majority of the operations are performed in userspace but it may be necessary to communicate with the kernel using the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />futex(2) system call.<a href="#cite_note-:0-206">[205]</a> As opposed to userspace threads described above, kernel threads run in kernel space.<a href="#cite_note-kOgyp-248">[247]</a> They are threads created by the kernel it's self for specialized tasks, they are privileged like kernel and aren't bond to any process or application. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scheduling">Scheduling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Scheduling">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Completely_Fair_Scheduler" title="Completely Fair Scheduler">Completely Fair Scheduler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earliest_eligible_virtual_deadline_first_scheduling" title="Earliest eligible virtual deadline first scheduling">Earliest eligible virtual deadline first scheduling</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)#Linux" title="Scheduling (computing)">Scheduling (computing) § Linux</a></div> The Linux <a href="/wiki/Process_scheduler" class="mw-redirect" title="Process scheduler">process scheduler</a> is modular, in the sense that it enables different scheduling classes and policies.<a href="#cite_note-moshe-249">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a> Scheduler classes are plugable scheduler algorithms that can be registered with the base scheduler code. Each class schedules different types of processes. The core code of the scheduler iterates over each class in order of priority and chooses the highest priority scheduler that has a schedulable entity of type struct sched_entity ready to run.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 46–47  Entities may be threads, group of threads, and even all the processes of a specific user. Linux provides both <a href="/wiki/Preemption_(computing)" title="Preemption (computing)">user preemption</a> as well as full <a href="/wiki/Kernel_preemption" title="Kernel preemption">kernel preemption</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 62–63  Preemption reduces <a href="/wiki/Latency_(engineering)" title="Latency (engineering)">latency</a>, increases responsiveness,<a href="#cite_note-VRxA1-251">[250]</a> and makes Linux more suitable for desktop and <a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">real-time</a> applications. For normal tasks, by default, the kernel uses the <a href="/wiki/Completely_Fair_Scheduler" title="Completely Fair Scheduler">Completely Fair Scheduler</a> (CFS) class, introduced in version 2.6.23.<a href="#cite_note-:5-175">[174]</a> The scheduler is defined as a macro in a C header as <code>SCHED_NORMAL</code>. In other POSIX kernels, a similar policy known as <code>SCHED_OTHER</code> allocates CPU timeslices (i.e, it assigns absolute slices of the processor time depending on either predetermined or dynamically computed priority of each process). The Linux CFS does away with absolute timeslices and assigns a fair proportion of CPU time, as a function of parameters like the total number of runnable processes and the time they have already run; this function also takes into account a kind of weight that depends on their relative priorities (nice values).<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 46–50  With user preemption, the kernel scheduler can replace the current process with the execution of a <a href="/wiki/Context_switch" title="Context switch">context switch</a> to a different one that therefore acquires the computing resources for running (CPU, memory, and more). It makes it according to the CFS algorithm (in particular, it uses a variable called <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />vruntime for sorting entities and then chooses the one that has the smaller vruntime, - i.e., the schedulable entity that has had the least share of CPU time), to the active scheduler policy and to the relative priorities.<a href="#cite_note-252">[251]</a> With kernel preemption, the kernel can preempt itself when an interrupt handler returns, when kernel tasks block, and whenever a subsystem explicitly calls the schedule() function. The kernel also contains two POSIX-compliant<a href="#cite_note-posix1b-253">[252]</a> real-time scheduling classes named <code><a href="/wiki/SCHED_FIFO" class="mw-redirect" title="SCHED FIFO">SCHED_FIFO</a></code> (realtime <a href="/wiki/FIFO_(computing_and_electronics)" title="FIFO (computing and electronics)">first-in-first-out</a>) and <code><a href="/wiki/SCHED_RR" class="mw-redirect" title="SCHED RR">SCHED_RR</a></code> (realtime <a href="/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling" title="Round-robin scheduling">round-robin</a>), both of which take precedence over the default class.<a href="#cite_note-moshe-249">[248]</a> An additional scheduling policy known as <code><a href="/wiki/SCHED_DEADLINE" title="SCHED DEADLINE">SCHED DEADLINE</a></code>, implementing the <a href="/wiki/Earliest_deadline_first_scheduling" title="Earliest deadline first scheduling">earliest deadline first algorithm</a> (EDF), was added in kernel version 3.14, released on 30 March 2014.<a href="#cite_note-l4mcR-254">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-4bHu1-255">[254]</a> <code>SCHED_DEADLINE</code> takes precedence over all the other scheduling classes. Real-time <code><a href="/wiki/PREEMPT_RT" title="PREEMPT RT">PREEMPT_RT</a></code> patches, included into the mainline Linux since version 2.6, provide a <a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system#Scheduling" title="Real-time operating system">deterministic scheduler</a>, the removal of preemption and interrupt disabling (where possible), PI Mutexes (i.e., locking primitives that avoid priority inversion),<a href="#cite_note-256">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[256]</a> support for <a href="/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timers" class="mw-redirect" title="High Precision Event Timers">High Precision Event Timers</a> (HPET), preemptive <a href="/wiki/Read-copy-update" title="Read-copy-update">read-copy-update</a> (RCU), (forced) IRQ threads, and other minor features.<a href="#cite_note-omdEo-258">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-88zv7-259">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-lfrtsr2-260">[259]</a> In 2023, Peter Zijlstra proposed replacing CFS with an <a href="/wiki/Earliest_eligible_virtual_deadline_first_scheduling" title="Earliest eligible virtual deadline first scheduling">earliest eligible virtual deadline first scheduling</a> (EEVDF) scheduler,<a href="#cite_note-261">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[261]</a> to prevent the need for CFS "latency nice" patches.<a href="#cite_note-263">[262]</a> The EEVDF scheduler replaced CFS in version 6.6 of the Linux kernel.<a href="#cite_note-264">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synchronization">Synchronization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Synchronization">edit</a>]</div> The kernel has different causes of concurrency (e.g., interrupts, bottom halves, preemption of kernel and users tasks, symmetrical multiprocessing).<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 167  For protecting critical regions (sections of code that must be executed atomically), shared memory locations (like <a href="/wiki/Global_variable" title="Global variable">global variables</a> and other data structures with global scope), and regions of memory that are asynchronously modifiable by hardware (e.g., having the C <a href="/wiki/Volatile_(computer_programming)" title="Volatile (computer programming)"><code>volatile</code></a> <a href="/wiki/Type_qualifier" title="Type qualifier">type qualifier</a>), Linux provides a large set of tools. They consist of <a href="/wiki/Linearizability" title="Linearizability">atomic types</a> (which can only be manipulated by a set of specific operators), <a href="/wiki/Spinlock" title="Spinlock">spinlocks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semaphore_(programming)" title="Semaphore (programming)">semaphores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutual_exclusion" title="Mutual exclusion">mutexes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-265">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 176–198 <a href="#cite_note-0w0IX-266">[265]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-blocking_algorithm" title="Non-blocking algorithm">lockless algorithms</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Read-copy-update" title="Read-copy-update">RCUs</a>).<a href="#cite_note-XK3oD-267">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-XErGf-268">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-bMkeA-269">[268]</a> Most lock-less algorithms are built on top of <a href="/wiki/Memory_barrier" title="Memory barrier">memory barriers</a> for the purpose of enforcing <a href="/wiki/Memory_ordering" title="Memory ordering">memory ordering</a> and prevent undesired side effects due to <a href="/wiki/Optimizing_compiler" title="Optimizing compiler">compiler optimization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-L9seK-270">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-SYavd-271">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-JZLZo-272">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-bl5AB-273">[272]</a> <code><a href="/wiki/PREEMPT_RT" title="PREEMPT RT">PREEMPT_RT</a></code> code included in mainline Linux provide RT-mutexes, a special kind of Mutex which do not disable preemption and have support for priority inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-274">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-locktypes-275">[274]</a> Almost all locks are changed into sleeping locks when using configuration for realtime operation.<a href="#cite_note-276">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-lfrtsr2-260">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-locktypes-275">[274]</a> <a href="/wiki/Priority_inheritance" title="Priority inheritance">Priority inheritance</a> avoids priority inversion by granting a low-priority task which holds a contended lock the priority of a higher-priority waiter until that lock is released.<a href="#cite_note-277">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[277]</a> Linux includes a kernel lock validator called Lockdep.<a href="#cite_note-279">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[279]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interrupts">Interrupts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Interrupts">edit</a>]</div> Although the management of <a href="/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt">interrupts</a> could be seen as a single job, it is divided into two. This split in two is due to the different time constraints and to the synchronization needs of the tasks whose the management is composed of. The first part is made up of an asynchronous <a href="/wiki/Interrupt_handler" title="Interrupt handler">interrupt service routine</a> that in Linux is known as the top half, while the second part is carried out by one of three types of the so-called bottom halves (softirq, tasklets, and work queues).<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 133–137  Linux interrupt service routines can be nested. A new IRQ can trap into a high priority ISR that preempts any other lower priority ISR. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory">Memory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Memory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Memory_management" title="Memory management">Memory management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></div> Linux kernel manages both physical and virtual memory. Kernel divides physical memory into zones,<a href="#cite_note-281">[280]</a> each zone has specific purpose. <ul><li>ZONE_DMA: this zone is suitable for <a href="/wiki/Direct_memory_access" title="Direct memory access"> DMA</a>.</li> <li>ZONE_NORMAL: for normal memory operations.</li> <li>ZONE_HIGHMEM: part of physical that is only accessible to kernel uisng temporary mapping.</li></ul> Those zones are most common others exist as the official documentation.<a href="#cite_note-282">[281]</a> And when it comes to virtual memory Linux implements <a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">virtual memory</a> with 4 or 5-level <a href="/wiki/Page_table" title="Page table">page tables</a>.<a href="#cite_note-283">[282]</a> The kernel is not <a href="/wiki/Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">pageable</a> (meaning it is always resident in physical memory and cannot be swapped to the disk) and there is no memory protection (no SIGSEGV signals, unlike in user space), therefore memory violations lead to instability and system crashes.<a href="#cite_note-LoveRobert2010-11">[10]</a>: 20  User memory is pageable by default, although paging for specific memory areas can be disabled with the <code>mlock()</code> <a href="/wiki/System_call" title="System call">system call</a> family. <a href="/wiki/Page_frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Page frame">Page frame</a> information is maintained in apposite data structures (of type <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" />struct page) that are populated immediately after boot and kept until shutdown, regardless of whether they are associated with virtual pages. The physical address space is divided into different zones, according to architectural constraints and intended use. NUMA systems with multiple memory banks are also supported.<a href="#cite_note-284">[283]</a> Small chunks of memory can be dynamically allocated in kernel space via the family of <code>kmalloc()</code> APIs and freed with the appropriate variant of <code>kfree()</code>. <code>vmalloc()</code> and <code>kvfree()</code> are used for large virtually contiguous chunks. <code>alloc_pages()</code> allocates the desired number of entire pages. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Linux_Storage_Stack_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Linux_Storage_Stack_Diagram.svg/290px-The_Linux_Storage_Stack_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="411" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Linux_Storage_Stack_Diagram.svg/435px-The_Linux_Storage_Stack_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Linux_Storage_Stack_Diagram.svg/580px-The_Linux_Storage_Stack_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1161" data-file-height="1645" /></a><figcaption>The Linux Storage Stack Diagram<a href="#cite_note-zA63q-285">[284]</a></figcaption></figure> The kernel used to include the SLAB, SLUB and SLOB allocators as configurable alternatives.<a href="#cite_note-286">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-lfsa-287">[286]</a> The SLOB allocator was removed in Linux 6.4<a href="#cite_note-288">[287]</a> and the SLAB allocator was removed in Linux 6.8.<a href="#cite_note-289">[288]</a> The sole remaining allocator is SLUB, which aims for simplicity and efficiency,<a href="#cite_note-lfsa-287">[286]</a> is <code><a href="/wiki/PREEMPT_RT" title="PREEMPT RT">PREEMPT_RT</a></code> compatible<a href="#cite_note-290">[289]</a> and was introduced in Linux 2.6. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtual_filesystem">Virtual filesystem</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Virtual filesystem">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">Virtual file system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virtual_filesystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual filesystem">Virtual filesystem</a></div> It is the subsystem that implements filesystem and everything related to filesystem. Linux supports a nomorous amount of filesystems with different features and functionality. Because of that it was necessary to implement generic filesystem that is independent from underlying filesystem. <a href="/wiki/Virtual_filesystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual filesystem">Virtual filesystem</a> exposes other linux subsystems or userspace, <a href="/wiki/Api" class="mw-redirect" title="Api"> APIs</a> that abstract away the different implementation of underlying filesystem. VFS implements system calls like creat,open,read,write and close. VFS implements generic super block<a href="#cite_note-291">[290]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inode" title="Inode"> Inode block</a> that is independent from the one that the underlying filesystem has. In this subsystem directories and files are represented by a <a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structure</a> (struct file). When <a href="/wiki/Userspace" class="mw-redirect" title="Userspace">userspace</a> requests access to a file it returned a <a href="/wiki/File_descriptor" title="File descriptor">file descriptor</a> (non negative integer value) but in the kernel side it is struct file structure. That structure stores everything the kernel need to know about a file or directory. <a href="/wiki/Sysfs" title="Sysfs">sysfs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Procfs" title="Procfs">procfs</a> are virtual filesystems that expose <a href="/wiki/Userspace" class="mw-redirect" title="Userspace">userspace</a> programs runtime and hardware information. Those filesystems aren't present in disk and instead the kernel implements as a <a href="/wiki/Callbacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Callbacks">callbacks</a> or routines get called when those files accessed by userspace. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supported_architectures">Supported architectures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Supported architectures">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Linux-supported_computer_architectures" title="List of Linux-supported computer architectures">List of Linux-supported computer architectures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linux-powered_device" title="Linux-powered device">Linux-powered device</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Series_2_tivo_front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Series_2_tivo_front.jpg/250px-Series_2_tivo_front.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Series_2_tivo_front.jpg/500px-Series_2_tivo_front.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2526" data-file-height="1684" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/TiVo" title="TiVo">TiVo</a> <a href="/wiki/Digital_video_recorder" title="Digital video recorder">DVR</a>, a consumer device running Linux</figcaption></figure> While not originally designed to be <a href="/wiki/Porting" title="Porting">portable</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Torvlads25Aug91-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-opensources-292">[291]</a> Linux is now one of the most widely ported operating system kernels, running on a diverse range of systems from the <a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="ARM architecture">ARM architecture</a> to IBM <a href="/wiki/Z/Architecture" title="Z/Architecture">z/Architecture</a> <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computers</a>. The first port was performed on the <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68000" title="Motorola 68000">Motorola 68000</a> platform. The modifications to the kernel were so fundamental that Torvalds viewed the Motorola version as a <a href="/wiki/Fork_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fork (software)">fork</a> and a "Linux-like operating system".<a href="#cite_note-opensources-292">[291]</a> However, that moved Torvalds to lead a major restructure of the code to facilitate porting to more computing architectures. The first Linux that, in a single source tree, had code for more than i386 alone, supported the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">DEC</a> <a href="/wiki/Alpha_AXP" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha AXP">Alpha AXP</a> 64-bit platform.<a href="#cite_note-6otKD-293">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fcl2t-294">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-opensources-292">[291]</a> Linux runs as the main operating system on <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Summit_(supercomputer)" title="Summit (supercomputer)">Summit</a>; as of October 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit">[update]</a>, all of the world's <a href="/wiki/TOP500" title="TOP500">500 fastest supercomputers</a> run some operating system based on the Linux kernel,<a href="#cite_note-top500stats-295">[294]</a> a big change from 1998 when the first Linux supercomputer got added to the list.<a href="#cite_note-HEQsA-296">[295]</a> Linux has also been ported to various handheld devices such as <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple's</a> <a href="/wiki/IPhone" title="IPhone">iPhone</a> 3G and <a href="/wiki/IPod" title="IPod">iPod</a>.<a href="#cite_note-h7F3D-297">[296]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supported_devices">Supported devices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Supported devices">edit</a>]</div> In 2007, the LKDDb project has been started to build a comprehensive database of hardware and protocols known by Linux kernels.<a href="#cite_note-lkddb-298">[297]</a> The database is built automatically by static analysis of the kernel sources. Later in 2014, the Linux Hardware project was launched to automatically collect a database of all tested hardware configurations with the help of users of various Linux distributions.<a href="#cite_note-linuxhw-299">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Live_patching">Live patching</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Live patching">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. Last update: April 2015 (September 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Rebootless updates can even be applied to the kernel by using <a href="/wiki/Live_patching" class="mw-redirect" title="Live patching">live patching</a> technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Ksplice" title="Ksplice">Ksplice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kpatch" title="Kpatch">kpatch</a> and <a href="/wiki/KGraft" title="KGraft">kGraft</a>. Minimalistic foundations for live kernel patching were merged into the Linux kernel mainline in kernel version 4.0, which was released on 12 April 2015. Those foundations, known as livepatch and based primarily on the kernel's <a href="/wiki/Ftrace" title="Ftrace">ftrace</a> functionality, form a common core capable of supporting hot patching by both kGraft and kpatch, by providing an <a href="/wiki/Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">application programming interface</a> (API) for kernel modules that contain hot patches and an <a href="/wiki/Application_binary_interface" title="Application binary interface">application binary interface</a> (ABI) for the userspace management utilities. However, the common core included into Linux kernel 4.0 supports only the <a href="/wiki/X86" title="X86">x86</a> architecture and does not provide any mechanisms for ensuring <a href="/wiki/Function_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Function (programming)">function</a>-level consistency while the hot patches are applied. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security">Security</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Security">edit</a>]</div> Kernel bugs present potential security issues. For example, they may allow for <a href="/wiki/Privilege_escalation" title="Privilege escalation">privilege escalation</a> or create <a href="/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">denial-of-service attack</a> vectors. Over the years, numerous bugs affecting system security were found and fixed.<a href="#cite_note-nBjy6-300">[299]</a> New features are frequently implemented to improve the kernel's security.<a href="#cite_note-egivN-301">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-1pEse-302">[301]</a> Capabilities(7) have already been introduced in the section about the processes and threads. Android makes use of them and <a href="/wiki/Systemd" title="Systemd">systemd</a> gives administrators detailed control over the capabilities of processes.<a href="#cite_note-eVUKg-303">[302]</a> Linux offers a wealth of mechanisms to reduce kernel attack surface and improve security which are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Linux_Security_Modules" title="Linux Security Modules">Linux Security Modules</a> (LSM).<a href="#cite_note-Jz6IT-304">[303]</a> They comprise the <a href="/wiki/Security-Enhanced_Linux" title="Security-Enhanced Linux">Security-Enhanced Linux</a> (SELinux) module, whose code has been originally developed and then released to the public by the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">NSA</a>,<a href="#cite_note-hPOef-305">[304]</a> and <a href="/wiki/AppArmor" title="AppArmor">AppArmor</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-189">[188]</a> among others. SELinux is now actively developed and maintained on <a href="/wiki/GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-188">[187]</a> SELinux and AppArmor provide support to access control security policies, including <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_access_control" title="Mandatory access control">mandatory access control</a> (MAC), though they profoundly differ in complexity and scope. Another security feature is the Seccomp BPF (SECure COMPuting with Berkeley Packet Filters) which works by filtering parameters and reducing the set of system calls available to user-land applications.<a href="#cite_note-LXteS-306">[305]</a> Critics have accused kernel developers of covering up security flaws, or at least not announcing them; in 2008, Torvalds responded to this with the following:<a href="#cite_note-YS7OI-307">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ps5dB-308">[307]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">I personally consider security bugs to be just "normal bugs". I don't cover them up, but I also don't have any reason what-so-ever to think it's a good idea to track them and announce them as something special...one reason I refuse to bother with the whole security circus is that I think it glorifies—and thus encourages—the wrong behavior. It makes "heroes" out of security people, as if the people who don't just fix normal bugs aren't as important. In fact, all the boring normal bugs are way more important, just because there's[sic] a lot more of them. I don't think some spectacular security hole should be glorified or cared about as being any more "special" than a random spectacular crash due to bad locking.</blockquote> Linux distributions typically release security updates to fix vulnerabilities in the Linux kernel. Many offer <a href="/wiki/Long-term_support" title="Long-term support">long-term support</a> releases that receive security updates for a certain Linux kernel version for an extended period of time. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal">Legal</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Legal">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Licensing_terms">Licensing terms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Licensing terms">edit</a>]</div> Initially, Torvalds released Linux under a license which forbade any commercial use.<a href="#cite_note-hiroo-309">[308]</a> This was changed in version 0.12 by a switch to the <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GNU General Public License</a> version 2 (GPLv2).<a href="#cite_note-Relnotes-0.12-19">[18]</a> This license allows distribution and sale of possibly modified and unmodified versions of Linux but requires that all those copies be released under the same license and be accompanied by - or that, on request, free access is given to - the complete corresponding source code.<a href="#cite_note-ts0p8-310">[309]</a> Torvalds has described licensing Linux under the GPLv2 as the "best thing I ever did".<a href="#cite_note-hiroo-309">[308]</a> The Linux kernel is licensed explicitly under <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GNU General Public License</a> version 2 only (GPL-2.0-only) with an explicit syscall exception (Linux-syscall-note),<a href="#cite_note-COPYING_File-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-kernel.org_GPL-2.0-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-kernel.org_Linux-syscall-note-8">[8]</a> without offering the licensee the option to choose any later version, which is a common GPL extension. Contributed code must be available under <a href="/wiki/GPL_compatibility" class="mw-redirect" title="GPL compatibility">GPL-compatible license</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Linux_Licensing-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-200">[199]</a> There was considerable debate about how easily the license could be changed to use later GPL versions (including version 3), and whether this change is even desirable.<a href="#cite_note-BahZO-311">[310]</a> Torvalds himself specifically indicated upon the release of version 2.4.0 that his own code is released only under version 2.<a href="#cite_note-9g8Ma-312">[311]</a> However, the terms of the GPL state that if no version is specified, then any version may be used,<a href="#cite_note-v5UoJ-313">[312]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cox_(computer_programmer)" title="Alan Cox (computer programmer)">Alan Cox</a> pointed out that very few other Linux contributors had specified a particular version of the GPL.<a href="#cite_note-au8PE-314">[313]</a> In September 2006, a survey of 29 key kernel programmers indicated that 28 preferred GPLv2 to the then-current GPLv3 draft. Torvalds commented, "I think a number of outsiders... believed that I personally was just the odd man out because I've been so publicly not a huge fan of the GPLv3."<a href="#cite_note-seFzU-315">[314]</a> This group of high-profile kernel developers, including Torvalds, <a href="/wiki/Greg_Kroah-Hartman" title="Greg Kroah-Hartman">Greg Kroah-Hartman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Morton_(computer_programmer)" title="Andrew Morton (computer programmer)">Andrew Morton</a>, commented on mass media about their objections to the GPLv3.<a href="#cite_note-kerneldevelopers2006-316">[315]</a> They referred to clauses regarding <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">DRM</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tivoization" title="Tivoization">tivoization</a>, patents, "additional restrictions" and warned a <a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanisation</a> of the "Open Source Universe" by the GPLv3.<a href="#cite_note-kerneldevelopers2006-316">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-GmA72-317">[316]</a> Torvalds, who decided not to adopt the GPLv3 for the Linux kernel, reiterated his criticism even years later.<a href="#cite_note-4uolG-318">[317]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loadable_kernel_modules">Loadable kernel modules</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Loadable kernel modules">edit</a>]</div> It is debated whether some <a href="/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">loadable kernel modules</a> (LKMs) are to be considered <a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative works</a> under copyright law, and thereby whether or not they fall under the terms of the GPL. In accordance with the license rules, LKMs using only a public subset of the kernel interfaces<a href="#cite_note-:6-225">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-226">[225]</a> are non-derived works, thus Linux gives system administrators the mechanisms to load out-of-tree binary objects into the kernel address space.<a href="#cite_note-Linux_Licensing-9">[9]</a> There are some out-of-tree loadable modules that make legitimate use of the dma_buf kernel feature.<a href="#cite_note-lkXX9-319">[318]</a> GPL compliant code can certainly use it. However, a different possible use case would be <a href="/wiki/Nvidia_Optimus" title="Nvidia Optimus">Nvidia Optimus</a> that pairs a fast GPU with an Intel integrated GPU, where the Nvidia GPU writes into the <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a> framebuffer when it is active. But, Nvidia cannot use this infrastructure because it necessitates bypassing a rule that can only be used by LKMs that are also GPL.<a href="#cite_note-:8-227">[226]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cox_(computer_programmer)" title="Alan Cox (computer programmer)">Alan Cox</a> replied on <a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_mailing_list" title="Linux kernel mailing list">LKML</a>, rejecting a request from one of Nvidia's engineers to remove this technical enforcement from the API.<a href="#cite_note-1aNop-320">[319]</a> Torvalds clearly stated on the LKML that "[I] claim that binary-only kernel modules ARE derivative "by default"'".<a href="#cite_note-3OFDI-321">[320]</a> On the other hand, Torvalds has also said that "[one] gray area in particular is something like a driver that was originally written for another operating system (i.e., clearly not a derived work of Linux in origin). THAT is a gray area, and _that_ is the area where I personally believe that some modules may be considered to not be derived works simply because they weren't designed for Linux and don't depend on any special Linux behaviour".<a href="#cite_note-H8s4M-322">[321]</a> <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary</a> graphics drivers, in particular, are heavily discussed. Whenever proprietary modules are loaded into Linux, the kernel marks itself as being "tainted",<a href="#cite_note-BvXbe-323">[322]</a> and therefore bug reports from tainted kernels will often be ignored by developers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Firmware_binary_blobs">Firmware binary blobs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Firmware binary blobs">edit</a>]</div> The official kernel, that is the Linus git branch at the kernel.org repository, contains binary blobs released under the terms of the GNU GPLv2 license.<a href="#cite_note-COPYING_File-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Linux_Licensing-9">[9]</a> Linux can also search filesystems to locate binary blobs, proprietary firmware, drivers, or other executable modules, then it can load and link them into kernel space.<a href="#cite_note-rjGNf-324">[323]</a> When it is needed (e.g., for accessing boot devices or for speed) firmware can be built-in to the kernel, this means building the firmware into <a href="/wiki/Vmlinux" title="Vmlinux">vmlinux</a>; however this is not always a viable option for technical or legal issues (e.g., it is not permitted to do this with firmware that is non-GPL compatible, although this is quite common nonetheless).<a href="#cite_note-AEsBH-325">[324]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trademark">Trademark</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Trademark">edit</a>]</div> Linux is a registered <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> of Linus Torvalds in the United States, the European Union, and some other countries.<a href="#cite_note-Vaz3B-326">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-ID7gn-327">[326]</a> A legal battle over the trademark began in 1996, when William Della Croce, a lawyer who was never involved in the development of Linux, started requesting licensing fees for the use of the word Linux. After it was proven that the word was in common use long before Della Croce's claimed first use, the trademark was awarded to Torvalds.<a href="#cite_note-dtKCp-328">[327]</a><a href="#cite_note-ZWQ58-329">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-05hM3-330">[329]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Removal_of_Russian_maintainers">Removal of Russian maintainers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Removal of Russian maintainers">edit</a>]</div> In October 2024, kernel developer <a href="/wiki/Greg_Kroah-Hartman" title="Greg Kroah-Hartman">Greg Kroah-Hartman</a> removed some kernel developers whose email addresses suggested a connection to Russia from their roles as maintainers.<a href="#cite_note-331">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a> responded that he did not support Russian aggression and would not revert the patch, insinuating that opponents of the patch were Russian trolls.<a href="#cite_note-333">[332]</a> James Bottomley, a kernel developer, issued an apology for the handling of the situation and clarified that the action was a consequence of U.S. sanctions against Russia.<a href="#cite_note-334">[333]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:NewTux.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/23px-NewTux.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/35px-NewTux.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/47px-NewTux.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="750" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Linux" title="Portal:Linux">Linux portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/28px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/42px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/56px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">Microkernel</a> – Kernel that provides fewer services than a traditional kernel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_version_history" title="Linux kernel version history">Linux kernel version history</a> – Version history of the Linux kernel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of operating systems">Comparison of operating systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_operating_system_kernels" title="Comparison of operating system kernels">Comparison of operating system kernels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> – Family of Unix-like operating systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minix_3" title="Minix 3">Minix 3</a> – Unix-like operating system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a> – Operating system for Apple computers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> – Computer operating systems</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> As a whole, Linux source is provided under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GPL-2.0-only</a> license with an explicit syscall exception.<a href="#cite_note-kernel.org_GPL-2.0-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-kernel.org_Linux-syscall-note-8">[8]</a> Aside from that, individual files can be provided under a different license which is required to be compatible with the GPL-2.0-only license (i.e., the GNU General Public License version 2) or a dual license, with one of the choices being the GPL version 2 or a GPLv2 compatible license.<a href="#cite_note-Linux_Licensing-9">[9]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-HvDj4-1"><a href="#cite_ref-HvDj4_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription 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Linux Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514084627/http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/3655">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview%3A+Linus+Torvalds&rft.pub=Linux+Journal&rft.date=1999-11-01&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Marjorie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linuxjournal.com%2Farticle%2F3655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Torvlads25Aug91-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Torvlads25Aug91_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Torvlads25Aug91_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTorvalds1991" class="citation newsgroup cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Torvalds, Linus Benedict</a> (26 August 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b">"What would you like to see most in minix?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_newsgroup" title="Usenet newsgroup">Newsgroup</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:comp.os.minix">comp.os.minix</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Usenet (identifier)">Usenet:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:1991Aug25.205708.9541@klaava.Helsinki.FI">1991Aug25.205708.9541@klaava.Helsinki.FI</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130509134305/http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 14 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+would+you+like+to+see+most+in+minix%3F&rft.pub=comp.os.minix&rft.date=1991-08-26&rft_id=news%3A1991Aug25.205708.9541%40klaava.Helsinki.FI%23id-name%3DUsenet%3A&rft.aulast=Torvalds&rft.aufirst=Linus+Benedict&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgroups.google.com%2Fgroup%2Fcomp.os.minix%2Fmsg%2Fb813d52cbc5a044b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Running_Linux-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Running_Linux_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Running_Linux_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWelshDalheimerKaufman1999" class="citation book cs1">Welsh, Matt; Dalheimer, Matthias Kalle; Kaufman, Lar (1999). "1: Introduction to Linux". Running Linux (3rd ed.). Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56592-976-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-56592-976-4"><bdi>1-56592-976-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50638246">50638246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+Introduction+to+Linux&rft.btitle=Running+Linux&rft.place=Sebastopol%2C+California&rft.pages=5&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50638246&rft.isbn=1-56592-976-4&rft.aulast=Welsh&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft.au=Dalheimer%2C+Matthias+Kalle&rft.au=Kaufman%2C+Lar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Free_minix-like_kernel_sources_for_386-AT-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Free_minix-like_kernel_sources_for_386-AT_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/g/comp.os.minix/c/4995SivOl9o/m/GwqLJlPSlCEJ">"Free minix-like kernel sources for 386-AT - Google Groups"</a>. groups.google.com. 5 October 1991. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301162937/https://groups.google.com/g/comp.os.minix/c/4995SivOl9o/m/GwqLJlPSlCEJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=groups.google.com&rft.atitle=Free+minix-like+kernel+sources+for+386-AT+-+Google+Groups&rft.date=1991-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgroups.google.com%2Fg%2Fcomp.os.minix%2Fc%2F4995SivOl9o%2Fm%2FGwqLJlPSlCEJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2Ifyf-17"><a href="#cite_ref-2Ifyf_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2002" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Sam (March 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freeasinfreedomr00will">"Chapter 9: The GNU General Public License"</a>. Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software. <a href="/wiki/O%27Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-596-00287-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-596-00287-4"><bdi>0-596-00287-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+The+GNU+General+Public+License&rft.btitle=Free+as+in+Freedom%3A+Richard+Stallman%27s+Crusade+for+Free+Software&rft.pub=O%27Reilly&rft.date=2002-03&rft.isbn=0-596-00287-4&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreeasinfreedomr00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_107-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_107_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_107_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_107_18-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChristine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum2016" class="citation book cs1">Christine Bresnahan & Richard Blum (2016). LPIC-2: Linux Professional Institute Certification Study Guide: Exam 201 and Exam 202. John Wiley & Sons. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119150794" title="Special:BookSources/9781119150794"><bdi>9781119150794</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LPIC-2%3A+Linux+Professional+Institute+Certification+Study+Guide%3A+Exam+201+and+Exam+202&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781119150794&rft.au=Christine+Bresnahan+%26+Richard+Blum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Relnotes-0.12-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Relnotes-0.12_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relnotes-0.12_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTorvalds" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Torvalds, Linus</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/Historic/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.12">"Release Notes for Linux v0.12"</a>. The Linux Kernel Archives. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070819045030/http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/Historic/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.12">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 21 February 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Release+Notes+for+Linux+v0.12&rft.pub=The+Linux+Kernel+Archives&rft.aulast=Torvalds&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kernel.org%2Fpub%2Flinux%2Fkernel%2FHistoric%2Fold-versions%2FRELNOTES-0.12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-XzMje-20"><a href="#cite_ref-XzMje_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFred_Hantelmann2016" class="citation book cs1">Fred Hantelmann (2016). LINUX Start-up Guide: A self-contained introduction. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642607493" title="Special:BookSources/9783642607493"><bdi>9783642607493</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LINUX+Start-up+Guide%3A+A+self-contained+introduction&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9783642607493&rft.au=Fred+Hantelmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_16-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_16_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_16_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_16_21-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFred_Hantelmann2016" class="citation book cs1">Fred Hantelmann (2016). LINUX Start-up Guide: A self-contained introduction. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642607493" title="Special:BookSources/9783642607493"><bdi>9783642607493</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LINUX+Start-up+Guide%3A+A+self-contained+introduction&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9783642607493&rft.au=Fred+Hantelmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-QFvMn-22"><a href="#cite_ref-QFvMn_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSummers1992" class="citation newsgroup cs1">Summers, David W. (19 January 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/group/alt.os.linux/msg/c638df159fa15159">"Troubles with Partitions"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_newsgroup" title="Usenet newsgroup">Newsgroup</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:alt.os.linux">alt.os.linux</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Usenet (identifier)">Usenet:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:1992Jan19.085628.18752@cseg01.uark.edu">1992Jan19.085628.18752@cseg01.uark.edu</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602210415/http://groups.google.com/group/alt.os.linux/msg/c638df159fa15159">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Troubles+with+Partitions&rft.pub=alt.os.linux&rft.date=1992-01-19&rft_id=news%3A1992Jan19.085628.18752%40cseg01.uark.edu%23id-name%3DUsenet%3A&rft.aulast=Summers&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgroups.google.com%2Fgroup%2Falt.os.linux%2Fmsg%2Fc638df159fa15159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-paK4Z-23"><a href="#cite_ref-paK4Z_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClegg1992" class="citation newsgroup cs1">Clegg, Alan B. (31 March 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.linux/msg/81fe3618c4803d1e">"It's here!"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_newsgroup" title="Usenet newsgroup">Newsgroup</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:comp.os.linux">comp.os.linux</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Usenet (identifier)">Usenet:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:1992Mar31.131811.19832@rock.concert.net">1992Mar31.131811.19832@rock.concert.net</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602203914/http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.linux/msg/81fe3618c4803d1e">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=It%27s+here%21&rft.pub=comp.os.linux&rft.date=1992-03-31&rft_id=news%3A1992Mar31.131811.19832%40rock.concert.net%23id-name%3DUsenet%3A&rft.aulast=Clegg&rft.aufirst=Alan+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgroups.google.com%2Fgroup%2Fcomp.os.linux%2Fmsg%2F81fe3618c4803d1e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2BA6C-24"><a href="#cite_ref-2BA6C_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565925823">"Appendix A: The Tanenbaum-Torvalds Debate"</a>. Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution. <a href="/wiki/O%27Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly</a>. 1999. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56592-582-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56592-582-3"><bdi>1-56592-582-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+A%3A+The+Tanenbaum-Torvalds+Debate&rft.btitle=Open+Sources%3A+Voices+from+the+Open+Source+Revolution&rft.pub=O%27Reilly&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-56592-582-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781565925823&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vghTe-25"><a href="#cite_ref-vghTe_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTanenbaum1992" class="citation newsgroup cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_S._Tanenbaum" title="Andrew S. Tanenbaum">Tanenbaum, Andy</a> (29 January 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/f447530d082cd95d">"LINUX is obsolete"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_newsgroup" title="Usenet newsgroup">Newsgroup</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:comp.os.minix">comp.os.minix</a>. <a href="/wiki/Usenet_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Usenet (identifier)">Usenet:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:12595@star.cs.vu.nl">12595@star.cs.vu.nl</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111017163006/http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/f447530d082cd95d">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=LINUX+is+obsolete&rft.pub=comp.os.minix&rft.date=1992-01-29&rft_id=news%3A12595%40star.cs.vu.nl%23id-name%3DUsenet%3A&rft.aulast=Tanenbaum&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgroups.google.com%2Fgroup%2Fcomp.os.minix%2Fmsg%2Ff447530d082cd95d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pUfrR-26"><a href="#cite_ref-pUfrR_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTanenbaum2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_S._Tanenbaum" title="Andrew S. Tanenbaum">Tanenbaum, Andy</a> (12 May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/reliable-os/">"Tanenbaum-Torvalds Debate: Part II"</a>. <a href="/wiki/VU_University_Amsterdam" class="mw-redirect" title="VU University Amsterdam">VU University Amsterdam</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150805132304/http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/reliable-os/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tanenbaum-Torvalds+Debate%3A+Part+II&rft.pub=VU+University+Amsterdam&rft.date=2006-05-12&rft.aulast=Tanenbaum&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.vu.nl%2F~ast%2Freliable-os%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HR4Vb-27"><a href="#cite_ref-HR4Vb_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHayward2012" class="citation web cs1">Hayward, David (22 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techradar.com/news/software/operating-systems/the-history-of-linux-how-time-has-shaped-the-penguin-1113914">"The history of Linux: how time has shaped the penguin"</a>. TechRadar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200319065513/https://www.techradar.com/news/software/operating-systems/the-history-of-linux-how-time-has-shaped-the-penguin-1113914">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechRadar&rft.atitle=The+history+of+Linux%3A+how+time+has+shaped+the+penguin&rft.date=2012-11-22&rft.aulast=Hayward&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techradar.com%2Fnews%2Fsoftware%2Foperating-systems%2Fthe-history-of-linux-how-time-has-shaped-the-penguin-1113914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jqib7-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Jqib7_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHayward2012" class="citation web cs1">Hayward, David (22 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techradar.com/news/software/operating-systems/the-history-of-linux-how-time-has-shaped-the-penguin-1113914/2">"The history of Linux: how time has shaped the penguin"</a>. TechRadar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200319065522/https://www.techradar.com/news/software/operating-systems/the-history-of-linux-how-time-has-shaped-the-penguin-1113914/2">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechRadar&rft.atitle=The+history+of+Linux%3A+how+time+has+shaped+the+penguin&rft.date=2012-11-22&rft.aulast=Hayward&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techradar.com%2Fnews%2Fsoftware%2Foperating-systems%2Fthe-history-of-linux-how-time-has-shaped-the-penguin-1113914%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_108-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_108_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_108_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum_2016_108_29-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChristine_Bresnahan_&_Richard_Blum2016" class="citation book cs1">Christine Bresnahan & Richard Blum (2016). LPIC-2: Linux Professional Institute Certification Study Guide: Exam 201 and Exam 202. John Wiley & Sons. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119150794" title="Special:BookSources/9781119150794"><bdi>9781119150794</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LPIC-2%3A+Linux+Professional+Institute+Certification+Study+Guide%3A+Exam+201+and+Exam+202&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781119150794&rft.au=Christine+Bresnahan+%26+Richard+Blum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2.0.0_release-30"><a href="#cite_ref-2.0.0_release_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTorvalds1996" class="citation mailinglist cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Torvalds, Linus</a> (9 June 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/9606.1/0056.html">"Linux 2.0 really _is_ released."</a> <a href="/wiki/LKML" class="mw-redirect" title="LKML">LKML</a> (Mailing list). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091044/http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/9606.1/0056.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linux+2.0+really+_is_+released..&rft.date=1996-06-09&rft.aulast=Torvalds&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flkml.iu.edu%2Fhypermail%2Flinux%2Fkernel%2F9606.1%2F0056.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/kbuild/index.html">"Kernel Build System — The Linux Kernel documentation"</a>. Kernel.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200722122129/https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/kbuild/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kernel.org&rft.atitle=Kernel+Build+System+%E2%80%94+The+Linux+Kernel+documentation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kernel.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Flatest%2Fkbuild%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/kbuild/kconfig.html">"Kconfig make config — The Linux Kernel documentation"</a>. Kernel.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200717132644/https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/kbuild/kconfig.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kernel.org&rft.atitle=Kconfig+make+config+%E2%80%94+The+Linux+Kernel+documentation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kernel.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Flatest%2Fkbuild%2Fkconfig.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2.2.0_release-33"><a href="#cite_ref-2.2.0_release_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTorvalds1999" class="citation mailinglist cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Torvalds, Linus</a> (20 January 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/9901.2/1084.html">"2.2.0-final"</a>. <a href="/wiki/LKML" class="mw-redirect" title="LKML">LKML</a> (Mailing list). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144000/http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/9901.2/1084.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2.2.0-final&rft.date=1999-01-20&rft.aulast=Torvalds&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flkml.iu.edu%2Fhypermail%2Flinux%2Fkernel%2F9901.2%2F1084.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:16_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:16_34-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kniggit.net/wonderful-world-linux/wonderful-world-linux-2-2/">"The Wonderful World of Linux 2.2"</a>. 26 January 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141106030845/http://kniggit.net/wonderful-world-linux/wonderful-world-linux-2-2/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Wonderful+World+of+Linux+2.2&rft.date=1999-01-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkniggit.net%2Fwonderful-world-linux%2Fwonderful-world-linux-2-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-df5gk-35"><a href="#cite_ref-df5gk_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linuxvm.org/penguinvm/notes.html">"Linux/390 Observations and Notes"</a>. linuxvm.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190226085302/http://linuxvm.org/penguinvm/notes.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=linuxvm.org&rft.atitle=Linux%2F390+Observations+and+Notes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinuxvm.org%2Fpenguinvm%2Fnotes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2.4.0_release-36"><a href="#cite_ref-2.4.0_release_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTorvalds2001" class="citation mailinglist cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Torvalds, Linus</a> (4 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/0101.0/0776.html">"And oh, btw."</a> <a href="/wiki/LKML" class="mw-redirect" title="LKML">LKML</a> (Mailing list). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160126231619/http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/0101.0/0776.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=And+oh%2C+btw..&rft.date=2001-01-04&rft.aulast=Torvalds&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flkml.iu.edu%2Fhypermail%2Flinux%2Fkernel%2F0101.0%2F0776.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WWOL24-37"><a href="#cite_ref-WWOL24_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050317071343/http://www.kniggit.net/wwol24.html">"The Wonderful World of Linux 2.4"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kniggit.net/wwol24.html">the original</a> on 17 March 2005. Retrieved 27 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Wonderful+World+of+Linux+2.4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkniggit.net%2Fwwol24.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2.6.0_release-38"><a href="#cite_ref-2.6.0_release_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTorvalds2003" class="citation mailinglist cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Torvalds, Linus</a> (17 December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/0312.2/0348.html">"Linux 2.6.0"</a>. <a href="/wiki/LKML" class="mw-redirect" title="LKML">LKML</a> (Mailing list). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402162542/http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/0312.2/0348.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linux+2.6.0&rft.date=2003-12-17&rft.aulast=Torvalds&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flkml.iu.edu%2Fhypermail%2Flinux%2Fkernel%2F0312.2%2F0348.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lguxu-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Lguxu_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man5/proc.5.html">"proc(5) - Linux manual page"</a> (see /proc/sys/kernel/pid_max). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140207232837/http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man5/proc.5.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 February 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=proc%285%29+-+Linux+manual+page&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fman7.org%2Flinux%2Fman-pages%2Fman5%2Fproc.5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rY8Ml-40"><a href="#cite_ref-rY8Ml_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://btrfs.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page">"btrfs Wiki"</a>. btrfs.wiki.kernel.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425151829/https://btrfs.wiki.kernel.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=btrfs.wiki.kernel.org&rft.atitle=btrfs+Wiki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbtrfs.wiki.kernel.org%2Findex.php%2FMain_Page&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_1–2-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Fred_Hantelmann_2016_1–2_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFred_Hantelmann2016" class="citation book cs1">Fred Hantelmann (2016). LINUX Start-up Guide: A self-contained introduction. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642607493" title="Special:BookSources/9783642607493"><bdi>9783642607493</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LINUX+Start-up+Guide%3A+A+self-contained+introduction&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9783642607493&rft.au=Fred+Hantelmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-0eXeT-42"><a href="#cite_ref-0eXeT_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLinux_Kernel_Mailing_List2005" class="citation mailinglist cs1">Linux Kernel Mailing List (17 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://marc.info/?l=git-commits-head&m=111904216911731">"Linux 2.6.12"</a>. git-commits-head (Mailing list). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160126231629/http://marc.info/?l=git-commits-head&m=111904216911731">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 23 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linux+2.6.12&rft.date=2005-06-17&rft.au=Linux+Kernel+Mailing+List&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmarc.info%2F%3Fl%3Dgit-commits-head%26m%3D111904216911731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2.6.16-longterm-43"><a href="#cite_ref-2.6.16-longterm_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKroah-Hartman2006" class="citation mailinglist cs1"><a href="/wiki/Greg_Kroah-Hartman" title="Greg Kroah-Hartman">Kroah-Hartman, Greg</a> (3 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/0608.0/1111.html">"Adrian Bunk is now taking over the 2.6.16-stable branch"</a>. <a href="/wiki/LKML" class="mw-redirect" title="LKML">LKML</a> (Mailing list). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160126231617/http://lkml.iu.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/0608.0/1111.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Adrian+Bunk+is+now+taking+over+the+2.6.16-stable+branch&rft.date=2006-08-03&rft.aulast=Kroah-Hartman&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flkml.iu.edu%2Fhypermail%2Flinux%2Fkernel%2F0608.0%2F1111.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zZKMh-44"><a href="#cite_ref-zZKMh_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRothwell2008" class="citation mailinglist cs1">Rothwell, Stephen (12 February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lkml.org/lkml/2008/2/11/512">"Announce: Linux-next (Or Andrew's dream :-))"</a>. <a href="/wiki/LKML" class="mw-redirect" title="LKML">LKML</a> (Mailing list). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101124235700/http://lkml.org/lkml/2008/2/11/512">Archived</a> from the original on 24 November 2010. 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Retrieved 3 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sco.com&rft.atitle=Xinuos+Inc.+%7C+Developers+%7C+Gabi+%7C+17+December+2003+%7C+System+V+Application+Binary+Interface+-+DRAFT&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sco.com%2Fdevelopers%2Fgabi%2F2003-12-17%2Fcontents.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-qXIDV-217"><a href="#cite_ref-qXIDV_217-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://refspecs.linuxbase.org/LSB_5.0.0/LSB-Core-generic/LSB-Core-generic/elf-generic.html">"Executable And Linking Format (ELF)"</a>. Refspecs.linuxbase.org. 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Retrieved 15 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kernel.org&rft.atitle=Unreliable+Guide+To+Hacking+The+Linux+Kernel&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kernel.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtmldocs%2Fkernel-hacking%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HWCYl-231"><a href="#cite_ref-HWCYl_231-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/kernel-hacking/hacking.html">"Unreliable Guide To Hacking The Linux Kernel — The Linux Kernel documentation"</a>. Kernel.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200307065323/https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/kernel-hacking/hacking.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2020. 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TechHive. <a href="/wiki/International_Data_Group" title="International Data Group">IDG</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100722023655/http://www.pcworld.com/article/195789/android_now_running_on_iphone_3g.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2010. Retrieved 11 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechHive&rft.atitle=Android+Now+Running+On+iPhone+3G&rft.date=2010-05-06&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcworld.com%2Farticle%2F195789%2Fandroid_now_running_on_iphone_3g.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lkddb-298"><a href="#cite_ref-lkddb_298-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cateee.net/lkddb/">"LKDDb"</a>. 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Retrieved 28 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=euipo.europa.eu&rft.atitle=Linux+TM+registration+in+the+EU&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feuipo.europa.eu%2FeSearch%2F%23details%2Ftrademarks%2F000851246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dtKCp-328"><a href="#cite_ref-dtKCp_328-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHughes1997" class="citation web cs1">Hughes, Phil (1 August 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/2425/">"Linux Trademark Dispute"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Linux_Journal" title="Linux Journal">Linux Journal</a>. Belltown Media, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100430060209/http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/2425">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2010. 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LKML (Mailing list). Retrieved 18 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Re%3A+%5BPATCH%5D+Revert+%22MAINTAINERS%3A+Remove+some+entries+due+to+various+compliance+requirements.%22&rft.date=2024-10-23&rft.au=Linus+Torvalds&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flore.kernel.org%2Fall%2F2024101835-tiptop-blip-09ed%40gregkh%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJames_Bottomley2024" class="citation mailinglist cs1">James Bottomley (24 October 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lkml.org/lkml/2024/10/24/1118">"Re: linux: Goodbye from a Linux community volunteer"</a>. LKML (Mailing list). Retrieved 18 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Re%3A+linux%3A+Goodbye+from+a+Linux+community+volunteer&rft.date=2024-10-24&rft.au=James+Bottomley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flkml.org%2Flkml%2F2024%2F10%2F24%2F1118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linux_kernel&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTorvaldsDiamond2001" class="citation book cs1">Torvalds, Linus; Diamond, David (2001). <a href="/wiki/Just_for_Fun_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Just for Fun (book)">Just for Fun: The Story of an Accidental Revolutionary</a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperBusiness" class="mw-redirect" title="HarperBusiness">HarperBusiness</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0066620732" title="Special:BookSources/978-0066620732"><bdi>978-0066620732</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Just+for+Fun%3A+The+Story+of+an+Accidental+Revolutionary&rft.pub=HarperBusiness&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0066620732&rft.aulast=Torvalds&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft.au=Diamond%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBezroukov" class="citation book cs1">Bezroukov, Nikolai. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Torvalds/index.shtml">"Ch 4: A benevolent dictator"</a>. Portraits of Open Source Pioneers (e-book). Softpanorama. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051013082354/http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Torvalds/index.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2005. Retrieved 3 October 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch+4%3A+A+benevolent+dictator&rft.btitle=Portraits+of+Open+Source+Pioneers&rft.pub=Softpanorama&rft.aulast=Bezroukov&rft.aufirst=Nikolai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.softpanorama.org%2FPeople%2FTorvalds%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lwn.net/Articles/53780/">"LinkSys and binary modules"</a>. 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Retrieved 16 June 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Everyone%27s+Favorite+Linux+Mascot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nd.edu%2F~ljordan%2Flinux%2Ftuxhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPranevich2003" class="citation web cs1">Pranevich, Joseph (December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030716054145/http://www.kniggit.net/wwol26.html">"The Wonderful World of Linux 2.6"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://engineeringproject.net/seminars/linux.htm">the original</a> on 2 February 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seminar+Paper+on+Linux+Kernel+2.6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fengineeringproject.net%2Fseminars%2Flinux.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lwn.net/Kernel/LDD3/">"Linux Device Drivers"</a> (3rd ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160727085953/http://lwn.net/Kernel/LDD3/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linux+Device+Drivers&rft.edition=3rd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flwn.net%2FKernel%2FLDD3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/understandlk/">"Understanding the Linux Kernel"</a> (Book) (3rd ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051217094234/http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/understandlk/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2005. Retrieved 22 December 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Linux+Kernel&rft.edition=3rd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oreilly.com%2Fcatalog%2Funderstandlk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apress.com/9781430261964">Linux Kernel Networking, by Rami Rosen, 2014</a> (Book). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512052750/http://www.apress.com/9781430261964">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linux+Kernel+Networking%2C+by+Rami+Rosen%2C+2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apress.com%2F9781430261964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050723031159/http://kerneltrap.org/node/1735">"Linux: The GPL And Binary Modules"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kerneltrap.org/node/1735">the original</a> on 23 July 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linux%3A+The+GPL+And+Binary+Modules&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkerneltrap.org%2Fnode%2F1735&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-linux-kernel/">"Anatomy of the Linux kernel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070627093507/http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-linux-kernel/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM&rft.atitle=Anatomy+of+the+Linux+kernel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fdeveloperworks%2Flinux%2Flibrary%2Fl-linux-kernel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTanenbaumBos2015" class="citation book cs1">Tanenbaum, Andrew; Bos, Herbert (2015). Modern Operating Systems. United States of America: Pearson. p. 722. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781292061429" title="Special:BookSources/9781292061429"><bdi>9781292061429</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/892574803">892574803</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Operating+Systems&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=722&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F892574803&rft.isbn=9781292061429&rft.aulast=Tanenbaum&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Bos%2C+Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinux+kernel" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a 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class="external text" href="https://lwn.net/Kernel/">Kernel coverage at LWN.net</a>, an authoritative source of kernel-related information</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elixir.bootlin.com/linux/latest/source">Bootlin's Elixir Cross Referencer</a>, a Linux kernel source code cross-reference</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2SED6sewRw">Greg Kroah Hartman on the Linux kernel</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/virtual-file-system">Virtual filesystem</a>, linux generic filesystem implementation</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Linux_kernel" title="Template:Linux kernel"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linux_kernel" title="Template talk:Linux kernel"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linux_kernel" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linux kernel"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Linux_kernel514" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linux kernel</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Kernel19" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kernel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Foundation" title="Linux Foundation">Linux Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Mark_Institute" title="Linux Mark Institute">Linux Mark Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus%27s_law" title="Linus's law">Linus's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanenbaum%E2%80%93Torvalds_debate" title="Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate">Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tux_(mascot)" title="Tux (mascot)">Tux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCO%E2%80%93Linux_disputes" title="SCO–Linux disputes">SCO disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linaro" title="Linaro">Linaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License#Version_2" title="GNU General Public License">GNU GPL v2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menuconfig" title="Menuconfig">menuconfig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Linux-supported_computer_architectures" title="List of Linux-supported computer architectures">Supported computer architectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_version_history" title="Linux kernel version history">Version history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Linux" title="Criticism of Linux">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Developers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Linux_Programming_Interface" title="The Linux Programming Interface">The Linux Programming Interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kernel.org" title="Kernel.org">kernel.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_mailing_list" title="Linux kernel mailing list">LKML</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux conference">Linux conferences</a></li></ul></li> <li>Users <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linux_user_group" title="Linux user group">Linux User Group (LUG)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Almesberger" title="Werner Almesberger">Werner Almesberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Peter_Anvin" title="H. Peter Anvin">H. Peter Anvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jens_Axboe" title="Jens Axboe">Jens Axboe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moshe_Bar_(investor)" title="Moshe Bar (investor)">Moshe Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suparna_Bhattacharya" title="Suparna Bhattacharya">Suparna Bhattacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andries_Brouwer" title="Andries Brouwer">Andries Brouwer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9my_Card" title="Rémy Card">Rémy Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Cox_(computer_programmer)" title="Alan Cox (computer programmer)">Alan Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Garrett" title="Matthew Garrett">Matthew Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avi_Kivity" title="Avi Kivity">Avi Kivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Con_Kolivas" title="Con Kolivas">Con Kolivas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Kroah-Hartman" title="Greg Kroah-Hartman">Greg Kroah-Hartman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benson_Leung" title="Benson Leung">Benson Leung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Love" title="Robert Love">Robert Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Miller" title="David S. Miller">David S. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingo_Moln%C3%A1r" title="Ingo Molnár">Ingo Molnár</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Morton_(computer_programmer)" title="Andrew Morton (computer programmer)">Andrew Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reiser" title="Hans Reiser">Hans Reiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusty_Russell" title="Rusty Russell">Rusty Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuah_Khan" title="Shuah Khan">Shuah Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Ts%27o" title="Theodore Ts'o">Theodore Ts'o</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Tweedie" title="Stephen Tweedie">Stephen Tweedie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Welte" title="Harald Welte">Harald Welte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Wright_(programmer)" title="Chris Wright (programmer)">Chris Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debugging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CRIU" title="CRIU">CRIU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ftrace" title="Ftrace">ftrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kdump_(Linux)" title="Kdump (Linux)">kdump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_oops" title="Linux kernel oops">Linux kernel oops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SystemTap" title="SystemTap">SystemTap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Packet_Filter" title="Berkeley Packet Filter">BPF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Booting_process_of_Linux" title="Booting process of Linux">Startup</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vmlinux" title="Vmlinux">vmlinux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System.map" title="System.map">System.map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dracut_(software)" title="Dracut (software)">dracut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initrd" class="mw-redirect" title="Initrd">initrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initramfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Initramfs">initramfs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_interfaces" title="Linux kernel interfaces">ABIs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Standard_Base" title="Linux Standard Base">Linux Standard Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X32_ABI" title="X32 ABI">x32 ABI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_interfaces" title="Linux kernel interfaces">APIs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kernel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_interfaces#SCI" title="Linux kernel interfaces">System Call Interface</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/POSIX" title="POSIX">POSIX</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ioctl" title="Ioctl">ioctl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Select_(Unix)" title="Select (Unix)">select</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_(system_call)" title="Open (system call)">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read_(system_call)" title="Read (system call)">read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_(system_call)" title="Close (system call)">close</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sync_(Unix)" title="Sync (Unix)">sync</a></li> <li>…</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_interfaces#Additions_to_POSIX" title="Linux kernel interfaces">Linux-only</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futex" title="Futex">futex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epoll" title="Epoll">epoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splice_(system_call)" title="Splice (system call)">splice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dnotify" title="Dnotify">dnotify</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inotify" title="Inotify">inotify</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Readahead" title="Readahead">readahead</a></li> <li>…</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_interfaces#In–kernel_APIs" title="Linux kernel interfaces">In-kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Linux_Sound_Architecture" title="Advanced Linux Sound Architecture">ALSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto_API_(Linux)" title="Crypto API (Linux)">Crypto API</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Io_uring" title="Io uring">io uring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Manager" title="Direct Rendering Manager">DRM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kernfs_(Linux)" title="Kernfs (Linux)">kernfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_barrier" title="Memory barrier">Memory barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_API" title="New API">New API</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read-copy-update" title="Read-copy-update">RCU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video4Linux" title="Video4Linux">Video4Linux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IIO_Framework" title="IIO Framework">IIO</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">Userspace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Daemon_(computing)" title="Daemon (computing)">Daemons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">File systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>bpffs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Configfs" title="Configfs">configfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Devfs">devfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devpts" title="Devpts">devpts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debugfs" title="Debugfs">debugfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filesystem_in_Userspace" title="Filesystem in Userspace">FUSE</a></li> <li>hugetlbfs</li> <li>pipefs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procfs" title="Procfs">procfs</a></li> <li>securityfs</li> <li>sockfs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sysfs" title="Sysfs">sysfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tmpfs" title="Tmpfs">tmpfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemd" title="Systemd">systemd</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Udev" title="Udev">udev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kmscon" title="Kmscon">Kmscon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binfmt_misc" title="Binfmt misc">binfmt_misc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wrapper_library" title="Wrapper library">Wrapper libraries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C_standard_library" title="C standard library">C standard library</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glibc" title="Glibc">glibc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UClibc" title="UClibc">uClibc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bionic_(software)" title="Bionic (software)">Bionic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libhybris" title="Libhybris">libhybris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietlibc" title="Dietlibc">dietlibc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_GLIBC" class="mw-redirect" title="Embedded GLIBC">EGLIBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klibc" title="Klibc">klibc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musl" title="Musl">musl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newlib" title="Newlib">Newlib</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cgroups" title="Cgroups">libcgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Manager" title="Direct Rendering Manager">libdrm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Linux_Sound_Architecture" title="Advanced Linux Sound Architecture">libalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evdev" title="Evdev">libevdev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libusb" title="Libusb">libusb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Io_uring" title="Io uring">liburing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">Kernel modules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BlueZ" class="mw-redirect" title="BlueZ">BlueZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cgroups" title="Cgroups">cgroups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_console" title="Linux console">Console</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bcache" title="Bcache">bcache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_mapper" title="Device mapper">Device mapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dm-cache" title="Dm-cache">dm-cache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dm-crypt" title="Dm-crypt">dm-crypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Manager" title="Direct Rendering Manager">DRM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EDAC_(Linux)" class="mw-redirect" title="EDAC (Linux)">EDAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evdev" title="Evdev">evdev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kernel_same-page_merging" title="Kernel same-page merging">Kernel same-page merging</a> (KSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIO_(SCSI_target)" title="LIO (SCSI target)">LIO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_framebuffer" title="Linux framebuffer">Framebuffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_Volume_Manager_(Linux)" title="Logical Volume Manager (Linux)">LVM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KMS_driver" class="mw-redirect" title="KMS driver">KMS driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netfilter" title="Netfilter">Netfilter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netlink" title="Netlink">Netlink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nftables" title="Nftables">nftables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perf_(Linux)" title="Perf (Linux)">perf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SLUB_(software)" title="SLUB (software)">SLUB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zram" title="Zram">zram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zswap" title="Zswap">zswap</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)#Linux" title="Scheduling (computing)">Process and I/O schedulers</a>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_Fuck_Scheduler" title="Brain Fuck Scheduler">Brain Fuck Scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Completely_Fair_Scheduler" title="Completely Fair Scheduler">Completely Fair Scheduler</a> (CFS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_eligible_virtual_deadline_first_scheduling" title="Earliest eligible virtual deadline first scheduling">Earliest eligible virtual deadline first</a> (EEVDF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noop_scheduler" title="Noop scheduler">Noop scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O(n)_scheduler" title="O(n) scheduler">O(n) scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O(1)_scheduler" title="O(1) scheduler">O(1) scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCHED_DEADLINE" title="SCHED DEADLINE">SCHED_DEADLINE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCHED_FIFO" class="mw-redirect" title="SCHED FIFO">SCHED_FIFO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCHED_RR" class="mw-redirect" title="SCHED RR">SCHED_RR</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Security_Modules" title="Linux Security Modules">Security Modules</a>: <a href="/wiki/AppArmor" title="AppArmor">AppArmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exec_Shield" title="Exec Shield">Exec Shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seccomp" title="Seccomp">seccomp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security-Enhanced_Linux" title="Security-Enhanced Linux">SELinux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smack_(software)" title="Smack (software)">Smack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomoyo_Linux" title="Tomoyo Linux">Tomoyo Linux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_PAM" title="Linux PAM">Linux PAM</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">Device drivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_open-source_wireless_drivers" title="Comparison of open-source wireless drivers">802.11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_graphics_device_driver" title="Free and open-source graphics device driver">graphics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_device" title="Raw device">Raw device</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Initramfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Initramfs">initramfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KernelCare" title="KernelCare">KernelCare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kexec" title="Kexec">kexec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGraft" title="KGraft">kGraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpatch" title="Kpatch">kpatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksplice" title="Ksplice">Ksplice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainline_Linux" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainline Linux">Mainline</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linux kernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux-libre" title="Linux-libre">Linux-libre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_computing" title="High-performance computing">High-performance computing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/INK_(operating_system)" title="INK (operating system)">INK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compute_Node_Linux" title="Compute Node Linux">Compute Node Linux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurm_Workload_Manager" title="Slurm Workload Manager">SLURM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RTLinux" title="RTLinux">RTLinux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RTAI" title="RTAI">RTAI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenomai" title="Xenomai">Xenomai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PREEMPT_RT" title="PREEMPT RT">PREEMPT_RT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_management_unit" title="Memory management unit">MMU</a>-less <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9CClinux" title="ΜClinux">μClinux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PSXLinux" title="PSXLinux">PSXLinux</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Virtualization18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Virtualization" title="Virtualization">Virtualization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypervisor" title="Hypervisor">Hypervisor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kernel-based_Virtual_Machine" title="Kernel-based Virtual Machine">KVM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xen" title="Xen">Xen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OS-level_virtualization" title="OS-level virtualization">OS-level virtualization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linux-VServer" title="Linux-VServer">Linux-VServer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lguest" title="Lguest">Lguest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LXC" title="LXC">LXC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenVZ" title="OpenVZ">OpenVZ</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L4Linux" title="L4Linux">L4Linux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ELinOS" title="ELinOS">ELinOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User-mode_Linux" title="User-mode Linux">User-mode Linux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MkLinux" title="MkLinux">MkLinux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Linux" title="Cooperative Linux">coLinux</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_adoption" title="Linux adoption">Adoption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Rangeof_use48" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_range_of_use" title="Linux range of use">Range of use</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linux_desktop_environments" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux desktop environments">Desktop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_on_embedded_systems" title="Linux on embedded systems">Embedded</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_and_Linux" title="Video games and Linux">Gaming</a></li> <li>Thin client: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Terminal_Server_Project" title="Linux Terminal Server Project">LTSP</a></li></ul></li> <li>Server: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LAMP_(software_bundle)" title="LAMP (software bundle)">LAMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LYME_(software_bundle)" title="LYME (software bundle)">LYME-LYCE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux-powered_device" title="Linux-powered device">Devices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adopters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Linux_adopters" title="List of Linux adopters">List of Linux adopters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:NewTux.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/12px-NewTux.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/19px-NewTux.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/25px-NewTux.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="750" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linux" title="Portal:Linux">Linux portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/15px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/23px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/30px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Linux_kernel" title="Category:Linux kernel">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Linux642" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linux" title="Template:Linux"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linux" title="Template talk:Linux"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linux" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linux"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Linux642" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linux kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Linux" title="History of Linux">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus%27s_law" title="Linus's law">Linus's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux-libre" title="Linux-libre">Linux-libre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booting_process_of_Linux" title="Booting process of Linux">Booting process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_oops" title="Linux kernel oops">Kernel oops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tux_(mascot)" title="Tux (mascot)">Tux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Linux_kernel" title="Template:Linux kernel">more…</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Controversies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Linux" title="Criticism of Linux">Criticism of Linux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_desktop_Linux" title="Criticism of desktop Linux">Criticism of desktop Linux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GNU/Linux_naming_controversy" title="GNU/Linux naming controversy">GNU/Linux naming controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanenbaum%E2%80%93Torvalds_debate" title="Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate">Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCO%E2%80%93Linux_disputes" title="SCO–Linux disputes">SCO and Linux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_distribution" title="Linux distribution">Distributions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Linux_distributions" title="Comparison of Linux distributions">General comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Linux_distributions" title="List of Linux distributions">Distributions list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_netbook-oriented_Linux_distributions" title="Comparison of netbook-oriented Linux distributions">Netbook-specific comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Linux_distributions_that_run_from_RAM" title="List of Linux distributions that run from RAM">Distributions that run from RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-weight_Linux_distribution" title="Light-weight Linux distribution">Lightweight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security-focused_operating_system#Linux" title="Security-focused operating system">Security-focused operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Package_manager" title="Package manager">Package manager</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Package_format" title="Package format">Package format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_software_package_management_systems" title="List of software package management systems">List of software package managers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LinuxChix" title="LinuxChix">LinuxChix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Counter" title="Linux Counter">Linux Counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Documentation_Project" title="Linux Documentation Project">Linux Documentation Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Foundation" title="Linux Foundation">Linux Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Mark_Institute" title="Linux Mark Institute">Linux Mark Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_user_group" title="Linux user group">Linux User Group (LUG)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_adoption" title="Linux adoption">Adoption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Linux_adopters" title="List of Linux adopters">Adopters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_desktop_environments" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux desktop environments">Desktop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_on_embedded_systems" title="Linux on embedded systems">Embedded</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_gaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux gaming">Gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_for_mobile_devices" title="Linux for mobile devices">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_range_of_use" title="Linux range of use">Range of use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_malware" title="Linux malware">Linux malware</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DistroWatch" title="DistroWatch">DistroWatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Magazine" title="Free Software Magazine">Free Software Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Circle_(magazine)" title="Full Circle (magazine)">Full Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacker_Public_Radio" title="Hacker Public Radio">Hacker Public Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux.com" title="Linux.com">Linux.com</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Format" title="Linux Format">Linux Format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Gazette" title="Linux Gazette">Linux Gazette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Journal" title="Linux Journal">Linux Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Magazine" title="Linux Magazine">Linux Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LinuxUser" title="LinuxUser">LinuxUser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_User" title="Ubuntu User">Ubuntu User</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Outlaws" title="Linux Outlaws">Linux Outlaws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Voice" title="Linux Voice">Linux Voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LugRadio" title="LugRadio">LugRadio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LWN.net" title="LWN.net">LWN.net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronix_Test_Suite#Phoronix_website" title="Phoronix Test Suite">Phoronix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_OS" title="Revolution OS">Revolution OS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Code_(2001_film)" title="The Code (2001 film)">The Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_security_certifications" title="List of computer security certifications">Professional related certifications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CompTIA_Linux%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="CompTIA Linux+">CompTIA Linux+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Foundation_Linux_Certification" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux Foundation Linux Certification">Linux Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Hat_Certification_Program" title="Red Hat Certification Program">Red Hat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_Professional_Certification" title="Ubuntu Professional Certification">Ubuntu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:NewTux.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/12px-NewTux.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/19px-NewTux.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NewTux.svg/25px-NewTux.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="750" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linux" title="Portal:Linux">Linux portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/15px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/23px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/30px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Linux" title="Category:Linux">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mobile_operating_systems898" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mobile_operating_systems" title="Template:Mobile operating systems"><abbr title="View 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Alliance">Open Handset Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Mobile_Alliance" title="Open Mobile Alliance">Open Mobile Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mobile_app_distribution_platforms" title="List of mobile app distribution platforms">Mobile app distributions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_app_development" title="Mobile app development">Mobile app development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linux</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_Kernel" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux Kernel">Linux Kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Current: <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_custom_Android_distributions" title="List of custom Android distributions">forks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Android_Go" title="Android Go">Android Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wear_OS" title="Wear OS">Wear OS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMUI" title="EMUI">EMUI</a>/<a href="/wiki/HarmonyOS" title="HarmonyOS">HarmonyOS</a> (Linux kernel subsystem)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ChromeOS" title="ChromeOS">ChromeOS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ChromeOS_Flex" class="mw-redirect" title="ChromeOS Flex">ChromeOS Flex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KaiOS" title="KaiOS">KaiOS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMD_Global#Smart_Feature_OS" title="HMD Global">Smart Feature OS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Kindle" title="Amazon Kindle">Kindle firmware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LuneOS" title="LuneOS">LuneOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maemo#Maemo_Leste" title="Maemo">Maemo Leste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tizen" title="Tizen">Tizen</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Defunct: <a href="/wiki/Bada_(operating_system)" title="Bada (operating system)">Bada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefox_OS" title="Firefox OS">Firefox OS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B2G_OS" class="mw-redirect" title="B2G OS">B2G OS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MeeGo" title="MeeGo">MeeGo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MontaVista" title="MontaVista">MontaVista</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MotoMagx" title="MotoMagx">MotoMagx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilinux" title="Mobilinux">Mobilinux</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenEmbedded" title="OpenEmbedded">OpenEmbedded</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m_distribution" title="Ångström distribution">Ångström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Openmoko_Linux" title="Openmoko Linux">Openmoko Linux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QtMoko" class="mw-redirect" title="QtMoko">QtMoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SHR_(operating_system)" title="SHR (operating system)">SHR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenEZX" title="OpenEZX">OpenEZX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WebOS" title="WebOS">WebOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GNU" title="GNU">GNU</a>/<a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Current: <a href="/wiki/Fedora_Linux" title="Fedora Linux">Fedora Mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjaro" title="Manjaro">Manjaro ARM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PostmarketOS" title="PostmarketOS">postmarketOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PureOS" title="PureOS">PureOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailfish_OS" title="Sailfish OS">Sailfish OS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SteamOS" title="SteamOS">SteamOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_Touch" title="Ubuntu Touch">Ubuntu Touch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UBports" class="mw-redirect" title="UBports">UBports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobian" title="Mobian">Mobian</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Defunct: <a href="/wiki/Maemo" title="Maemo">Maemo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mer_(software_distribution)" title="Mer (software distribution)">Mer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moblin" title="Moblin">Moblin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/XNU" title="XNU">XNU</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IOS" title="IOS">iOS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPadOS" title="IPadOS">iPadOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WatchOS" title="WatchOS">watchOS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BridgeOS" title="BridgeOS">bridgeOS</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/QNX" title="QNX">QNX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BlackBerry_10" title="BlackBerry 10">BlackBerry 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BlackBerry_Tablet_OS" title="BlackBerry Tablet OS">BlackBerry Tablet OS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Windows_XP_editions#Tablet_PC_Edition" title="Windows XP editions">Windows XP Tablet PC Edition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Mobile" title="Windows Mobile">Windows Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Phone" title="Windows Phone">Windows Phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Phone_7" title="Windows Phone 7">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Phone_8" title="Windows Phone 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Phone_8.1" title="Windows Phone 8.1">8.1</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_RT" title="Windows RT">Windows RT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_10_Mobile" title="Windows 10 Mobile">Windows 10 Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_8" title="Windows 8">Windows 8</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Windows_8.1" title="Windows 8.1">Windows 8.1</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_10" title="Windows 10">Windows 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_11" title="Windows 11">Windows 11</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zircon_(microkernel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zircon (microkernel)">Zircon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuchsia_(operating_system)" title="Fuchsia (operating system)">Fuchsia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>/<a href="/wiki/NetBSD" title="NetBSD">NetBSD</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/PlayStation_Vita_system_software" title="PlayStation Vita system software">PlayStation Vita system software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/OpenHarmony" title="OpenHarmony">OpenHarmony</a>/<a href="/wiki/HarmonyOS_NEXT" title="HarmonyOS NEXT">HarmonyOS NEXT</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Current: <a href="/wiki/OpenHarmony" title="OpenHarmony">OpenHarmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HarmonyOS" title="HarmonyOS">HarmonyOS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HarmonyOS_NEXT" title="HarmonyOS NEXT">HarmonyOS NEXT</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Defunct: <a href="/wiki/EMUI" title="EMUI">EMUI</a> (Non GMS based)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LiteOS" title="LiteOS">LiteOS</a></li> <li>Huawei Band OS</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/FreeRTOS" title="FreeRTOS">FreeRTOS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Amazfit OS <ul><li>Zepp OS</li></ul></li> <li>MIUI Band OS</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nintendo" title="Nintendo">Nintendo system software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nintendo_3DS_system_software" title="Nintendo 3DS system software">Nintendo 3DS system software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nintendo_DSi_system_software" title="Nintendo DSi system software">Nintendo DSi system software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nintendo_Switch_system_software" title="Nintendo Switch system software">Nintendo Switch system software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Minix_3" title="Minix 3">Minix 3</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intel_Management_Engine" title="Intel Management Engine">Intel Management Engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Symbian" title="Symbian">Symbian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S60_(software_platform)" title="S60 (software platform)">S60</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_80_(software_platform)" title="Series 80 (software platform)">S80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_90_(software_platform)" title="Series 90 (software platform)">S90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UIQ" title="UIQ">UIQ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_Runtime_Environment_for_Wireless" title="Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless">Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless</a> (BREW)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BlackBerry_OS" title="BlackBerry OS">BlackBerry OS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPOC_(operating_system)" title="EPOC (operating system)">EPOC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GEOS_(16-bit_operating_system)" title="GEOS (16-bit operating system)">GEOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_Cap" title="Magic Cap">Magic Cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nokia_Asha_platform" title="Nokia Asha platform">Nokia Asha platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PalmDOS" class="mw-redirect" title="PalmDOS">PalmDOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_OS" title="Palm OS">Palm OS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PlayStation_Portable_system_software" title="PlayStation Portable system software">PlayStation Portable system software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_30" class="mw-redirect" title="Series 30">S30</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_30%2B" title="Series 30+">S30+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_40" title="Series 40">S40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sony_Ericsson_Java_Platform" title="Sony Ericsson Java Platform">Sony Ericsson Java Platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ThreadX" title="ThreadX">ThreadX</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mobile_operating_systems" title="Category:Mobile operating systems">Mobile operating systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mobile_applications" title="Category:Mobile applications">Mobile applications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Software" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Software">Software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Routing_software208" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Routing_software" title="Template:Routing software"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Routing_software" title="Template talk:Routing software"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Routing_software" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Routing software"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Routing_software208" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_router_firmware_projects" title="List of router firmware projects">Routing software</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a> & <a href="/wiki/Network_operating_system" title="Network operating system">network operating systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linux</a>- based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Entirely free</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endian_Firewall" title="Endian Firewall">Endian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fli4l" title="Fli4l">fli4l</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floppyfw" title="Floppyfw">Floppyfw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPFire" title="IPFire">IPFire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenWrt#LEDE" title="OpenWrt">LEDE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LibreCMC" title="LibreCMC">libreCMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenWrt" title="OpenWrt">OpenWrt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VyOS" title="VyOS">VyOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeroshell" title="Zeroshell">Zeroshell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Partly proprietary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquiti_Networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ubiquiti Networks">AirOS & EdgeOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AlliedWare_Plus" title="AlliedWare Plus">Alliedware Plus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DD-WRT" title="DD-WRT">DD-WRT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExtremeXOS" title="ExtremeXOS">ExtremeXOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz!Box" title="Fritz!Box">FRITZ!Box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MikroTik#RouterOS" title="MikroTik">RouterOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SmoothWall" class="mw-redirect" title="SmoothWall">SmoothWall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomato_(firmware)" title="Tomato (firmware)">Tomato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyatta" title="Vyatta">Vyatta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>- based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Entirely free</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M0n0wall" title="M0n0wall">m0n0wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPNsense" title="OPNsense">OPNsense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PfSense" title="PfSense">pfSense</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Partly proprietary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junos_OS" title="Junos OS">Junos OS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisco_IOS" title="Cisco IOS">Cisco IOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_Networks" title="Extreme Networks">ExtremeWare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisco_NX-OS" title="Cisco NX-OS">NX-OS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcatel-Lucent" title="Alcatel-Lucent">TiMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huawei" title="Huawei">VRP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Routing daemons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babel_(protocol)" title="Babel (protocol)">Babel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B.A.T.M.A.N." title="B.A.T.M.A.N.">B.A.T.M.A.N.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_Internet_routing_daemon" title="Bird Internet routing daemon">BIRD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FRRouting" title="FRRouting">FRRouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GNU_Zebra" title="GNU Zebra">GNU Zebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenBGPD" title="OpenBGPD">OpenBGPD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenOSPFD" title="OpenOSPFD">OpenOSPFD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quagga_(software)" title="Quagga (software)">Quagga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XORP" title="XORP">XORP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captive_portal" title="Captive portal">Captive portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighbornode" title="Neighbornode">Neighbornode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_(network)" title="Tor (network)">Tor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_firewalls" title="Comparison of firewalls">Comparison of firewalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_router_and_firewall_distributions" title="List of router and firewall distributions">List of router and firewall distributions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_router_firmware_projects" title="List of router firmware projects">List of router firmware projects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency#Software_backdoors" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency#Software backdoors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Contributors_to_the_Linux_operating_system268" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linux_people" title="Template:Linux people"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linux_people" title="Template talk:Linux people"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linux_people" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linux people"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Contributors_to_the_Linux_operating_system268" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Contributors to the <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux operating system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H._Peter_Anvin" title="H. Peter Anvin">H. Peter Anvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jens_Axboe" title="Jens Axboe">Jens Axboe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andries_Brouwer" title="Andries Brouwer">Andries Brouwer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9my_Card" title="Rémy Card">Rémy Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Cox_(computer_programmer)" title="Alan Cox (computer programmer)">Alan Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Garrett" title="Matthew Garrett">Matthew Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kerrisk" title="Michael Kerrisk">Michael Kerrisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuah_Khan" title="Shuah Khan">Shuah Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Con_Kolivas" title="Con Kolivas">Con Kolivas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Kroah-Hartman" title="Greg Kroah-Hartman">Greg Kroah-Hartman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benson_Leung" title="Benson Leung">Benson Leung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Love" title="Robert Love">Robert Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Miller" title="David S. Miller">David S. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingo_Moln%C3%A1r" title="Ingo Molnár">Ingo Molnár</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Morton_(computer_programmer)" title="Andrew Morton (computer programmer)">Andrew Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Packard" title="Keith Packard">Keith Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reiser" title="Hans Reiser">Hans Reiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusty_Russell" title="Rusty Russell">Rusty Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sage_Sharp" title="Sage Sharp">Sage Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Ts%27o" title="Theodore Ts'o">Theodore Ts'o</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Tweedie" title="Stephen Tweedie">Stephen Tweedie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sage_Weil" title="Sage Weil">Sage Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Welte" title="Harald Welte">Harald Welte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Wright_(programmer)" title="Chris Wright (programmer)">Chris Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/GNU" title="GNU">GNU</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tiemann" title="Michael Tiemann">Michael Tiemann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linux_distribution" title="Linux distribution">Distributions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Designer" title="Solar Designer">Solar Designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%C3%ABl_Duval" title="Gaël Duval">Gaël Duval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Ewing" title="Marc Ewing">Marc Ewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mako_Hill" title="Benjamin Mako Hill">Benjamin Mako Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_MacDonald_(computer_programmer)" title="Peter MacDonald (computer programmer)">Peter MacDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Murdock" title="Ian Murdock">Ian Murdock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Robbins_(computer_programmer)" title="Daniel Robbins (computer programmer)">Daniel Robbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Silber" title="Jane Silber">Jane Silber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Shuttleworth" title="Mark Shuttleworth">Mark Shuttleworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Volkerding" title="Patrick Volkerding">Patrick Volkerding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Young_(businessman)" title="Bob Young (businessman)">Bob Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other developers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timothee_Besset" title="Timothee Besset">Timothee Besset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Ettrich" title="Matthias Ettrich">Matthias Ettrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Fourdan" title="Olivier Fourdan">Olivier Fourdan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Galassi" title="Mark Galassi">Mark Galassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Gettys" title="Jim Gettys">Jim Gettys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryan_C._Gordon" title="Ryan C. Gordon">Ryan C. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Hoyer" title="Harald Hoyer">Harald Hoyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Icaza" title="Miguel de Icaza">Miguel de Icaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havoc_Pennington" title="Havoc Pennington">Havoc Pennington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lennart_Poettering" title="Lennart Poettering">Lennart Poettering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Sievers" title="Kay Sievers">Kay Sievers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Taylor_(game_programmer)" title="Dave Taylor (game programmer)">Dave Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Waugh" title="Jeff Waugh">Jeff Waugh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advocates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_Aurora" title="Valerie Aurora">Valerie Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Benjamin" title="Donna Benjamin">Donna Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Coar" title="Ken Coar">Ken Coar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Gardiner" title="Mary Gardiner">Mary Gardiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Hall_(programmer)" title="Jon Hall (programmer)">Jon Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Heinz" class="mw-redirect" title="Federico Heinz">Federico Heinz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_M._Kuhn" title="Bradley M. Kuhn">Bradley M. Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Perens" title="Bruce Perens">Bruce Perens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Eric S. Raymond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pia_Andrews" title="Pia Andrews">Pia Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jono_Bacon" title="Jono Bacon">Jono Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Bergelt" title="Keith Bergelt">Keith Bergelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamela_Jones" title="Pamela Jones">Pamela Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allison_Randal" title="Allison Randal">Allison Randal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Sandler" title="Karen Sandler">Karen Sandler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Sifry" title="Dave Sifry">Dave Sifry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Villa" title="Luis Villa">Luis Villa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/File:NewTux.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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