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href="#Anatomy_in_vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Anatomy in vertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatomy_in_vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_anatomy_and_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_anatomy_and_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Comparative anatomy and evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_anatomy_and_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neural_precursors_in_sponges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neural_precursors_in_sponges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Neural precursors in sponges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neural_precursors_in_sponges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Radiata</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bilateria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bilateria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Bilateria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bilateria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>Worms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arthropods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arthropods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.5</span> <span>Arthropods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arthropods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molluscs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molluscs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.6</span> <span>Molluscs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molluscs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Identified"_neurons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Identified"_neurons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.7</span> <span>"Identified" neurons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Identified"_neurons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neurons_and_synapses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurons_and_synapses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Neurons and synapses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurons_and_synapses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neural_circuits_and_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neural_circuits_and_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Neural circuits and systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neural_circuits_and_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reflexes_and_other_stimulus-response_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reflexes_and_other_stimulus-response_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Reflexes and other stimulus-response circuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reflexes_and_other_stimulus-response_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intrinsic_pattern_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intrinsic_pattern_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Intrinsic pattern generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intrinsic_pattern_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mirror_neurons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mirror_neurons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Mirror neurons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mirror_neurons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nervous system</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 129 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-129" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">129 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senuweestelsel" title="Senuweestelsel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Senuweestelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervensystem" title="Nervensystem – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Nervensystem" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="جهاز عصبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جهاز عصبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_niervoso" title="Sistema niervoso – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Sistema niervoso" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="স্নায়ু তন্ত্ৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="স্নায়ু তন্ত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nerviosu" title="Sistema nerviosu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sistema nerviosu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinir_sistemi" title="Sinir sistemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sinir sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C" title="عصب سیستمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="عصب سیستمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="স্নায়ুতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্নায়ুতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AEn-keng_h%C4%93-th%C3%B3ng" title="Sîn-keng hē-thóng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sîn-keng hē-thóng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Нервы системаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Нервы системаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Нервовая сістэма – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нервовая сістэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Нэрвовая сыстэма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Нэрвовая сыстэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_nerbyos" title="Sistemang nerbyos – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sistemang nerbyos" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Нервна система – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нервна система" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervni_sistem" title="Nervni sistem – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nervni sistem" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_nervennel" title="Sistem nervennel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sistem nervennel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervi%C3%B3s" title="Sistema nerviós – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema nerviós" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervov%C3%A1_soustava" title="Nervová soustava – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nervová soustava" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_nerfol" title="System nerfol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="System nerfol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervesystemet" title="Nervesystemet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nervesystemet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="سيستيم عصبي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="سيستيم عصبي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervensystem" title="Nervensystem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nervensystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%82%DE%A7%DE%83%DE%AA%DE%8C%DE%A6%DE%86%DE%AA%DE%8E%DE%AC_%DE%82%DE%A8%DE%92%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%B0" title="ނާރުތަކުގެ ނިޒާމް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ނާރުތަކުގެ ނިޒާމް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4rvis%C3%BCsteem" title="Närvisüsteem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Närvisüsteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Νευρικό σύστημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νευρικό σύστημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervioso" title="Sistema nervioso – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema nervioso" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerva_sistemo" title="Nerva sistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nerva sistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nerviosu" title="Sistema nerviosu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Sistema nerviosu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerbio-sistema" title="Nerbio-sistema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nerbio-sistema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="دستگاه عصبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستگاه عصبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Nervous system" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_nerveux" title="Système nerveux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Système nerveux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9arch%C3%B3ras" title="Néarchóras – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Néarchóras" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervioso" title="Sistema nervioso – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sistema nervioso" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Нервий система – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Нервий система" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%B9%B3%CC%80n-k%C3%AEn_Ne-th%C3%BAng" title="Sṳ̀n-kîn Ne-thúng – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sṳ̀n-kîn Ne-thúng" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%84" title="신경계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신경계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B5%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3" title="Նյարդային համակարգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նյարդային համակարգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="तन्त्रिका तन्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तन्त्रिका तन्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDiv%C4%8Dani_sustav" title="Živčani sustav – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Živčani sustav" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervaro" title="Nervaro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nervaro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_ti_nerbios" title="Sistema ti nerbios – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sistema ti nerbios" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_saraf" title="Sistem saraf – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem saraf" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_nervose" title="Systema nervose – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Systema nervose" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taugakerfi%C3%B0" title="Taugakerfið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Taugakerfið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervoso" title="Sistema nervoso – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema nervoso" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מערכת העצבים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת העצבים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_saraf" title="Sistem saraf – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sistem saraf" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B2" title="ನರಮಂಡಲ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನರಮಂಡಲ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_nerbiosu" title="Sistemang nerbiosu – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Sistemang nerbiosu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ნერვული სისტემა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნერვული სისტემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96" title="Жүйке жүйесі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жүйке жүйесі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevreyth_nervus" title="Kevreyth nervus – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Kevreyth nervus" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfumo_wa_neva" title="Mfumo wa neva – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mfumo wa neva" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8m_nerv%C3%A9" title="Systèm nervé – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Systèm nervé" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koendama_demar%C3%AA" title="Koendama demarê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Koendama demarê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Нерв тутуму – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Нерв тутуму" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ລະບົບປະສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ລະບົບປະສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_nervosum" title="Systema nervosum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Systema nervosum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Nervu sistēma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nervu sistēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervesystem" title="Nervesystem – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Nervesystem" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerv%C5%B3_sistema" title="Nervų sistema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nervų sistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenuwst%C3%A8lsel" title="Zenuwstèlsel – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Zenuwstèlsel" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_de_nervos" title="Sistem de nervos – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sistem de nervos" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervos" title="Sistema nervos – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sistema nervos" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idegrendszer" title="Idegrendszer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Idegrendszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Нервен систем – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нервен систем" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%82" title="നാഡീവ്യൂഹം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നാഡീവ്യൂഹം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE" title="चेतासंस्था – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="चेतासंस्था" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ნერვული სისტემა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნერვული სისტემა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%89" title="جهاز عصبى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جهاز عصبى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_saraf" title="Sistem saraf – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem saraf" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_saraf" title="Sistem saraf – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Sistem saraf" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Мэдрэлийн систем – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мэдрэлийн систем" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="အာရုံကြောစနစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အာရုံကြောစနစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenuwstelsel" title="Zenuwstelsel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zenuwstelsel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="स्नायु प्रणाली – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="स्नायु प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E7%B3%BB" title="神経系 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="神経系" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Нервийн система – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Нервийн система" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerfen" title="Nerfen – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Nerfen" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervesystem" title="Nervesystem – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nervesystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervesystemet" title="Nervesystemet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nervesystemet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8ma_nervi%C3%B3s" title="Sistèma nerviós – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sistèma nerviós" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirna_narvii" title="Sirna narvii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Sirna narvii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerv_sistemasi" title="Nerv sistemasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nerv sistemasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A7" title="ਤੰਤੂ ਪ੍ਰਬੰਧ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤੰਤੂ ਪ੍ਰਬੰਧ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%BE" title="نروس پربندھ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نروس پربندھ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervioso" title="Sistema nervioso – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Sistema nervioso" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%8E%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%83%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%BC" title="ណ្វៃយូ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ណ្វៃយូ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervensysteem" title="Nervensysteem – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Nervensysteem" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uk%C5%82ad_nerwowy" title="Układ nerwowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Układ nerwowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervoso" title="Sistema nervoso – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema nervoso" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerv_sistemas%C4%B1" title="Nerv sisteması – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Nerv sisteması" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_nervos" title="Sistem nervos – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistem nervos" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankucha_llika" title="Ankucha llika – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ankucha llika" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Нервова сістема – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Нервова сістема" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Нервная система – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нервная система" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D0%B8%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%8D_%D1%82%D0%B8%D2%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%8D" title="Ньиэрбэ тиһигэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ньиэрбэ тиһигэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemi_nervor" title="Sistemi nervor – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sistemi nervor" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nirbusu" title="Sistema nirbusu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sistema nirbusu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="ස්නායු පද්ධතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ස්නායු පද්ධතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nervous system" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%88" title="تنتي سرشتو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="تنتي سرشتو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervov%C3%A1_s%C3%BAstava" title="Nervová sústava – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nervová sústava" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDiv%C4%8Dni_sistem" title="Živčni sistem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Živčni sistem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="کۆئەندامی دەمار – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆئەندامی دەمار" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Нервни систем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нервни систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervni_sistem" title="Nervni sistem – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nervni sistem" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermosto" title="Hermosto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hermosto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervsystemet" title="Nervsystemet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nervsystemet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_nerbiyos" title="Sistemang nerbiyos – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sistemang nerbiyos" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF" title="நரம்புத் தொகுதி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நரம்புத் தொகுதி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagraw_ansur" title="Anagraw ansur – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Anagraw ansur" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Нерв системасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Нерв системасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%80_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5" title="నాడీ వ్యవస్థ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నాడీ వ్యవస్థ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97" title="ระบบประสาท – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบประสาท" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%BE%E1%8E%A6%E1%8E%B5%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9_%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%99%E1%8F%A2%E1%8F%92" title="ᎠᎾᎦᎵᏗᏍᎩ ᎤᏙᏢᏒ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᎾᎦᎵᏗᏍᎩ ᎤᏙᏢᏒ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinir_sistemi" title="Sinir sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sinir sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Нервова система – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нервова система" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Nervous system (disambiguation)">Nervous system (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Nervous system</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg/250px-TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg/375px-TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg/500px-TE-Nervous_system_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="766" data-file-height="900" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The human nervous system</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>systema nervosum</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009420">D009420</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/14.0.00.000%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A14.0.00.000</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma7157">7157</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9404" class="extiw" title="d:Q9404">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, the <b>nervous system</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">highly complex</a> part of an <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> that coordinates its <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">actions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensory</a> information by transmitting <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">signals</a> to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a> to respond to such events.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nervous tissue first arose in <a href="/wiki/Ediacara_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ediacara biota">wormlike organisms</a> about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrates, it consists of two main parts, the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS) and the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> (PNS). The CNS consists of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. The PNS consists mainly of <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerves</a>, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers, or <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a>, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called <a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">motor nerves</a> (efferent), while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called <a href="/wiki/Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">sensory nerves</a> (afferent). The PNS is divided into two separate subsystems, the <a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">somatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic</a>, nervous systems. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">parasympathetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">enteric</a> nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal system">gastrointestinal system</a>. Nerves that exit from the brain are called <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranial nerve">cranial nerves</a> while those exiting from the spinal cord are called <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">spinal nerves</a>. </p><p>The nervous system consists of <a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">nervous tissue</a> which, at a cellular level, is defined by the presence of a special type of cell, called the <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a>. Neurons have special structures that allow them to send signals rapidly and precisely to other cells. They send these signals in the form of electrochemical impulses traveling along thin fibers called <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a>, which can be directly transmitted to neighboring cells through <a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">electrical synapses</a> or cause chemicals called <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> to be released at <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">chemical synapses</a>. A cell that receives a synaptic signal from a neuron may be <a href="/wiki/Depolarization" title="Depolarization">excited</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperpolarization_(biology)" title="Hyperpolarization (biology)">inhibited</a>, or otherwise <a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">modulated</a>. The connections between neurons can form <a href="/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">neural pathways</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">neural circuits</a>, and larger <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_brain_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale brain networks">networks</a> that generate an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior. Along with neurons, the nervous system contains other specialized cells called <a href="/wiki/Glial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cell">glial cells</a> (or simply glia), which provide structural and metabolic support. Many of the cells and vasculature channels within the nervous system make up the <a href="/wiki/Neurovascular_unit" title="Neurovascular unit">neurovascular unit</a>, which regulates cerebral blood flow in order to rapidly satisfy the high energy demands of activated neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nervous systems are found in most <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular animal">multicellular animals</a>, but vary greatly in complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-Columbia_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Columbia-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">placozoans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">mesozoans</a>, which have very simple body plans. The nervous systems of the <a href="/wiki/Radially_symmetric" class="mw-redirect" title="Radially symmetric">radially symmetric</a> organisms <a href="/wiki/Ctenophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophores">ctenophores</a> (comb jellies) and <a href="/wiki/Cnidarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarians">cnidarians</a> (which include <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">anemones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydras" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydras">hydras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>) consist of a diffuse <a href="/wiki/Nerve_net" title="Nerve net">nerve net</a>. All other animal species, with the exception of a few types of <a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">worm</a>, have a nervous system containing a brain, a central cord (or two cords running in parallel), and nerves radiating from the brain and central cord. The size of the nervous system ranges from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to around 300 billion cells in <a href="/wiki/African_elephant" title="African elephant">African elephants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The central nervous system functions to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others and to receive feedback. Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result of genetic defects, physical damage due to trauma or toxicity, infection, or simply <a href="/wiki/Senescence" title="Senescence">senescence</a>. The medical specialty of <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a> studies disorders of the nervous system and looks for interventions that can prevent or treat them. In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes including <a href="/wiki/Diabetic_neuropathy" title="Diabetic neuropathy">diabetic neuropathy</a> and demyelinating disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a> is the field of science that focuses on the study of the nervous system. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Autonomic_and_Somatic_Nervous_System.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Autonomic_and_Somatic_Nervous_System.png/260px-Autonomic_and_Somatic_Nervous_System.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Autonomic_and_Somatic_Nervous_System.png/390px-Autonomic_and_Somatic_Nervous_System.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Autonomic_and_Somatic_Nervous_System.png/520px-Autonomic_and_Somatic_Nervous_System.png 2x" data-file-width="1416" data-file-height="672" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>The nervous system derives its name from nerves, which are cylindrical bundles of fibers (the <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>), that emanate from the brain and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nerves are large enough to have been recognized by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans,<sup id="cite_ref-FingerCh1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FingerCh1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but their internal structure was not understood until it became possible to examine them using a microscope.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The author Michael Nikoletseas wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>"It is difficult to believe that until approximately year 1900 it was not known that neurons are the basic units of the brain (<a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a>). Equally surprising is the fact that the concept of chemical transmission in the brain was not known until around 1930 (<a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a>). We began to understand the basic electrical phenomenon that neurons use in order to communicate among themselves, the action potential, in the 1950s (<a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a>). It was in the 1960s that we became aware of how basic neuronal networks code stimuli and thus basic concepts are possible (<a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a>). The molecular revolution swept across US universities in the 1980s. It was in the 1990s that molecular mechanisms of behavioral phenomena became widely known (<a href="/wiki/Eric_Richard_Kandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Richard Kandel">Eric Richard Kandel</a>)."</p></blockquote><p> A microscopic examination shows that nerves consist primarily of axons, along with different membranes that wrap around them and segregate them into <a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">fascicles</a>. The neurons that give rise to nerves do not lie entirely within the nerves themselves—their cell bodies reside within the brain, <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, or peripheral <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All animals more advanced than sponges have nervous systems. However, even <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, unicellular animals, and non-animals such as slime molds have cell-to-cell signalling mechanisms that are precursors to those of neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-Sakarya_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sakarya-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In radially symmetric animals such as the jellyfish and hydra, the nervous system consists of a <a href="/wiki/Nerve_net" title="Nerve net">nerve net</a>, a diffuse network of isolated cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterian</a> animals, which make up the great majority of existing species, the nervous system has a common structure that originated early in the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> period, over 550 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Balavoine_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balavoine-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cells">Cells</h3></div> <p>The nervous system contains two main categories or types of cells: <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cell">glial cells</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neurons">Neurons</h4></div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:-moz-fit-content; width:fit-content;"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:auto;"> <div style="position: relative;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="At one end of an elongated structure is a branching mass. At the centre of this mass is the nucleus and the branches are dendrites. A thick axon trails away from the mass, ending with further branching which are labeled as axon terminals. Along the axon are a number of protuberances labeled as myelin sheaths." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg/400px-Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg/600px-Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg/800px-Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="634" /></a></span> <div style="position:absolute; left:50px; top:2px"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:135px; top:60px"><a href="/wiki/Perikaryon" class="mw-redirect" title="Perikaryon">Soma</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:189px; top:116px"><a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">Axon</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:149px; top:82px"><a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">Axon hillock</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:13px; top:197px"><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">Nucleus</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:226px; top:38px"><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Node of<br />Ranvier</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:319px; top:0px"><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminal</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:306px; top:161px"><a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cell</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:220px; top:187px"><a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelin sheath</a></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Structure of a typical neuron</div></div></div> <p>The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell—the <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a> (sometimes called "neurone" or "nerve cell").<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh2_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a>, which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that allows rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh2_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many types of neuron possess an <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a>, a protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic contacts;<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh4_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> axons typically extend throughout the body in bundles called nerves. </p><p>Even in the nervous system of a single species such as humans, hundreds of different types of neurons exist, with a wide variety of morphologies and functions.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh4_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include <a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">sensory neurons</a> that transmute physical stimuli such as light and sound into neural signals, and <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a> that transmute neural signals into activation of muscles or glands; however in many species the great majority of neurons participate in the formation of centralized structures (the brain and ganglia) and they receive all of their input from other neurons and send their output to other neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh2_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Glial_cells">Glial cells</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Glial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cell">Glial cells</a> (named from the Greek for "glue") are non-neuronal cells that provide support and <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a>, maintain <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>, form <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a>, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen2009_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen2009-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>, it is estimated that the total number of glia roughly equals the number of neurons, although the proportions vary in different brain areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Azevedo_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Azevedo-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the most important functions of glial cells are to support neurons and hold them in place; to supply nutrients to neurons; to insulate neurons electrically; to destroy <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> and remove dead neurons; and to provide guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to their targets.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen2009_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen2009-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A very important type of glial cell (<a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">oligodendrocytes</a> in the central nervous system, and <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cells</a> in the peripheral nervous system) generates layers of a fatty substance called <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> that wraps around axons and provides electrical insulation which allows them to transmit action potentials much more rapidly and efficiently. Recent findings indicate that glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, serve as important resident immune cells within the central nervous system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatomy_in_vertebrates">Anatomy in vertebrates</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_nerves_of_the_human_body" title="List of nerves of the human body">List of nerves of the human body</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NSdiagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NSdiagram.svg/380px-NSdiagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="380" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NSdiagram.svg/570px-NSdiagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NSdiagram.svg/760px-NSdiagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing the major divisions of the vertebrate nervous system</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg/220px-Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg/330px-Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg/440px-Visible_Human_head_slice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption>Horizontal section of the head of an adult female human, showing skin, skull, and brain with <a href="/wiki/Gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray matter">gray matter</a> (brown in this image) and underlying <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The nervous system of <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> (including humans) is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS) and the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> (PNS).<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh17_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh17-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The CNS is the major division, and consists of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh17_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh17-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a> contains the spinal cord, while the <a href="/wiki/Cranial_cavity" title="Cranial cavity">cranial cavity</a> contains the brain. The CNS is enclosed and protected by the <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</a>, a three-layered system of membranes, including a tough, leathery outer layer called the <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a>. The brain is also protected by the skull, and the spinal cord by the <a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">vertebrae</a>. </p><p>The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a collective term for the nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.<sup id="cite_ref-Gray233_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray233-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large majority of the axon bundles called nerves are considered to belong to the PNS, even when the cell bodies of the neurons to which they belong reside within the brain or spinal cord. The PNS is divided into <a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">somatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">visceral</a> parts. The somatic part consists of the nerves that innervate the skin, joints, and muscles. The cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons lie in <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">dorsal root ganglia</a> of the spinal cord. The visceral part, also known as the autonomic nervous system, contains neurons that innervate the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands. The autonomic nervous system itself consists of two parts: the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">parasympathetic nervous system</a>. Some authors also include sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the periphery (for senses such as hearing) as part of the PNS; others, however, omit them.<sup id="cite_ref-Hubbardvii_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hubbardvii-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vertebrate nervous system can also be divided into areas called <a href="/wiki/Gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray matter">gray matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Purves15_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purves15-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gray matter (which is only gray in preserved tissue, and is better described as pink or light brown in living tissue) contains a high proportion of cell bodies of neurons. White matter is composed mainly of <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelinated</a> axons, and takes its color from the myelin. White matter includes all of the nerves, and much of the interior of the brain and spinal cord. Gray matter is found in clusters of neurons in the brain and spinal cord, and in cortical layers that line their surfaces. There is an anatomical convention that a cluster of neurons in the brain or spinal cord is called a <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Nucleus (neuroanatomy)">nucleus</a>, whereas a cluster of neurons in the periphery is called a <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DorlandsGanglion_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DorlandsGanglion-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are, however, a few exceptions to this rule, notably including the part of the forebrain called the <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Afifi_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afifi-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_anatomy_and_evolution">Comparative anatomy and evolution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neural_precursors_in_sponges">Neural precursors in sponges</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponges</a> have no cells connected to each other by <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synaptic junctions</a>, that is, no neurons, and therefore no nervous system. They do, however, have <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologs</a> of many genes that play key roles in synaptic function. Recent studies have shown that sponge cells express a group of proteins that cluster together to form a structure resembling a <a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">postsynaptic density</a> (the signal-receiving part of a synapse).<sup id="cite_ref-Sakarya_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sakarya-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the function of this structure is currently unclear. Although sponge cells do not show synaptic transmission, they do communicate with each other via calcium waves and other impulses, which mediate some simple actions such as whole-body contraction.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacobs_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobs-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radiata">Radiata</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Jellyfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ctenophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenophore">comb jellies</a>, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system. In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth. The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons, which pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals; motor neurons, which can activate contractions of the body wall; and intermediate neurons, which detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and, in response, send signals to groups of motor neurons. In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruppert_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of the nervous system in <a href="/wiki/Radiata" title="Radiata">radiata</a> is relatively unstructured. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Bilaterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterians">bilaterians</a>, radiata only have two primordial cell layers, <a href="/wiki/Endoderm" title="Endoderm">endoderm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ectoderm" title="Ectoderm">ectoderm</a>. Neurons are generated from a special set of ectodermal precursor cells, which also serve as precursors for every other ectodermal cell type.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanes3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanes3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bilateria">Bilateria</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilaterian-plan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A rod-shaped body contains a digestive system running from the mouth at one end to the anus at the other. Alongside the digestive system is a nerve cord with a brain at the end, near to the mouth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/220px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/330px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/440px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="218" /></a><figcaption>Nervous system of a bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front</figcaption></figure> <p>The vast majority of existing animals are <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</a>, meaning animals with left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other. All bilateria are thought to have descended from a common wormlike ancestor that appear as fossils beginning in the Ediacaran period, 550–600 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Balavoine_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balavoine-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fundamental bilaterian body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from mouth to anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a "ganglion") for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the "brain". </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray797.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Gray797.png/125px-Gray797.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Gray797.png/188px-Gray797.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Gray797.png/250px-Gray797.png 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Area of the human body surface innervated by each spinal nerve</figcaption></figure> <p>Even mammals, including humans, show the segmented bilaterian body plan at the level of the nervous system. The spinal cord contains a series of segmental ganglia, each giving rise to motor and sensory nerves that innervate a portion of the body surface and underlying musculature. On the limbs, the layout of the innervation pattern is complex, but on the trunk it gives rise to a series of narrow bands. The top three segments belong to the brain, giving rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.<sup id="cite_ref-Ghysen_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghysen-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bilaterians can be divided, based on events that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (<a href="/wiki/Superphylum" class="mw-redirect" title="Superphylum">superphyla</a>) called <a href="/wiki/Protostomia" class="mw-redirect" title="Protostomia">protostomes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Erwin_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erwin-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deuterostomes include vertebrates as well as <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemichordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemichordata">hemichordates</a> (mainly acorn worms), and <a href="/wiki/Xenoturbellida" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenoturbellida">Xenoturbellidans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bourlat_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bourlat-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protostomes, the more diverse group, include <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a>, and numerous phyla of "worms". There is a basic difference between the two groups in the placement of the nervous system within the body: protostomes possess a nerve cord on the ventral (usually bottom) side of the body, whereas in deuterostomes the nerve cord is on the dorsal (usually top) side. In fact, numerous aspects of the body are inverted between the two groups, including the expression patterns of several genes that show dorsal-to-ventral gradients. Most anatomists now consider that the bodies of protostomes and deuterostomes are "flipped over" with respect to each other, a hypothesis that was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire" title="Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire">Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a> for insects in comparison to vertebrates. Thus insects, for example, have nerve cords that run along the ventral midline of the body, while all vertebrates have spinal cords that run along the dorsal midline.<sup id="cite_ref-Lichtneckert_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lichtneckert-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Worms">Worms</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earthworm_nervous_system.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Earthworm_nervous_system.png/250px-Earthworm_nervous_system.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Earthworm_nervous_system.png/375px-Earthworm_nervous_system.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Earthworm_nervous_system.png/500px-Earthworm_nervous_system.png 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>Earthworm nervous system. <i>Top:</i> side view of the front of the worm. <i>Bottom:</i> nervous system in isolation, viewed from above</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">Worms</a> are the simplest bilaterian animals, and reveal the basic structure of the bilaterian nervous system in the most straightforward way. As an example, <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a> have dual <a href="/wiki/Ventral_nerve_cord" title="Ventral nerve cord">nerve cords</a> running along the length of the body and merging at the tail and the mouth. These nerve cords are connected by <a href="/wiki/Transverse_plane" title="Transverse plane">transverse</a> nerves like the rungs of a ladder. These transverse nerves help <a href="/wiki/Coordinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinate">coordinate</a> the two sides of the animal. Two <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</a> at the head (the "<a href="/wiki/Nerve_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve ring">nerve ring</a>") end function similar to a simple <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. <a href="/wiki/Simple_eyes_in_arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple eyes in arthropods">Photoreceptors</a> on the animal's eyespots provide sensory information on light and dark.<sup id="cite_ref-Adey_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adey-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nervous system of one very small roundworm, the <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></i>, has been completely mapped out in a <a href="/wiki/Connectome" title="Connectome">connectome</a> including its synapses. Every neuron and its <a href="/wiki/Fate_mapping" title="Fate mapping">cellular lineage</a> has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is <a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually dimorphic">sexually dimorphic</a>; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and female <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodites" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphrodites">hermaphrodites</a>, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In <i>C. elegans</i>, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-Wormbook_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wormbook-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arthropods">Arthropods</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg/250px-Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg/375px-Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg/500px-Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="503" /></a><figcaption>Internal anatomy of a spider, showing the nervous system in blue</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, have a nervous system made up of a series of <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</a>, connected by a <a href="/wiki/Ventral_nerve_cord" title="Ventral nerve cord">ventral nerve cord</a> made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">belly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chapman_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chapman-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, each body segment has one <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglion</a> on each side, though some ganglia are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia. The head segment contains the brain, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Supraesophageal_ganglion" title="Supraesophageal ganglion">supraesophageal ganglion</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Insect#Nervous_system" title="Insect">insect nervous system</a>, the brain is anatomically divided into the <a href="/wiki/Protocerebrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocerebrum">protocerebrum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deutocerebrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutocerebrum">deutocerebrum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tritocerebrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tritocerebrum">tritocerebrum</a>. Immediately behind the brain is the <a href="/wiki/Subesophageal_ganglion" class="mw-redirect" title="Subesophageal ganglion">subesophageal ganglion</a>, which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia. It controls the <a href="/wiki/Arthropod_mouthparts" title="Arthropod mouthparts">mouthparts</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Salivary_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Salivary glands">salivary glands</a> and certain <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>. Many arthropods have well-developed <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensory</a> organs, including <a href="/wiki/Compound_eye" title="Compound eye">compound eyes</a> for vision and <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a> for <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">olfaction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromone</a> sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain. </p><p>In insects, many neurons have cell bodies that are positioned at the edge of the brain and are electrically passive—the cell bodies serve only to provide metabolic support and do not participate in signalling. A protoplasmic fiber runs from the cell body and branches profusely, with some parts transmitting signals and other parts receiving signals. Thus, most parts of the <a href="/wiki/Insect_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Insect brain">insect brain</a> have passive cell bodies arranged around the periphery, while the neural signal processing takes place in a tangle of protoplasmic fibers called <a href="/wiki/Neuropil" title="Neuropil">neuropil</a>, in the interior.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Molluscs">Molluscs</h4></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Mollusca#Nervous_system" title="Mollusca">Mollusca § Nervous system</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mollusca&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gastropod_nervous_system.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gastropod_nervous_system.gif/220px-Gastropod_nervous_system.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gastropod_nervous_system.gif/330px-Gastropod_nervous_system.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Gastropod_nervous_system.gif 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="544" /></a><figcaption>Simplified diagram of the mollusc nervous system</figcaption></figure> <p>The cephalic molluscs have two pairs of main <a href="/wiki/Ventral_nerve_cord" title="Ventral nerve cord">nerve cords</a> organized around a number of paired ganglia, the <a href="/wiki/Viscera" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscera">visceral</a> cords serving the internal organs and the pedal ones serving the foot. Most pairs of corresponding ganglia on both sides of the body are linked by <a href="/wiki/Commissure" title="Commissure">commissures</a> (relatively large bundles of nerves). The ganglia above the gut are the cerebral, the pleural, and the visceral, which are located above the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> (gullet). The pedal ganglia, which control the foot, are below the esophagus and their commissure and connectives to the cerebral and pleural ganglia surround the esophagus in a <a href="/wiki/Circumesophageal_nerve_ring" title="Circumesophageal nerve ring">circumesophageal nerve ring</a> or <i>nerve collar</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnes2004MolluscaGen_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnes2004MolluscaGen-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> The acephalic molluscs (i.e., bivalves) also have this ring but it is less obvious and less important. The bivalves have only three pairs of ganglia— cerebral, pedal, and visceral— with the visceral as the largest and most important of the three functioning as the principal center of "thinking".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some such as the <a href="/wiki/Scallops" class="mw-redirect" title="Scallops">scallops</a> have eyes around the edges of their shells which connect to a pair of looped nerves and which provide the ability to distinguish between light and shadow.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Identified"_neurons"><span id=".22Identified.22_neurons"></span>"Identified" neurons</h4></div> <p>A neuron is called <i>identified</i> if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has one and only one neuron with the same set of properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoyle_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoyle-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In vertebrate nervous systems very few neurons are "identified" in this sense—in humans, there are believed to be none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique. In the roundworm <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">C. elegans</a></i>, whose nervous system is the most thoroughly described of any animal's, every neuron in the body is uniquely identifiable, with the same location and the same connections in every individual worm. One notable consequence of this fact is that the form of the <i>C. elegans</i> nervous system is completely specified by the genome, with no experience-dependent plasticity.<sup id="cite_ref-Wormbook_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wormbook-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brains of many molluscs and insects also contain substantial numbers of identified neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoyle_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoyle-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic <a href="/wiki/Mauthner_cell" title="Mauthner cell">Mauthner cells</a> of fish.<sup id="cite_ref-Stein38_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stein38-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every fish has two Mauthner cells, in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes. The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response: within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a <a href="/wiki/Mauthner_cell#The_C-start_behavior" title="Mauthner cell">C-shape</a>, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward. Functionally this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish. Mauthner cells are not the only identified neurons in fish—there are about 20 more types, including pairs of "Mauthner cell analogs" in each spinal segmental nucleus. Although a Mauthner cell is capable of bringing about an escape response individually, in the context of ordinary behavior other types of cells usually contribute to shaping the amplitude and direction of the response. </p><p>Mauthner cells have been described as <a href="/wiki/Command_neuron" title="Command neuron">command neurons</a>. A command neuron is a special type of identified neuron, defined as a neuron that is capable of driving a specific behavior individually.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such neurons appear most commonly in the fast escape systems of various species—the <a href="/wiki/Squid_giant_axon" title="Squid giant axon">squid giant axon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Squid_giant_synapse" title="Squid giant synapse">squid giant synapse</a>, used for pioneering experiments in neurophysiology because of their enormous size, both participate in the fast escape circuit of the squid. The concept of a command neuron has, however, become controversial, because of studies showing that some neurons that initially appeared to fit the description were really only capable of evoking a response in a limited set of circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Simmons43_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons43-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2></div> <p>At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this "broadcast" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-to-point" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Gray170_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray170-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second. </p><p>At a more integrative level, the primary function of the nervous system is to control the body.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh2_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It does this by extracting information from the environment using sensory receptors, sending signals that encode this information into the central nervous system, processing the information to determine an appropriate response, and sending output signals to muscles or glands to activate the response. The evolution of a complex nervous system has made it possible for various animal species to have advanced perception abilities such as vision, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of organ systems, and integrated processing of concurrent signals. In humans, the sophistication of the nervous system makes it possible to have language, abstract representation of concepts, transmission of culture, and many other features of human society that would not exist without the human brain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurons_and_synapses">Neurons and synapses</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/350px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="436" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/525px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption>Major elements in synaptic transmission. An electrochemical wave called an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> travels along the <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a>. When the wave reaches a <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a>, it provokes release of a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> molecules, which bind to chemical receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most neurons send signals via their <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a>, although some types are capable of dendrite-to-dendrite communication. (In fact, the types of neurons called <a href="/wiki/Amacrine_cell" title="Amacrine cell">amacrine cells</a> have no axons, and communicate only via their dendrites.) Neural signals propagate along an axon in the form of electrochemical waves called <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</a>, which produce cell-to-cell signals at points where <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">axon terminals</a> make <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synaptic</a> contact with other cells.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh9_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh9-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Synapses may be electrical or chemical. <a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">Electrical synapses</a> make direct electrical connections between neurons,<sup id="cite_ref-Hormuzdi_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hormuzdi-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">chemical synapses</a> are much more common, and much more diverse in function.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh10_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh10-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a chemical synapse, the cell that sends signals is called presynaptic, and the cell that receives signals is called postsynaptic. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic areas are full of molecular machinery that carries out the signalling process. The presynaptic area contains large numbers of tiny spherical vessels called <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">synaptic vesicles</a>, packed with <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh9_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh9-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the presynaptic terminal is electrically stimulated, an array of molecules embedded in the membrane are activated, and cause the contents of the vesicles to be released into the narrow space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes, called the <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic cleft">synaptic cleft</a>. The neurotransmitter then binds to <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor" title="Neurotransmitter receptor">receptors</a> embedded in the postsynaptic membrane, causing them to enter an activated state.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh10_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh10-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the type of receptor, the resulting effect on the postsynaptic cell may be excitatory, inhibitory, or modulatory in more complex ways. For example, release of the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> at a synaptic contact between a <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neuron</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Muscle_cell" title="Muscle cell">muscle cell</a> induces rapid contraction of the muscle cell.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh11_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh11-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The entire synaptic transmission process takes only a fraction of a millisecond, although the effects on the postsynaptic cell may last much longer (even indefinitely, in cases where the synaptic signal leads to the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Memory_trace" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory trace">memory trace</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh4_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:-moz-fit-content; width:fit-content;"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:auto;"> <div style="position: relative;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SynapseSchematic_lines.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An illustrated chemical synapse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/SynapseSchematic_lines.svg/400px-SynapseSchematic_lines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/SynapseSchematic_lines.svg/600px-SynapseSchematic_lines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/SynapseSchematic_lines.svg/800px-SynapseSchematic_lines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1064" /></a></span> <div style="position:absolute; left:-1px; top:160px"><a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">Postsynaptic<br /> density</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:6px; top:97px"><a href="/wiki/Voltage-dependent_calcium_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-dependent calcium channel">Voltage-<br />gated Ca<sup>++</sup><br /> channel</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:19px; top:54px"><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">Synaptic<br /> vesicle</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:206px; top:22px"><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_transporter" title="Neurotransmitter transporter">Neurotransmitter <br /> transporter</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:250px; top:153px"><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor" title="Neurotransmitter receptor">Receptor</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:8px; top:7px"><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitter</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:332px; top:55px"><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminal</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:330px; top:137px"><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic cleft">Synaptic cleft</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:342px; top:182px"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Structure of a typical <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">chemical synapse</a></div></div></div> <p>There are literally hundreds of different types of synapses. In fact, there are over a hundred known neurotransmitters, and many of them have multiple types of receptors.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh15_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh15-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many synapses use more than one neurotransmitter—a common arrangement is for a synapse to use one fast-acting small-molecule neurotransmitter such as <a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">glutamate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</a>, along with one or more <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptide</a> neurotransmitters that play slower-acting modulatory roles. Molecular neuroscientists generally divide receptors into two broad groups: <a href="/wiki/Ligand-gated_ion_channel" title="Ligand-gated ion channel">chemically gated ion channels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_messenger_system" title="Second messenger system">second messenger systems</a>. When a chemically gated ion channel is activated, it forms a passage that allows specific types of ions to flow across the membrane. Depending on the type of ion, the effect on the target cell may be excitatory or inhibitory. When a second messenger system is activated, it starts a cascade of molecular interactions inside the target cell, which may ultimately produce a wide variety of complex effects, such as increasing or decreasing the sensitivity of the cell to stimuli, or even altering <a href="/wiki/Gene_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene transcription">gene transcription</a>. </p><p>According to a rule called <a href="/wiki/Dale%27s_principle" title="Dale's principle">Dale's principle</a>, which has only a few known exceptions, a neuron releases the same neurotransmitters at all of its synapses.<sup id="cite_ref-Strata_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strata-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This does not mean, though, that a neuron exerts the same effect on all of its targets, because the effect of a synapse depends not on the neurotransmitter, but on the receptors that it activates.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh10_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh10-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because different targets can (and frequently do) use different types of receptors, it is possible for a neuron to have excitatory effects on one set of target cells, inhibitory effects on others, and complex modulatory effects on others still. Nevertheless, it happens that the two most widely used neurotransmitters, <a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">glutamate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</a>, each have largely consistent effects. Glutamate has several widely occurring types of receptors, but all of them are excitatory or modulatory. Similarly, GABA has several widely occurring receptor types, but all of them are inhibitory.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this consistency, glutamatergic cells are frequently referred to as "excitatory neurons", and GABAergic cells as "inhibitory neurons". Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of terminology—it is the receptors that are excitatory and inhibitory, not the neurons—but it is commonly seen even in scholarly publications. </p><p>One very important subset of synapses are capable of forming <a href="/wiki/Memory_trace" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory trace">memory traces</a> by means of long-lasting activity-dependent changes in synaptic strength.<sup id="cite_ref-Paradiso_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paradiso-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The best-known form of neural memory is a process called <a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a> (abbreviated LTP), which operates at synapses that use the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">glutamate</a> acting on a special type of receptor known as the <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooke_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NMDA receptor has an "associative" property: if the two cells involved in the synapse are both activated at approximately the same time, a channel opens that permits calcium to flow into the target cell.<sup id="cite_ref-Bliss_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bliss-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The calcium entry initiates a second messenger cascade that ultimately leads to an increase in the number of glutamate receptors in the target cell, thereby increasing the effective strength of the synapse. This change in strength can last for weeks or longer. Since the discovery of LTP in 1973, many other types of synaptic memory traces have been found, involving increases or decreases in synaptic strength that are induced by varying conditions, and last for variable periods of time.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooke_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward system</a>, that reinforces desired behaviour for example, depends on a variant form of LTP that is conditioned on an extra input coming from a reward-signalling pathway that uses <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> as neurotransmitter.<sup id="cite_ref-Kauer_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kauer-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All these forms of synaptic modifiability, taken collectively, give rise to <a href="/wiki/Neural_plasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural plasticity">neural plasticity</a>, that is, to a capability for the nervous system to adapt itself to variations in the environment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural_circuits_and_systems">Neural circuits and systems</h3></div> <p>The basic neuronal function of sending signals to other cells includes a capability for neurons to exchange signals with each other. <a href="/wiki/Neural_network_(biological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural network (biological)">Networks</a> formed by interconnected groups of neurons are capable of a wide variety of functions, including feature detection, pattern generation and timing,<sup id="cite_ref-Dayan_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dayan-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there are seen to be countless types of information processing possible. <a href="/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch" title="Warren Sturgis McCulloch">Warren McCulloch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a> showed in 1943 that even <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural networks</a> formed from a greatly simplified mathematical abstraction of a neuron are capable of <a href="/wiki/Universal_computation" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal computation">universal computation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McCullochPitts_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullochPitts-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Descartes-reflex.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/220px-Descartes-reflex.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/330px-Descartes-reflex.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of pain pathway, from <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>'s <i>Treatise of Man</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Historically, for many years the predominant view of the function of the nervous system was as a stimulus-response associator.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherrington1906_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherrington1906-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this conception, neural processing begins with stimuli that activate sensory neurons, producing signals that propagate through chains of connections in the spinal cord and brain, giving rise eventually to activation of motor neurons and thereby to muscle contraction, i.e., to overt responses. Descartes believed that all of the behaviors of animals, and most of the behaviors of humans, could be explained in terms of stimulus-response circuits, although he also believed that higher cognitive functions such as language were not capable of being explained mechanistically.<sup id="cite_ref-Descartes_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Descartes-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Sherrington</a>, in his influential 1906 book <i>The Integrative Action of the Nervous System</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Sherrington1906_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherrington1906-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed the concept of stimulus-response mechanisms in much more detail, and <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>, the school of thought that dominated <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> through the middle of the 20th century, attempted to explain every aspect of human behavior in stimulus-response terms.<sup id="cite_ref-Baum_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baum-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, experimental studies of <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiology</a>, beginning in the early 20th century and reaching high productivity by the 1940s, showed that the nervous system contains many mechanisms for maintaining <a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential#Cell_excitability" title="Membrane potential">cell excitability</a> and generating patterns of activity intrinsically, without requiring an external stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-Piccolino_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piccolino-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neurons were found to be capable of producing regular sequences of action potentials, or sequences of bursts, even in complete isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnston_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnston-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When intrinsically active neurons are connected to each other in complex circuits, the possibilities for generating intricate temporal patterns become far more extensive.<sup id="cite_ref-Dayan_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dayan-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A modern conception views the function of the nervous system partly in terms of stimulus-response chains, and partly in terms of intrinsically generated activity patterns—both types of activity interact with each other to generate the full repertoire of behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Simmons_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reflexes_and_other_stimulus-response_circuits">Reflexes and other stimulus-response circuits</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nervous_system_organization_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Nervous_system_organization_en.svg/400px-Nervous_system_organization_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Nervous_system_organization_en.svg/600px-Nervous_system_organization_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Nervous_system_organization_en.svg/800px-Nervous_system_organization_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Simplified schema of basic nervous system function: signals are picked up by sensory receptors and sent to the spinal cord and brain, where processing occurs that results in signals sent back to the spinal cord and then out to motor neurons</figcaption></figure> <p>The simplest type of neural circuit is a <a href="/wiki/Reflex_arc" title="Reflex arc">reflex arc</a>, which begins with a <a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">sensory</a> input and ends with a motor output, passing through a sequence of neurons connected in <a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">series</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh36_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh36-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be shown in the "withdrawal reflex" causing a hand to jerk back after a hot stove is touched. The circuit begins with <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a> in the skin that are activated by harmful levels of heat: a special type of molecular structure embedded in the membrane causes heat to change the electrical field across the membrane. If the change in electrical potential is large enough to pass the given threshold, it evokes an action potential, which is transmitted along the axon of the receptor cell, into the spinal cord. There the axon makes excitatory synaptic contacts with other cells, some of which project (send axonal output) to the same region of the spinal cord, others projecting into the brain. One target is a set of spinal <a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">interneurons</a> that project to motor neurons controlling the arm muscles. The interneurons excite the motor neurons, and if the excitation is strong enough, some of the motor neurons generate action potentials, which travel down their axons to the point where they make excitatory synaptic contacts with muscle cells. The excitatory signals induce contraction of the muscle cells, which causes the joint angles in the arm to change, pulling the arm away. </p><p>In reality, this straightforward schema is subject to numerous complications.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh36_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh36-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although for the simplest <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflexes</a> there are short neural paths from sensory neuron to motor neuron, there are also other nearby neurons that participate in the circuit and modulate the response. Furthermore, there are projections from the brain to the spinal cord that are capable of enhancing or inhibiting the reflex. </p><p>Although the simplest reflexes may be mediated by circuits lying entirely within the spinal cord, more complex responses rely on signal processing in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh38_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh38-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, when an object in the periphery of the visual field moves, and a person looks toward it many stages of signal processing are initiated. The initial sensory response, in the retina of the eye, and the final motor response, in the <a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Oculomotor nuclei">oculomotor nuclei</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>, are not all that different from those in a simple reflex, but the intermediate stages are completely different. Instead of a one or two step chain of processing, the visual signals pass through perhaps a dozen stages of integration, involving the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">superior colliculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, and several brainstem nuclei. These areas perform signal-processing functions that include <a href="/wiki/Feature_detection_(nervous_system)" title="Feature detection (nervous system)">feature detection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perceptual</a> analysis, <a href="/wiki/Memory_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory recall">memory recall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Motor_planning" title="Motor planning">motor planning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh39_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh39-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Feature_detection_(nervous_system)" title="Feature detection (nervous system)">Feature detection</a> is the ability to extract biologically relevant information from combinations of sensory signals.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh21_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh21-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a>, for example, sensory receptors in the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> of the eye are only individually capable of detecting "points of light" in the outside world.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh25_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh25-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second-level visual neurons receive input from groups of primary receptors, higher-level neurons receive input from groups of second-level neurons, and so on, forming a hierarchy of processing stages. At each stage, important information is extracted from the signal ensemble and unimportant information is discarded. By the end of the process, input signals representing "points of light" have been transformed into a neural representation of objects in the surrounding world and their properties. The most sophisticated sensory processing occurs inside the brain, but complex feature extraction also takes place in the spinal cord and in peripheral sensory organs such as the retina. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intrinsic_pattern_generation">Intrinsic pattern generation</h4></div> <p>Although stimulus-response mechanisms are the easiest to understand, the nervous system is also capable of controlling the body in ways that do not require an external stimulus, by means of internally generated rhythms of activity. Because of the variety of voltage-sensitive ion channels that can be embedded in the membrane of a neuron, many types of neurons are capable, even in isolation, of generating rhythmic sequences of action potentials, or rhythmic alternations between high-rate bursting and quiescence. When neurons that are intrinsically rhythmic are connected to each other by excitatory or inhibitory synapses, the resulting networks are capable of a wide variety of dynamical behaviors, including <a href="/wiki/Attractor" title="Attractor">attractor</a> dynamics, periodicity, and even <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos</a>. A network of neurons that uses its internal structure to generate temporally structured output, without requiring a corresponding temporally structured stimulus, is called a <a href="/wiki/Central_pattern_generator" title="Central pattern generator">central pattern generator</a>. </p><p>Internal pattern generation operates on a wide range of time scales, from milliseconds to hours or longer. One of the most important types of temporal pattern is <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythmicity</a>—that is, rhythmicity with a period of approximately 24 hours. All animals that have been studied show circadian fluctuations in neural activity, which control circadian alternations in behavior such as the sleep-wake cycle. Experimental studies dating from the 1990s have shown that circadian rhythms are generated by a "genetic clock" consisting of a special set of genes whose expression level rises and falls over the course of the day. Animals as diverse as insects and vertebrates share a similar genetic clock system. The circadian clock is influenced by light but continues to operate even when light levels are held constant and no other external time-of-day cues are available. The clock genes are expressed in many parts of the nervous system as well as many peripheral organs, but in mammals, all of these "tissue clocks" are kept in synchrony by signals that emanate from a master timekeeper in a tiny part of the brain called the <a href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mirror_neurons">Mirror neurons</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">Mirror neuron</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">mirror neuron</a> is a neuron that <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">fires</a> both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another.<sup id="cite_ref-RizzolattiCraighero2004_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RizzolattiCraighero2004-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keysers_2009_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keysers_2009-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EmpathicBrain_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EmpathicBrain-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly observed in <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primate</a> species.<sup id="cite_ref-architalbiol.org_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-architalbiol.org-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds have been shown to have imitative resonance behaviors and neurological evidence suggests the presence of some form of mirroring system.<sup id="cite_ref-architalbiol.org_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-architalbiol.org-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans, brain activity consistent with that of mirror neurons has been found in the <a href="/wiki/Premotor_cortex" title="Premotor cortex">premotor cortex</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">supplementary motor area</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Primary somatosensory cortex">primary somatosensory cortex</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">inferior parietal cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Molenberghs_P,_Cunnington_R,_Mattingley_J_975–980_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molenberghs_P,_Cunnington_R,_Mattingley_J_975–980-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The function of the mirror system is a subject of much speculation. Many researchers in cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology consider that this system provides the physiological mechanism for the perception/action coupling (see the <a href="/wiki/Common_coding_theory" title="Common coding theory">common coding theory</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-EmpathicBrain_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EmpathicBrain-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argue that mirror neurons may be important for understanding the actions of other people, and for learning new skills by imitation. Some researchers also speculate that mirror systems may simulate observed actions, and thus contribute to <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a> skills,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others relate mirror neurons to <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> abilities.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, to date, no widely accepted neural or computational models have been put forward to describe how mirror neuron activity supports cognitive functions such as imitation.<sup id="cite_ref-Dinstein_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dinstein-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are neuroscientists who caution that the claims being made for the role of mirror neurons are not supported by adequate research.<sup id="cite_ref-ncbi.nlm.nih.gov_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncbi.nlm.nih.gov-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-else.econ.ucl.ac.uk_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-else.econ.ucl.ac.uk-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system_in_humans" title="Development of the nervous system in humans">Development of the nervous system in humans</a></div> <p>In vertebrates, landmarks of embryonic <a href="/wiki/Neural_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural development">neural development</a> include the <a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">birth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> from <a href="/wiki/Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">stem cell</a> precursors, the <a href="/wiki/Cellular_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular migration">migration</a> of immature neurons from their birthplaces in the embryo to their final positions, outgrowth of <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a> from neurons and <a href="/wiki/Axon_guidance" title="Axon guidance">guidance</a> of the motile <a href="/wiki/Growth_cone" title="Growth cone">growth cone</a> through the embryo towards postsynaptic partners, the generation of <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a> between these axons and their postsynaptic partners, and finally the lifelong <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">changes</a> in synapses which are thought to underlie learning and memory.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh52_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh52-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All bilaterian animals at an early stage of development form a <a href="/wiki/Gastrula" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrula">gastrula</a>, which is polarized, with one end called the <a href="/wiki/Animal_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal pole">animal pole</a> and the other the <a href="/wiki/Vegetal_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetal pole">vegetal pole</a>. The gastrula has the shape of a disk with three layers of cells, an inner layer called the <a href="/wiki/Endoderm" title="Endoderm">endoderm</a>, which gives rise to the lining of most internal organs, a middle layer called the <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a>, which gives rise to the bones and muscles, and an outer layer called the <a href="/wiki/Ectoderm" title="Ectoderm">ectoderm</a>, which gives rise to the skin and nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-SanesCh1_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SanesCh1-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray17.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Gray17.png/250px-Gray17.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Gray17.png/375px-Gray17.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Gray17.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption>Human embryo, showing neural groove</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Development_of_the_neural_tube.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Development_of_the_neural_tube.png/425px-Development_of_the_neural_tube.png" decoding="async" width="425" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Development_of_the_neural_tube.png 1.5x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="368" /></a><figcaption>Four stages in the development of the neural tube in the human embryo</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In vertebrates, the first sign of the nervous system is the appearance of a thin strip of cells along the center of the back, called the <a href="/wiki/Neural_plate" title="Neural plate">neural plate</a>. The inner portion of the neural plate (along the midline) is destined to become the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS), the outer portion the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> (PNS). As development proceeds, a fold called the <a href="/wiki/Neural_groove" title="Neural groove">neural groove</a> appears along the midline. This fold deepens, and then closes up at the top. At this point the future CNS appears as a cylindrical structure called the <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a>, whereas the future PNS appears as two strips of tissue called the <a href="/wiki/Neural_crest" title="Neural crest">neural crest</a>, running lengthwise above the neural tube. The sequence of stages from neural plate to neural tube and neural crest is known as <a href="/wiki/Neurulation" title="Neurulation">neurulation</a>. </p><p>In the early 20th century, a set of famous experiments by Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold showed that the formation of nervous tissue is "induced" by signals from a group of mesodermal cells called the <i>organizer region</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh52_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh52-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For decades, though, the nature of <a href="/wiki/Neural_induction" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural induction">neural induction</a> defeated every attempt to figure it out, until finally it was resolved by genetic approaches in the 1990s. Induction of neural tissue requires inhibition of the gene for a so-called <a href="/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein" title="Bone morphogenetic protein">bone morphogenetic protein</a>, or BMP. Specifically the protein <a href="/wiki/BMP4" class="mw-redirect" title="BMP4">BMP4</a> appears to be involved. Two proteins called <a href="/wiki/Noggin_(protein)" title="Noggin (protein)">Noggin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chordin" title="Chordin">Chordin</a>, both secreted by the mesoderm, are capable of inhibiting BMP4 and thereby inducing ectoderm to turn into neural tissue. It appears that a similar molecular mechanism is involved for widely disparate types of animals, including arthropods as well as vertebrates. In some animals, however, another type of molecule called <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast_Growth_Factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibroblast Growth Factor">Fibroblast Growth Factor</a> or FGF may also play an important role in induction. </p><p>Induction of neural tissues causes formation of neural precursor cells, called <a href="/wiki/Neuroblast" title="Neuroblast">neuroblasts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelCh53_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelCh53-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila"><i>Drosophila</i></a>, neuroblasts divide asymmetrically, so that one product is a "ganglion mother cell" (GMC), and the other is a neuroblast. A GMC divides once, to give rise to either a pair of neurons or a pair of glial cells. In all, a neuroblast is capable of generating an indefinite number of neurons or glia. </p><p>As shown in a 2008 study, one factor common to all <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetry (biology)">bilateral</a> organisms (including humans) is a family of secreted <a href="/wiki/Signalling_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Signalling molecule">signaling molecules</a> called <a href="/wiki/Neurotrophin" title="Neurotrophin">neurotrophins</a> which regulate the growth and survival of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhu_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhu-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhu et al. identified DNT1, the first neurotrophin found in <a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">flies</a>. DNT1 shares structural similarity with all known neurotrophins and is a key factor in the fate of neurons in <i>Drosophila</i>. Because neurotrophins have now been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrates, this evidence suggests that neurotrophins were present in an ancestor common to bilateral organisms and may represent a common mechanism for nervous system formation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathology">Pathology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CNS_protection.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CNS_protection.jpg/267px-CNS_protection.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CNS_protection.jpg/401px-CNS_protection.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CNS_protection.jpg/534px-CNS_protection.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Layers protecting the brain and spinal cord</figcaption></figure> <p>The central nervous system is protected by major physical and chemical barriers. Physically, the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by tough <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meningeal</a> membranes, and enclosed in the bones of the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>, which combine to form a strong physical shield. Chemically, the brain and spinal cord are isolated by the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>, which prevents most types of chemicals from moving from the bloodstream into the interior of the CNS. These protections make the CNS less susceptible in many ways than the PNS; the flip side, however, is that damage to the CNS tends to have more serious consequences. </p><p>Although nerves tend to lie deep under the skin except in a few places such as the <a href="/wiki/Ulnar_nerve" title="Ulnar nerve">ulnar nerve</a> near the elbow joint, they are still relatively exposed to physical damage, which can cause pain, loss of sensation, or loss of muscle control. Damage to nerves can also be caused by swelling or bruises at places where a nerve passes through a tight bony channel, as happens in <a href="/wiki/Carpal_tunnel_syndrome" title="Carpal tunnel syndrome">carpal tunnel syndrome</a>. If a nerve is completely transected, it will often <a href="/wiki/Nerve_regeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve regeneration">regenerate</a>, but for long nerves this process may take months to complete. In addition to physical damage, <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy" title="Peripheral neuropathy">peripheral neuropathy</a> may be caused by many other medical problems, including genetic conditions, metabolic conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, inflammatory conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Guillain%E2%80%93Barr%C3%A9_syndrome" title="Guillain–Barré syndrome">Guillain–Barré syndrome</a>, vitamin deficiency, infectious diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shingles" title="Shingles">shingles</a>, or poisoning by toxins such as heavy metals. Many cases have no cause that can be identified, and are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Idiopathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiopathic">idiopathic</a>. It is also possible for nerves to lose function temporarily, resulting in numbness as stiffness—common causes include mechanical pressure, a drop in temperature, or chemical interactions with <a href="/wiki/Local_anesthetic" title="Local anesthetic">local anesthetic</a> drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Lidocaine" title="Lidocaine">lidocaine</a>. </p><p>Physical damage to the spinal cord may result in <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">loss of sensation or movement</a>. If an injury to the spine produces nothing worse than swelling, the symptoms may be transient, but if nerve fibers in the spine are actually destroyed, the loss of function is usually permanent. Experimental studies have shown that spinal nerve fibers attempt to regrow in the same way as nerve fibers, but in the spinal cord, tissue destruction usually produces scar tissue that cannot be penetrated by the regrowing nerves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">Sentience</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output 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McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+17%3A+The+anatomical+organization+of+the+central+nervous+system&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gray233-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gray233_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStandring2005" class="citation book cs1">Standring, Susan, ed. 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Plenum Press. p. vii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-30764-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-30764-5"><bdi>978-0-306-30764-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+peripheral+nervous+system&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Plenum+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-306-30764-5&rft.au=Hubbard+JI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fperipheralnervou0000hubb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Purves15-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Purves15_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurvesAugustineFitzpatrickHall2008" class="citation book cs1">Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, LaMantia AS, McNamara JO, White LE (2008). <i>Neuroscience. 4th ed</i>. 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Plenum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-31001-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-31001-0"><bdi>978-0-306-31001-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Identified+neurons+and+behavior+of+arthropods&rft.pub=Plenum+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-306-31001-0&rft.aulast=Hoyle&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Wiersma%2C+CA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stein38-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stein38_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein_PSG1999" class="citation book cs1">Stein PSG (1999). <i>Neurons, Networks, and Motor Behavior</i>. MIT Press. pp. 38–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-69227-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-69227-4"><bdi>978-0-262-69227-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurons%2C+Networks%2C+and+Motor+Behavior&rft.pages=38-44&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-262-69227-4&rft.au=Stein+PSG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stein, p. 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simmons43-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Simmons43_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmonsYoung1999" class="citation book cs1">Simmons PJ, Young D (1999). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nervecellsanimal00simm_659"><i>Nerve cells and animal behaviour</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nervecellsanimal00simm_659/page/n53">43</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62726-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62726-9"><bdi>978-0-521-62726-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nerve+cells+and+animal+behaviour&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62726-9&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=PJ&rft.au=Young%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnervecellsanimal00simm_659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gray170-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gray170_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray_PO2006" class="citation book cs1">Gray PO (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology0000gray/page/170"><i>Psychology</i></a> (5 ed.). Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology0000gray/page/170">170</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-7690-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-7690-1"><bdi>978-0-7167-7690-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology&rft.pages=170&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-7690-1&rft.au=Gray+PO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpsychology0000gray%2Fpage%2F170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KandelCh9-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh9_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh9_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessel2000" class="citation book cs1">Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 9: Propagated signaling: the action potential". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011"><i>Principles of Neural Science</i></a>. McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+9%3A+Propagated+signaling%3A+the+action+potential&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hormuzdi-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hormuzdi_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHormuzdiFilippovMitropoulou2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hormuzdi SG, Filippov MA, Mitropoulou G, et al. (2004). "Electrical synapses: a dynamic signaling system that shapes the activity of neuronal networks". <i>Biochim. Biophys. Acta</i>. <b>1662</b> (1–2): 113–137. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbamem.2003.10.023">10.1016/j.bbamem.2003.10.023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15033583">15033583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochim.+Biophys.+Acta&rft.atitle=Electrical+synapses%3A+a+dynamic+signaling+system+that+shapes+the+activity+of+neuronal+networks&rft.volume=1662&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=113-137&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bbamem.2003.10.023&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15033583&rft.aulast=Hormuzdi&rft.aufirst=SG&rft.au=Filippov%2C+MA&rft.au=Mitropoulou%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KandelCh10-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh10_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh10_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh10_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessel2000" class="citation book cs1">Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 10: Overview of synaptic transmission". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011"><i>Principles of Neural Science</i></a>. McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+10%3A+Overview+of+synaptic+transmission&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KandelCh11-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh11_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessel2000" class="citation book cs1">Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 11: Signaling at the nerve-muscle synapse". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011"><i>Principles of Neural Science</i></a>. McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+11%3A+Signaling+at+the+nerve-muscle+synapse&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KandelCh15-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh15_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessel2000" class="citation book cs1">Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 15: Neurotransmitters". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011"><i>Principles of Neural Science</i></a>. McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+15%3A+Neurotransmitters&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strata-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Strata_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrataHarvey1999" class="citation journal cs1">Strata P, Harvey R (1999). "Dale's principle". <i>Brain Res. Bull</i>. <b>50</b> (5–6): 349–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0361-9230%2899%2900100-8">10.1016/S0361-9230(99)00100-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10643431">10643431</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29406273">29406273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Res.+Bull.&rft.atitle=Dale%27s+principle&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=349-350&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29406273%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10643431&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0361-9230%2899%2900100-8&rft.aulast=Strata&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Harvey%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are a number of exceptional situations in which GABA has been found to have excitatory effects, mainly during early development. For a review see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartyLlano2005" class="citation journal cs1">Marty A, Llano I (June 2005). "Excitatory effects of GABA in established brain networks". <i>Trends Neurosci</i>. <b>28</b> (6): 284–289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.04.003">10.1016/j.tins.2005.04.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15927683">15927683</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40022079">40022079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Neurosci.&rft.atitle=Excitatory+effects+of+GABA+in+established+brain+networks&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=284-289&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40022079%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15927683&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.04.003&rft.aulast=Marty&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Llano%2C+I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paradiso-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Paradiso_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParadisoBearConnors2007" class="citation book cs1">Paradiso MA, Bear MF, Connors BW (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark/page/718"><i>Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain</i></a>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark/page/718">718</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4"><bdi>978-0-7817-6003-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+Exploring+the+Brain&rft.pages=718&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-6003-4&rft.aulast=Paradiso&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Bear%2C+MF&rft.au=Connors%2C+BW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneuroscienceexpl00mark%2Fpage%2F718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cooke-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCookeBliss2006" class="citation journal cs1">Cooke SF, Bliss TV (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawl082">"Plasticity in the human central nervous system"</a>. <i>Brain</i>. <b>129</b> (Pt 7): 1659–1673. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawl082">10.1093/brain/awl082</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16672292">16672292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain&rft.atitle=Plasticity+in+the+human+central+nervous+system&rft.volume=129&rft.issue=Pt+7&rft.pages=1659-1673&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawl082&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16672292&rft.aulast=Cooke&rft.aufirst=SF&rft.au=Bliss%2C+TV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fbrain%252Fawl082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bliss-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bliss_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlissCollingridge1993" class="citation journal cs1">Bliss TV, Collingridge GL (January 1993). 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Rev. 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McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+36%3A+Spinal+reflexes&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KandelCh38-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh38_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessel2000" class="citation book cs1">Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. 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McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+39%3A+The+control+of+gaze&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KandelCh21-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KandelCh21_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessel2000" class="citation book cs1">Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. 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McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+52%3A+The+induction+and+patterning+of+the+nervous+system&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SanesCh1-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SanesCh1_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanesRehHarris2006" class="citation book cs1">Sanes DH, Reh TH, Harris WA (2006). 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McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+53%3A+The+formation+and+survival+of+nerve+cells&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhu-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhu_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhuPennackMcQuiltonForero2008" class="citation journal cs1">Zhu B, Pennack JA, McQuilton P, Forero MG, Mizuguchi K, Sutcliffe B, Gu CJ, Fenton JC, Hidalgo A (November 2008). Bate M (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2586362">"Drosophila neurotrophins reveal a common mechanism for nervous system formation"</a>. <i>PLOS Biol</i>. <b>6</b> (11): e284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0060284">10.1371/journal.pbio.0060284</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2586362">2586362</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19018662">19018662</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biol&rft.atitle=Drosophila+neurotrophins+reveal+a+common+mechanism+for+nervous+system+formation&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e284&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2586362%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19018662&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0060284&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Pennack%2C+JA&rft.au=McQuilton%2C+P&rft.au=Forero%2C+MG&rft.au=Mizuguchi%2C+K&rft.au=Sutcliffe%2C+B&rft.au=Gu%2C+CJ&rft.au=Fenton%2C+JC&rft.au=Hidalgo%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2586362&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Nervous_system">Nervous system</a> William E. Skaggs, <a href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_system" title="Template:Nervous system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_system" title="Template talk:Nervous system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nervous_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">Central nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindbrain" title="Hindbrain">Hindbrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">Medulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">Pons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">Midbrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">Forebrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">Diencephalon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">Retina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">Peripheral nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">Sensory nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">Motor nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">Cranial nerves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal nerve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">Autonomic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">Sympathetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">Parasympathetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">Enteric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nervous_tissue" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_tissue" title="Template:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_tissue" title="Template talk:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_tissue" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nervous_tissue" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Nervous tissue</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">CNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tissue Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Projection_fiber" title="Projection fiber">Projection fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fiber" title="Association fiber">Association fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber" title="Commissural fiber">Commissural fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemniscus_(anatomy)" title="Lemniscus (anatomy)">Lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">Nerve tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decussation" title="Decussation">Decussation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropil" title="Neuropil">Neuropil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neuronal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">Pyramidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purkinje_cell" title="Purkinje cell">Purkinje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_cell" title="Granule cell">Granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Economo_neuron" title="Von Economo neuron">Von Economo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">Medium spiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Glial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">Astrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ependyma" title="Ependyma">Ependymal cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanycyte" title="Tanycyte">Tanycyte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte_progenitor_cell" title="Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell">Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">Oligodendrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">Microglia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">PNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Dorsal</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">Ganglion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Ventral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramus_communicans" title="Ramus communicans">Ramus communicans</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gray_ramus_communicans" title="Gray ramus communicans">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_ramus_communicans" title="White ramus communicans">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_ganglion" title="Autonomic ganglion">Autonomic ganglion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Preganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Preganglionic nerve fibers">Preganglionic nerve fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Postganglionic nerve fibers">Postganglionic nerve fibers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">Nerve fascicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funiculus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Funiculus (neuroanatomy)">Funiculus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">Connective tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epineurium" title="Epineurium">Epineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perineurium" title="Perineurium">Perineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoneurium" title="Endoneurium">Endoneurium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Neuroglia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelination</a>: <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurilemma" title="Neurilemma">Neurilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelin_incisure" title="Myelin incisure">Myelin incisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Node of Ranvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internodal_segment" title="Internodal segment">Internodal segment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_glial_cell" title="Satellite glial cell">Satellite glial cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neurons</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve fiber">nerve fibers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">Soma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">Axon hillock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">Axon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telodendron" class="mw-redirect" title="Telodendron">Telodendron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axoplasm" title="Axoplasm">Axoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axolemma" title="Axolemma">Axolemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurofilament" title="Neurofilament">Neurofibril/neurofilament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nissl_body" title="Nissl body">Nissl body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendritic_spine" title="Dendritic spine">Dendritic spine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dendrite" title="Apical dendrite">Apical dendrite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basal_dendrite" title="Basal dendrite">Basal dendrite</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_neuron" title="Bipolar neuron">Bipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unipolar_neuron" title="Unipolar neuron">Unipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudounipolar_neuron" title="Pseudounipolar neuron">Pseudounipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multipolar_neuron" title="Multipolar neuron">Multipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renshaw_cell" title="Renshaw cell">Renshaw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">Afferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic afferent fibers">GSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral afferent fibers">GVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_somatic_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special somatic afferent">SSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral afferent">SVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon#types" title="Axon">fibers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_sensory_fiber" title="Type Ia sensory fiber">Ia or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ" title="Golgi tendon organ">Ib or Golgi or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_II_sensory_fiber" title="Type II sensory fiber">II or Aβ and Aγ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_A_nerve_fiber" title="Group A nerve fiber">III or Aδ or fast pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">IV or C or slow pain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Efferent_nerve_fiber" title="Efferent nerve fiber">Efferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">Motor neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic efferent fibers">GSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral efferent fibers">GVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_efferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral efferent">SVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_motor_neuron" title="Upper motor neuron">Upper motor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">Lower motor neuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_motor_neuron" title="Alpha motor neuron">α motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_motor_neuron" title="Beta motor neuron">β motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_motor_neuron" title="Gamma motor neuron">γ motorneuron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Termination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">Synapse</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">Electrical synapse</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gap_junction" title="Gap junction">Gap junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">Chemical synapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">Synaptic vesicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_zone" title="Active zone">Active zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">Postsynaptic density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapse" title="Autapse">Autapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_synapse" title="Ribbon synapse">Ribbon synapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">Neuromuscular junction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">Sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Meissner's corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacinian_corpuscle" title="Pacinian corpuscle">Pacinian corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Ruffini ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">Muscle spindle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_nerve_ending" title="Free nerve ending">Free nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor_neuron" title="Olfactory receptor neuron">Olfactory receptor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">Hair cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_systems_and_organs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template talk:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_systems_and_organs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_musculoskeletal_system" title="Human musculoskeletal system">Musculoskeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">Collar bone</a> (clavicle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">Thigh bone</a> (femur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">Patella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skull#Humans" title="Skull">Skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">Ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">Vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">Sternum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_joint" title="Fibrous joint">Fibrous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_joint" title="Cartilaginous joint">Cartilaginous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovial_joint" title="Synovial joint">Synovial joint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">Diaphragm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Cardiovascular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>peripheral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>primary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>secondary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph node</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>CNS equivalent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">Glymphatic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Tissue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haematopoietic_system" title="Haematopoietic system">Haematopoietic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myeloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Myeloid">Myeloid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Myeloid immune system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Lymphoid immune system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Nasopharynx" title="Pharynx">Nasopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Lower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">Lung</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Salivary gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>upper GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Oropharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Laryngopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>lower GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">accessory</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">Male</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate" title="Prostate">Prostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminal_vesicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminal vesicle">Seminal vesicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of Langerhans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9404#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9404#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9404#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4041643-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Nervous system"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85090917">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Système nerveux"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932613z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Système nerveux"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932613z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571045">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="nervový systém"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph123243&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Sistema nervioso"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525054">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000055420&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565641705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th 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