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<!DOCTYPE html><html lang="en"><head><meta charSet="utf-8" data-next-head=""/><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, minimum-scale=1.0, maximum-scale=1.0, user-scalable=no" data-next-head=""/><script type="text/javascript" src="//b-code.liadm.com/a-091g.min.js" async=""></script><meta property="og:url" content="https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life" data-next-head=""/><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:site" content="@tedtalks" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:app:id:iphone" content="376183339" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:app:id:ipad" content="376183339" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:app:id:googleplay" content="com.ted.android" data-next-head=""/><meta property="al:android:app_name" content="TED" data-next-head=""/><meta property="al:android:package" content="com.ted.android" data-next-head=""/><meta property="al:ios:app_name" content="TED" data-next-head=""/><meta property="al:ios:app_store_id" content="376183339" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:app:name:ipad" content="TED" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:app:name:iphone" content="TED" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:app:name:googleplay" content="TED" data-next-head=""/><meta name="HandheldFriendly" content="True" data-next-head=""/><meta name="MobileOptimized" content="320" data-next-head=""/><meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="TED Talks" data-next-head=""/><meta name="mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes" data-next-head=""/><meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="black" data-next-head=""/><meta name="application-name" content="TED Talks" data-next-head=""/><meta name="msapplication-config" content="https://www.ted.com/browserconfig.xml" data-next-head=""/><meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#000000" data-next-head=""/><link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://pa.tedcdn.com/apple-touch-icon.png" data-next-head=""/><link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" href="https://pa.tedcdn.com/apple-touch-icon-precomposed.png" data-next-head=""/><meta http-equiv="cleartype" content="on" data-next-head=""/><link rel="icon" href="/favicon.ico" sizes="32x32" data-next-head=""/><link rel="icon" href="/icon.svg" type="image/svg+xml" data-next-head=""/><meta property="fb:app_id" content="201021956610141" data-next-head=""/><meta name="rss-feed" content="https://www.ted.com/feeds/talks.rss" data-next-head=""/><link rel="mask-icon" href="https://pa.tedcdn.com/mask-icon.svg" color="#EB0028" sizes="any" data-next-head=""/><meta name="theme-color" content="#EB0028" data-next-head=""/><title data-next-head="">Michael Levin: The electrical blueprints that orchestrate life | TED Talk</title><meta name="title" content="Michael Levin: The electrical blueprints that orchestrate life" data-next-head=""/><meta name="description" content="DNA isn't the only builder in the biological world -- there's also a mysterious bioelectric layer directing cells to work together to grow organs, systems and bodies, says biologist Michael Levin. Sharing unforgettable and groundbreaking footage of two-headed worms, he introduces us to xenobots -- the world's first living robots, created in his lab by cracking the electrical code of cells -- and discusses what this discovery may mean for the future of medicine, the environment and even life itself. (This conversation, hosted by TED's Chris Anderson, was recorded June 2020.)" data-next-head=""/><meta property="og:title" data-testid="talk-head-og-title" content="The electrical blueprints that orchestrate life"/><meta property="og:description" data-testid="talk-head-og-description" content="DNA isn't the only builder in the biological world -- there's also a mysterious bioelectric layer directing cells to work together to grow organs, systems and bodies, says biologist Michael Levin. Sharing unforgettable and groundbreaking footage of two-headed worms, he introduces us to xenobots -- the world's first living robots, created in his lab by cracking the electrical code of cells -- and discusses what this discovery may mean for the future of medicine, the environment and even life itself. (This conversation, hosted by TED's Chris Anderson, was recorded June 2020.)"/><meta property="og:image:width" content="1050"/><meta property="og:image:height" content="550"/><meta property="og:video:duration" content="1166"/><meta property="og:type" content="video.other"/><meta name="twitter:app:url:ipad" content="ted://talks/michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life?source=twitter"/><meta name="twitter:app:url:iphone" content="ted://talks/michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life?source=twitter"/><meta property="twitter:app:url:googleplay" content="https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life"/><meta property="twitter:image" content="https://pi.tedcdn.com/r/talkstar-photos.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/49a47da2-dd4a-4103-b7c9-5e2e302c079b/MichaelLevin_2020-embed.jpg?u%5Br%5D=2&u%5Bs%5D=0.5&u%5Ba%5D=0.8&u%5Bt%5D=0.03&quality=82w=1200"/><meta property="og:image" 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Sharing unforgettable and groundbreaking footage of two-headed worms, he introduces us to xenobots -- the world's first living robots, created in his lab by cracking the electrical code of cells -- and discusses what this discovery may mean for the future of medicine, the environment and even life itself. (This conversation, hosted by TED's Chris Anderson, was recorded June 2020.)","thumbnailUrl":"https://pi.tedcdn.com/r/talkstar-photos.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/49a47da2-dd4a-4103-b7c9-5e2e302c079b/MichaelLevin_2020-embed.jpg?u%5Br%5D=2&u%5Bs%5D=0.5&u%5Ba%5D=0.8&u%5Bt%5D=0.03&quality=82w=640","uploadDate":"2021-03-31T18:02:53Z","duration":"PT19M26S","contentUrl":"https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life","transcript":"Chris Anderson: Mike, welcome. It's good to see you. I'm excited for this conversation. Michael Levin: Thank you so much. I'm so happy to be here. CA: So, most of us have this mental model in biology that DNA is a property of every living thing, that it is kind of the software that builds the hardware of our body. That's how a lot of us think about this. That model leaves too many deep mysteries. Can you share with us some of those mysteries and also what tadpoles have to do with it? ML: Sure. Yeah. I'd like to give you another perspective on this problem. One of the things that DNA does is specify the hardware of each cell. So the DNA tells every cell what proteins it's supposed to have. And so when you have tadpoles, for example, you see the kind of thing that most people think is sort of a progressive unrolling of the genome. Specific genes turn on and off, and a tadpole, as it becomes a frog, has to rearrange its face. So the eyes, the nostrils, the jaws -- everything has to move. And one way to think about it used to be that, well, you have a sort of hardwired set of movements where all of these things move around and then you get your frog. But actually, a few years ago, we found a pretty amazing phenomenon, which is that if you make so-called "Picasso frogs" -- these are tadpoles where the jaws might be off to the side, the eyes are up here, the nostrils are moved, so everything is shifted -- these tadpoles make largely normal frog faces. Now, this is amazing, because all of the organs start off in abnormal positions, and yet they still end up making a pretty good frog face. And so what it turns out is that this system, like many living systems, is not a hardwired set of movements, but actually works to reduce the error between what's going on now and what it knows is a correct frog face configuration. This kind of decision-making that involves flexible responses to new circumstances, in other contexts, we would call this intelligence. And so what we need to understand now is not only the mechanisms by which these cells execute their movements and gene expression and so on, but we really have to understand the information flow: How do these cells cooperate with each other to build something large and to stop building when that specific structure is created? And these kinds of computations, not just the mechanisms, but the computations of anatomical control, are the future of biology. CA: And so I guess the traditional model is that somehow cells are sending biochemical signals to each other that allow that development to happen the smart way. But you think there is something else at work. What is that? ML: Well, cells certainly do communicate biochemically and via physical forces, but there's something else going on that's extremely interesting, and it's basically called bioelectricity, non-neural bioelectricity. So it turns out that all cells -- not just nerves, but all cells in your body -- communicate with each other using electrical signals. And what you're seeing here is a time-lapse video. For the first time, we are now able to eavesdrop on all of the electrical conversations that the cells are having with each other. So think about this. We're now watching -- This is an early frog embryo. This is about eight hours to 10 hours of development. And the colors are showing you actual electrical states that allow you to see all of the electrical software that's running on the genome-defined cellular hardware. And so these cells are basically communicating with each other who is going to be head, who is going to be tail, who is going to be left and right and make eyes and brain and so on. And so it is this software that allows these living systems to achieve specific goals, goals such as building an embryo or regenerating a limb for animals that do this, and the ability to see these electrical conversations gives us some really remarkable opportunities to target or to rewrite the goals towards which these living systems are operating. CA: OK, so this is pretty radical. Let me see if I understand this. What you're saying is that when an organism starts to develop, as soon as a cell divides, electrical signals are shared between them. But as you get to, what, a hundred, a few hundred cells, that somehow these signals end up forming essentially like a computer program, a program that somehow includes all the information needed to tell that organism what its destiny is? Is that the right way to think about it? ML: Yes, quite. Basically, what happens is that these cells, by forming electrical networks much like networks in the brain, they form electrical networks, and these networks process information including pattern memories. They include representation of large-scale anatomical structures where various organs will go, what the different axes of the animal -- front and back, head and tail -- are going to be, and these are literally held in the electrical circuits across large tissues in the same way that brains hold other kinds of memories and learning. CA: So is this the right way to think about it? Because this seems to be such a big shift. I mean, when I first got a computer, I was in awe of the people who could do so-called "machine code," like the direct programming of individual bits in the computer. That was impossible for most mortals. To have a chance of controlling that computer, you'd have to program in a language, which was a vastly simpler way of making big-picture things happen. And if I understand you right, what you're saying is that most of biology today has sort of taken place trying to do the equivalent of machine code programming, of understanding the biochemical signals between individual cells, when, wait a sec, holy crap, there's this language going on, this electrical language, which, if you could understand that, that would give us a completely different set of insights into how organisms are developing. Is that metaphor basically right? ML: Yeah, this is exactly right. So if you think about the way programming was done in the '40s, in order to get your computer to do something different, you would physically have to shift the wires around. So you'd have to go in there and rewire the hardware. You'd have to interact with the hardware directly, and all of your strategies for manipulating that machine would be at the level of the hardware. And the reason we have this now amazing technology revolution, information sciences and so on, is because computer science moved from a focus on the hardware on to understanding that if your hardware is good enough -- and I'm going to tell you that biological hardware is absolutely good enough -- then you can interact with your system not by tweaking or rewiring the hardware, but actually, you can take a step back and give it stimuli or inputs the way that you would give to a reprogrammable computer and cause the cellular network to do something completely different than it would otherwise have done. So the ability to see these bioelectrical signals is giving us an entry point directly into the software that guides large-scale anatomy, which is a very different approach to medicine than to rewiring specific pathways inside of every cell. CA: And so in many ways, this is the amazingness of your work is that you're starting to crack the code of these electrical signals, and you've got an amazing demonstration of this in these flatworms. Tell us what's going on here. ML: So this is a creature known as a planarian. They're flatworms. They're actually quite a complex creature. They have a true brain, lots of different organs and so on. And the amazing thing about these planaria is that they are highly, highly regenerative. So if you cut it into pieces -- in fact, over 200 pieces -- every piece will rebuild exactly what's needed to make a perfect little worm. So think about that. This is a system where every single piece knows exactly what a correct planarian looks like and builds the right organs in the right places and then stops. And that's one of the most amazing things about regeneration. So what we discovered is that if you cut it into three pieces and amputate the head and the tail and you just take this middle fragment, which is what you see here, amazingly, there is an electrical gradient, head to tail, that's generated that tells the piece where the heads and the tails go and in fact, how many heads or tails you're supposed to have. So what we learned to do is to manipulate this electrical gradient, and the important thing is that we don't apply electricity. What we do instead was we turned on and off the little transistors -- they're actual ion channel proteins -- that every cell natively uses to set up this electrical state. So now we have ways to turn them on and off, and when you do this, one of the things you can do is you can shift that circuit to a state that says no, build two heads, or in fact, build no heads. And what you're seeing here are real worms that have either two or no heads that result from this, because that electrical map is what the cells are using to decide what to do. And so what you're seeing here are live two-headed worms. And, having generated these, we did a completely crazy experiment. You take one of these two-headed worms, and you chop off both heads, and you leave just the normal middle fragment. Now keep in mind, these animals have not been genomically edited. There's absolutely nothing different about their genomes. Their genome sequence is completely wild type. So you amputate the heads, you've got a nice normal fragment, and then you ask: In plain water, what is it going to do? And, of course, the standard paradigm would say, well, if you've gotten rid of this ectopic extra tissue, the genome is not edited so it should make a perfectly normal worm. And the amazing thing is that it is not what happens. These worms, when cut again and again, in the future, in plain water, they continue to regenerate as two-headed. Think about this. The pattern memory to which these animals will regenerate after damage has been permanently rewritten. And in fact, we can now write it back and send them back to being one-headed without any genomic editing. So this right here is telling you that the information structure that tells these worms how many heads they're supposed to have is not directly in the genome. It is in this additional bioelectric layer. Probably many other things are as well. And we now have the ability to rewrite it. And that, of course, is the key definition of memory. It has to be stable, long-term stable, and it has to be rewritable. And we are now beginning to crack this morphogenetic code to ask how is it that these tissues store a map of what to do and how we can go in and rewrite that map to new outcomes. CA: I mean, that seems incredibly compelling evidence that DNA is just not controlling the actual final shape of these organisms, that there's this whole other thing going on, and, boy, if you could crack that code, what else could that lead to. By the way, just looking at these ones. What is life like for a two-headed flatworm? I mean, it seems like it's kind of a trade-off. The good news is you have this amazing three-dimensional view of the world, but the bad news is you have to poop through both of your mouths? ML: So, the worms have these little tubes called pharynxes, and the tubes are sort of in the middle of the body, and they excrete through that. These animals are perfectly viable. They're completely happy, I think. The problem, however, is that the two heads don't cooperate all that well, and so they don't really eat very well. But if you manage to feed them by hand, they will go on forever, and in fact, you should know these worms are basically immortal. So these worms, because they are so highly regenerative, they have no age limit, and they're telling us that if we crack this secret of regeneration, which is not only growing new cells but knowing when to stop -- you see, this is absolutely crucial -- if you can continue to exert this really profound control over the three-dimensional structures that the cells are working towards, you could defeat aging as well as traumatic injury and things like this. So one thing to keep in mind is that this ability to rewrite the large-scale anatomical structure of the body is not just a weird planarian trick. It's not just something that works in flatworms. What you're seeing here is a tadpole with an eye and a gut, and what we've done is turned on a very specific ion channel. So we basically just manipulated these little electrical transistors that are inside of cells, and we've imposed a state on some of these gut cells that's normally associated with building an eye. And as a result, what the cells do is they build an eye. These eyes are complete. They have optic nerve, lens, retina, all the same stuff that an eye is supposed to have. They can see, by the way, out of these eyes. And what you're seeing here is that by triggering eye-building subroutines in the physiological software of the body, you can very easily tell it to build a complex organ. And this is important for our biomedicine, because we don't know how to micromanage the construction of an eye. I think it's going to be a really long time before we can really bottom-up build things like eyes or hands and so on. But we don't need to, because the body already knows how to do it, and there are these subroutines that can be triggered by specific electrical patterns that we can find. And this is what we call "cracking the bioelectric code." We can make eyes. We can make extra limbs. Here's one of our five-legged tadpoles. We can make extra hearts. We're starting to crack the code to understand where are the subroutines in this software that we can trigger and build these complex organs long before we actually know how to micromanage the process at the cellular level. CA: So as you've started to get to learn this electrical layer and what it can do, you've been able to create -- is it fair to say it's almost like a new, a novel life-form, called a xenobot? Talk to me about xenobots. ML: Right. So if you think about this, this leads to a really strange prediction. If the cells are really willing to build towards a specific map, we could take genetically unaltered cells, and what you're seeing here is cells taken out of a frog body. They've coalesced in a way that asks them to re-envision their multicellularity. And what you see here is that when liberated from the rest of the body of the animal, they make these tiny little novel bodies that are, in terms of behavior, you can see they can move, they can run a maze. They are completely different from frogs or tadpoles. Frog cells, when asked to re-envision what kind of body they want to make, do something incredibly interesting. They use the hardware that their genetics gives them, for example, these little hairs, these little cilia that are normally used to redistribute mucus on the outside of a frog, those are genetically specified. But what these creatures did, because the cells are able to form novel kinds of bodies, they have figured out how to use these little cilia to instead row against the water, and now have locomotion. So not only can they move around, but they can, and here what you're seeing, is that these cells are coalescing together. Now they're starting to have conversations about what they are going to do. You can see here the flashes are these exchanges of information. Keep in mind, this is just skin. There is no nervous system. There is no brain. This is just skin. This is skin that has learned to make a new body and to explore its environment and move around. And they have spontaneous behaviors. You can see here where it's swimming down this maze. At this point, it decides to turn around and go back where it came from. So it has its own behavior, and this is a remarkable model system for several reasons. First of all, it shows us the amazing plasticity of cells that are genetically wild type. There is no genetic editing here. These are cells that are really prone to making some sort of functional body. The second thing, and this was done in collaboration with Josh Bongard's lab at UVM, they modeled the structure of these things and evolved it in a virtual world. So this is literally -- on a computer, they modeled it on a computer. So this is literally the only organism that I know of on the face of this planet whose evolution took place not in the biosphere of the earth but inside a computer. So the individual cells have an evolutionary history, but this organism has never existed before. It was evolved in this virtual world, and then we went ahead and made it in the lab, and you can see this amazing plasticity. This is not only for making useful machines. You can imagine now programming these to go out into the environment and collect toxins and cleanup, or you could imagine ones made out of human cells that would go through your body and collect cancer cells or reshape arthritic joints, deliver pro-regenerative compounds, all kinds of things. But not only these useful applications -- this is an amazing sandbox for learning to communicate morphogenetic signals to cell collectives. So once we crack this, once we understand how these cells decide what to do, and then we're going to, of course, learn to rewrite that information, the next steps are great improvements in regenerative medicine, because we will then be able to tell cells to build healthy organs. And so this is now a really critical opportunity to learn to communicate with cell groups, not to micromanage them, not to force the hardware, to communicate and rewrite the goals that these cells are trying to accomplish. CA: Well, it's mind-boggling stuff. Finally, Mike, give us just one other story about medicine that might be to come as you develop this understanding of how this bioelectric layer works. ML: Yeah, this is incredibly exciting because, if you think about it, most of the problems of biomedicine -- birth defects, degenerative disease, aging, traumatic injury, even cancer -- all boil down to one thing: cells are not building what you would like them to build. And so if we understood how to communicate with these collectives and really rewrite their target morphologies, we would be able to normalize tumors, we would be able to repair birth defects, induce regeneration of limbs and other organs, and these are things we have already done in frog models. And so now the next really exciting step is to take this into mammalian cells and to really turn this into the next generation of regenerative medicine where we learn to address all of these biomedical needs by communicating with the cell collectives and rewriting their bioelectric pattern memories. And the final thing I'd like to say is that the importance of this field is not only for biomedicine. You see, this, as I started out by saying, this ability of cells in novel environments to build all kinds of things besides what their genome tells them is an example of intelligence, and biology has been intelligently solving problems long before brains came on the scene. And so this is also the beginnings of a new inspiration for machine learning that mimics the artificial intelligence of body cells, not just brains, for applications in computer intelligence. CA: Mike Levin, thank you for your extraordinary work and for sharing it so compellingly with us. Thank you. ML: Thank you so much. 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slot="exit"><svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 25 24" class="h-4 overflow-visible lg-tui:h-5"><path stroke="#F7F8FA" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" stroke-width="1.5" d="M2.72 14.307h7.334v7.333M22.276 9.418h-7.333V2.084M14.943 9.418 23.498.862M1.498 22.862l8.556-8.555"></path></svg></span></media-fullscreen-button></div></media-control-bar></div><video id="video" slot="media" style="aspect-ratio:16/9;--media-control-padding:5px" playsInline="" controlsList="nodownload" crossorigin="anonymous" class="" tabindex="0"></video></media-controller></div></div><div class="flex w-full flex-col md:mb-4"><div class="flex w-full flex-col justify-between"><div id="talk-title" class="mb-1 mt-2 flex w-full flex-col"><h1 class="mr-5 text-textPrimary-onLight font-normal text-tui-2xl leading-tui-sm tracking-tui-tight md:text-tui-3xl md:tracking-tui-tightest lg:text-tui-4xl" dir="ltr">The electrical blueprints that orchestrate life</h1></div><div class="flex flex-1 flex-wrap items-center overflow-hidden"><div class="text-sm text-gray-900" data-testid="talk-view-count"><div class="mr-1 flex items-center gap-1">1,031,037 plays<button type="button" id="info-button-talk-page"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="16" height="17" fill="none" class="mb-[0.5px] h-4"><path stroke="#121212" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" stroke-width="1.5" d="M8 15.167A6.667 6.667 0 1 0 8 1.834a6.667 6.667 0 0 0 0 13.333M8 11.167V8.5M8 5.834h.007"></path></svg></button>|</div></div><div class="text-sm mr-1 text-gray-900" data-testid="talk-presenter">Michael Levin  |</div><div class="text-sm mr-1 text-gray-900" data-testid="talk-context"> TED2020 </div><div class="text-sm text-gray-900" data-testid="talk-release-date"> • May 2020</div></div><div class="mb-2 mt-3 w-full bg-black dark:bg-[#898989] h-px opacity-16"></div><div class="mb-4 flex w-full flex-col md:flex-row md:items-center md:justify-between"><div class="relative mb-4 flex items-center gap-3 overflow-x-scroll scrollbar-hide md:mb-0 md:gap-2 md:overflow-x-hidden"><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div></div><button id="transcript-control" class="items-center justify-center whitespace-nowrap rounded-sm border-thin border-solid border-black px-4 py-3 text-tui-xs font-bold lg:mb-0" type="button">Read transcript</button></div></div><div class="flex"><div class="mr-2 flex w-full lg:flex-col"><div class="hidden lg:block"><div class="flex w-full flex-col" data-testid="talk-description"><div class="mb-4"><span class="text-textPrimary-onLight font-normal text-tui-sm leading-tui-md tracking-tui-tight lg:leading-tui-lg" data-testid="talk-description-text" dir="ltr">DNA isn't the only builder in the biological world -- there's also a mysterious bioelectric layer directing cells to work together to grow organs, systems and bodies, says biologist Michael Levin. Sharing unforgettable and groundbreaking footage of two-headed worms, he introduces us to xenobots -- the world's first living robots, created in his lab by cracking the electrical code of cells -- and discusses what this discovery may mean for the future of medicine, the environment and even life itself. (This conversation, hosted by TED's Chris Anderson, was recorded June 2020.)</span></div><ul class="mb-6 inline-block"><li class="mr-2 inline-block after:content-[','] last:mr-0 last:after:content-['_']"><a class="inline-block py-1 text-tui-sm capitalize underline relative" href="/topics/science">science</a></li><li class="mr-2 inline-block after:content-[','] last:mr-0 last:after:content-['_']"><a class="inline-block py-1 text-tui-sm capitalize underline relative" href="/topics/technology">technology</a></li><li class="mr-2 inline-block after:content-[','] last:mr-0 last:after:content-['_']"><a class="inline-block py-1 text-tui-sm capitalize underline relative" href="/topics/engineering">engineering</a></li><li class="mr-2 inline-block after:content-[','] last:mr-0 last:after:content-['_']"><a class="inline-block py-1 text-tui-sm capitalize underline relative" href="/topics/invention">invention</a></li><li class="mr-2 inline-block after:content-[','] last:mr-0 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All rights reserved.</div></div></div></div></div></div></div></footer></footer></div><section aria-label="Notifications alt+T" tabindex="-1" aria-live="polite" aria-relevant="additions text" aria-atomic="false"></section></div><script src="https://ak.sail-horizon.com/spm/spm.v1.min.js"></script><script> window.addEventListener('load', () => { Sailthru.init({ hostWebsiteType: "spa", customerId: 'a107d7f43ad64daa9a7ef2f8bfde9d97', isCustom: true, autoTrackPageview: false, useStoredTags: true }); }); </script><script id="__NEXT_DATA__" type="application/json">{"props":{"pageProps":{"shortenedUrl":"https://go.ted.com/6cok","action":null,"videoData":{"id":"68458","title":"The electrical blueprints that orchestrate life","slug":"michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life","primaryImageSet":[{"url":"https://talkstar-photos.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/49a47da2-dd4a-4103-b7c9-5e2e302c079b/MichaelLevin_2020-embed.jpg","aspectRatioName":"16x9","__typename":"PhotoSize"},{"url":"https://talkstar-photos.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/05bea5c9-a91b-4f07-844a-fb089b444f70/MichaelLevin_2020-stageshot.jpg","aspectRatioName":"4x3","__typename":"PhotoSize"},{"url":"https://talkstar-photos.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/1c110918-b955-4b0e-9279-503a07d22cc7/MichaelLevin_2020-1350x675.jpg","aspectRatioName":"2x1","__typename":"PhotoSize"}],"__typename":"Video","presenterDisplayName":"Michael Levin","duration":1166,"videoContext":"TED2020","canonicalUrl":"https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life","viewedCount":1031037,"tedcomPercentage":"0.072","youtubePercentage":"0.51","podcastsPercentage":"0.366","tedappsPercentage":"0.052","publishedAt":"2021-03-31T18:02:53Z","topics":{"nodes":[{"name":"science","__typename":"Topic","id":"8","slug":"science"},{"name":"technology","__typename":"Topic","id":"10","slug":"technology"},{"name":"engineering","__typename":"Topic","id":"14","slug":"engineering"},{"name":"invention","__typename":"Topic","id":"16","slug":"invention"},{"name":"DNA","__typename":"Topic","id":"31","slug":"dna"},{"name":"innovation","__typename":"Topic","id":"53","slug":"innovation"},{"name":"robots","__typename":"Topic","id":"54","slug":"robots"},{"name":"nature","__typename":"Topic","id":"64","slug":"nature"},{"name":"biology","__typename":"Topic","id":"76","slug":"biology"},{"name":"future","__typename":"Topic","id":"80","slug":"future"}],"__typename":"TopicConnection"},"description":"DNA isn't the only builder in the biological world -- there's also a mysterious bioelectric layer directing cells to work together to grow organs, systems and bodies, says biologist Michael Levin. 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Levin's research could give rise to adaptive, self-repairing robotics and novel platforms for artificial intelligence.","whyListen":"\u003cp\u003eWith a lifelong interest in the physical manifestations of intelligence, Michael Levin bridges two worlds: biology and computer science. Seeking to understand how cells build and repair complex bodies, he earned his PhD in genetics for illuminating the bioelectrical language that all cells -- not just neurons -- use to coordinate their activities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2016, Levin focused on cracking the morphogenetic code: controlling biological shape by manipulating the bioelectrical software that runs on genome-specified cellular hardware. His group works to understand computation in cells and tissues. In 2021, Levin and his collaborators published \u0026quot;\u003ca href=\"https://robotics.sciencemag.org/content/6/52/eabf1571\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eA cellular platform for the development of synthetic living machines\u003c/a\u003e,\u0026quot; which details the generation of xenobots -- the first-ever biological robots -- and the various practical applications of writable molecular memory.\u003c/p\u003e","slug":"michael_levin","__typename":"AcmeSpeaker"},{"photoUrl":"https://pe.tedcdn.com/images/ted/15a78b07d0340fcf8f391e7529b6f4b050a60cc0_254x191.jpg","firstname":"Chris","middlename":"","lastname":"Anderson","description":"Head of TED","isLive":true,"title":"","whatOthersSay":"","whoTheyAre":"","whyListen":"\u003cdiv\u003eAfter a long career in journalism and publishing, Chris Anderson became the curator of the TED Conference in 2002 and has developed it as a platform for identifying and disseminating ideas worth spreading. TED is a nonprofit devoted to sharing valuable ideas, primarily through the medium of TED Talks — short talks that are offered free online to a global audience.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv\u003eChris was born in a remote village in Pakistan in 1957. He spent his early years in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, where his parents worked as medical missionaries, and he attended an American school in the Himalayas for his early education. After boarding school in Bath, England, he went on to Oxford University, graduating in 1978 with a degree in philosophy, politics and economics.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv\u003eChris then trained as a journalist, working in newspapers and radio, including two years producing a world news service in the Seychelles Islands. Back in the UK in 1984, Chris was captivated by the personal computer revolution and became an editor at one of the UK's early computer magazines. A year later he founded Future Publishing with a $25,000 bank loan. The new company initially focused on specialist computer publications but eventually expanded into other areas such as cycling, music, video games, technology and design, doubling in size every year for seven years. In 1994, Chris moved to the United States where he built Imagine Media, publisher of \u003cem\u003eBusiness 2.0\u003c/em\u003e magazine and creator of the popular video game users website IGN. Chris eventually merged Imagine and Future, taking the combined entity public in London in 1999, under the Future name. At its peak, it published 150 magazines and websites and employed 2,000 people.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis success allowed Chris to create a private nonprofit organization, the Sapling Foundation, with the hope of finding new ways to tackle tough global issues through media, technology, entrepreneurship and, most of all, ideas. In 2001, the foundation acquired the TED Conference, then an annual meeting of luminaries in the fields of Technology, Entertainment and Design held in Monterey, California, and Chris left Future to work full time on TED. He expanded the conference's remit to cover all topics, including science, business and key global issues, while adding a Fellows program, which now has some 300 alumni, and the TED Prize, which grants its recipients \"one wish to change the world.\" The TED stage has become a place for thinkers and doers from all fields to share their ideas and their work, capturing imaginations, sparking conversation and encouraging discovery along the way.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv\u003eIn 2006, TED experimented with posting some of its talks on the Internet. Their viral success encouraged Chris to begin positioning the organization as a global media initiative devoted to 'ideas worth spreading,' part of a new era of information dissemination using the power of online video. In June 2015, the organization posted its 2,000th talk online. The talks are free to view, and they have been translated into more than 100 languages with the help of volunteers from around the world. Viewership has grown to approximately one billion views per year. Continuing a strategy of 'radical openness,' in 2009 Chris introduced the TEDx initiative, allowing free licenses to local organizers who wished to organize their own TED-like events. More than 8,000 such events have been held, generating an archive of 60,000 TEDx talks. And three years later, the TED-Ed program was launched, offering free educational videos and tools to students and teachers.\u003c/div\u003e","slug":"chris_anderson_ted","__typename":"AcmeSpeaker"}],"__typename":"AcmeSpeakerConnection"},"type":{"id":"1","name":"TED Stage Talk","__typename":"TypeOfVideo"}},"transcriptData":{"translation":{"__typename":"Translation","paragraphs":[{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Chris Anderson: Mike, welcome.","time":864},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"It's good to see you.\nI'm excited for this conversation.","time":2334}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Michael Levin: Thank you so much.\nI'm so happy to be here.","time":4999}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: So, most of us have\nthis mental model in biology","time":7793},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that DNA is a property\nof every living thing,","time":10876},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that it is kind of the software\nthat builds the hardware of our body.","time":15160},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"That's how a lot of us think about this.","time":20595},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"That model leaves too many deep mysteries.","time":22706},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Can you share with us\nsome of those mysteries","time":25973},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and also what tadpoles have to do with it?","time":28944}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: Sure. Yeah.","time":32336},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"I'd like to give you another\nperspective on this problem.","time":33682},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"One of the things that DNA does\nis specify the hardware of each cell.","time":36411},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So the DNA tells every cell\nwhat proteins it's supposed to have.","time":40923},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so when you have\ntadpoles, for example,","time":45268},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you see the kind of thing","time":48116},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that most people think is sort of\na progressive unrolling of the genome.","time":50454},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Specific genes turn on and off,","time":55169},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and a tadpole, as it becomes a frog,","time":57166},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"has to rearrange its face.","time":59439},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So the eyes, the nostrils, the jaws --\neverything has to move.","time":60950},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And one way to think about it\nused to be that, well,","time":63942},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you have a sort of hardwired\nset of movements","time":66414},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"where all of these things move around\nand then you get your frog.","time":68784},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"But actually, a few years ago,\nwe found a pretty amazing phenomenon,","time":72037},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"which is that if you make\nso-called \"Picasso frogs\" --","time":75313},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"these are tadpoles where the jaws\nmight be off to the side,","time":78299},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"the eyes are up here,\nthe nostrils are moved,","time":81639},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"so everything is shifted --","time":83782},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"these tadpoles make\nlargely normal frog faces.","time":85280},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Now, this is amazing,","time":88825},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"because all of the organs\nstart off in abnormal positions,","time":90000},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and yet they still end up making\na pretty good frog face.","time":93922},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so what it turns out\nis that this system,","time":96675},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"like many living systems,","time":98985},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is not a hardwired set of movements,","time":100821},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"but actually works to reduce the error\nbetween what's going on now","time":102977},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and what it knows is a correct\nfrog face configuration.","time":106739}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"This kind of decision-making","time":110265},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that involves flexible responses\nto new circumstances,","time":111739},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"in other contexts,\nwe would call this intelligence.","time":115904},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so what we need to understand now\nis not only the mechanisms","time":118344},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"by which these cells\nexecute their movements","time":122604},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and gene expression and so on,","time":124749},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"but we really have to understand\nthe information flow:","time":126261},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"How do these cells\ncooperate with each other","time":129071},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to build something large\nand to stop building","time":131201},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"when that specific structure is created?","time":134782},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And these kinds of computations,\nnot just the mechanisms,","time":137830},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"but the computations\nof anatomical control,","time":140560},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"are the future of biology.","time":143553}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: And so I guess the traditional model","time":145046},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is that somehow cells are sending\nbiochemical signals to each other","time":147288},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that allow that development\nto happen the smart way.","time":151977},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"But you think there is\nsomething else at work.","time":156295},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"What is that?","time":158750}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: Well, cells certainly do communicate\nbiochemically and via physical forces,","time":159936},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"but there's something else going on\nthat's extremely interesting,","time":163726},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and it's basically called bioelectricity,","time":166833},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"non-neural bioelectricity.","time":170211},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So it turns out that all cells --","time":172115},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"not just nerves,\nbut all cells in your body --","time":173734},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"communicate with each other\nusing electrical signals.","time":175933},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And what you're seeing here\nis a time-lapse video.","time":178446},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"For the first time,","time":180891},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"we are now able to eavesdrop\non all of the electrical conversations","time":182119},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that the cells are having with each other.","time":185555},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So think about this.","time":187660},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"We're now watching --","time":188863},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"This is an early frog embryo.","time":190046},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"This is about eight hours\nto 10 hours of development.","time":191501},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And the colors are showing you\nactual electrical states","time":194040},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that allow you to see\nall of the electrical software","time":198063},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that's running on the genome-defined\ncellular hardware.","time":201117},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so these cells are basically\ncommunicating with each other","time":204714},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"who is going to be head,\nwho is going to be tail,","time":208714},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"who is going to be left and right\nand make eyes and brain and so on.","time":211103},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so it is this software","time":214364},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that allows these living systems\nto achieve specific goals,","time":215891},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"goals such as building an embryo","time":219725},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"or regenerating a limb\nfor animals that do this,","time":221296},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and the ability to see\nthese electrical conversations","time":224629},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"gives us some really\nremarkable opportunities","time":230198},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to target or to rewrite\nthe goals towards which","time":233082},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"these living systems are operating.","time":236293}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: OK, so this is pretty radical.","time":238307},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Let me see if I understand this.","time":240037},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"What you're saying is that\nwhen an organism starts to develop,","time":242072},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"as soon as a cell divides,","time":246339},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"electrical signals are shared\nbetween them.","time":247809},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"But as you get to, what,\na hundred, a few hundred cells,","time":251120},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that somehow these signals end up forming\nessentially like a computer program,","time":255701},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"a program that somehow includes\nall the information needed","time":262004},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to tell that organism","time":267404},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"what its destiny is?","time":269095},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Is that the right way to think about it?","time":271020}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: Yes, quite.","time":273041},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Basically, what happens\nis that these cells,","time":274298},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"by forming electrical networks\nmuch like networks in the brain,","time":276446},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"they form electrical networks,","time":280421},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and these networks process information\nincluding pattern memories.","time":282645},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They include representation\nof large-scale anatomical structures","time":286750},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"where various organs will go,","time":291611},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"what the different axes of the animal --\nfront and back, head and tail --","time":293248},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"are going to be,","time":296944},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and these are literally\nheld in the electrical circuits","time":298126},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"across large tissues","time":300764},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"in the same way that brains\nhold other kinds of memories and learning.","time":302449}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: So is this the right way\nto think about it?","time":308444},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Because this seems to be such a big shift.","time":310693},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"I mean, when I first got a computer,","time":312820},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"I was in awe of the people\nwho could do so-called \"machine code,\"","time":315693},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"like the direct programming\nof individual bits in the computer.","time":320336},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"That was impossible for most mortals.","time":324387},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"To have a chance\nof controlling that computer,","time":326225},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you'd have to program in a language,","time":328420},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"which was a vastly simpler way\nof making big-picture things happen.","time":330869},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And if I understand you right,","time":337872},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"what you're saying is that most of biology\ntoday has sort of taken place","time":339336},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"trying to do the equivalent\nof machine code programming,","time":342759},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"of understanding the biochemical signals\nbetween individual cells,","time":345425},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"when, wait a sec, holy crap,\nthere's this language going on,","time":348638},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"this electrical language,\nwhich, if you could understand that,","time":351980},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that would give us a completely\ndifferent set of insights","time":356538},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"into how organisms are developing.","time":359590},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Is that metaphor basically right?","time":361923}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: Yeah, this is exactly right.","time":363814},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So if you think about the way\nprogramming was done in the '40s,","time":365407},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"in order to get your computer\nto do something different,","time":368442},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you would physically\nhave to shift the wires around.","time":371115},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So you'd have to go in there\nand rewire the hardware.","time":373591},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"You'd have to interact\nwith the hardware directly,","time":376113},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and all of your strategies\nfor manipulating that machine","time":378474},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"would be at the level of the hardware.","time":381218},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And the reason we have\nthis now amazing technology revolution,","time":383086},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"information sciences and so on,","time":386205},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is because computer science moved\nfrom a focus on the hardware","time":388094},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"on to understanding that if\nyour hardware is good enough --","time":391944},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and I'm going to tell you that biological\nhardware is absolutely good enough --","time":394811},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"then you can interact with your system\nnot by tweaking or rewiring the hardware,","time":398624},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"but actually, you can take a step back\nand give it stimuli or inputs","time":404072},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"the way that you would give\nto a reprogrammable computer","time":407866},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and cause the cellular network\nto do something completely different","time":410898},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"than it would otherwise have done.","time":415707},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So the ability to see\nthese bioelectrical signals","time":417388},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is giving us an entry point\ndirectly into the software","time":420960},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that guides large-scale anatomy,","time":423847},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"which is a very different\napproach to medicine","time":425892},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"than to rewiring specific pathways\ninside of every cell.","time":429096}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: And so in many ways,\nthis is the amazingness of your work","time":433087},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is that you're starting to crack the code\nof these electrical signals,","time":435999},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and you've got an amazing\ndemonstration of this","time":439334},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"in these flatworms.","time":441704},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Tell us what's going on here.","time":443037}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: So this is a creature\nknown as a planarian.","time":445617},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They're flatworms.","time":448269},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They're actually quite a complex creature.","time":449783},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They have a true brain,\nlots of different organs and so on.","time":451845},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And the amazing thing about these planaria","time":454691},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is that they are highly,\nhighly regenerative.","time":456716},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So if you cut it into pieces --\nin fact, over 200 pieces --","time":458847},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"every piece will rebuild\nexactly what's needed","time":462980},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to make a perfect little worm.","time":466544},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So think about that.","time":468028},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"This is a system where every single piece","time":469223},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"knows exactly what\na correct planarian looks like","time":471264},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and builds the right organs\nin the right places and then stops.","time":474279},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And that's one of the most\namazing things about regeneration.","time":477807},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So what we discovered is that\nif you cut it into three pieces","time":480763},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and amputate the head and the tail\nand you just take this middle fragment,","time":483899},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"which is what you see here,","time":487441},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"amazingly, there is an electrical\ngradient, head to tail, that's generated","time":488827},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that tells the piece\nwhere the heads and the tails go","time":492566},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and in fact, how many heads or tails\nyou're supposed to have.","time":495592},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So what we learned to do\nis to manipulate this electrical gradient,","time":498528},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and the important thing\nis that we don't apply electricity.","time":502879},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"What we do instead was we turned\non and off the little transistors --","time":505769},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"they're actual ion channel proteins --","time":509984},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that every cell natively uses\nto set up this electrical state.","time":512053},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So now we have ways\nto turn them on and off,","time":515457},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and when you do this,\none of the things you can do","time":517826},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is you can shift that circuit\nto a state that says no, build two heads,","time":520246},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"or in fact, build no heads.","time":524390},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And what you're seeing here are real worms\nthat have either two or no heads","time":526007},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that result from this,","time":530094},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"because that electrical map\nis what the cells are using","time":531285},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to decide what to do.","time":534298}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so what you're seeing here\nare live two-headed worms.","time":536042},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And, having generated these,\nwe did a completely crazy experiment.","time":539384},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"You take one of these two-headed worms,\nand you chop off both heads,","time":543499},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and you leave just\nthe normal middle fragment.","time":547438},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Now keep in mind, these animals\nhave not been genomically edited.","time":549666},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"There's absolutely nothing different\nabout their genomes.","time":552975},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Their genome sequence\nis completely wild type.","time":555710},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So you amputate the heads,\nyou've got a nice normal fragment,","time":558050},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and then you ask: In plain water,\nwhat is it going to do?","time":562609},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And, of course, the standard\nparadigm would say,","time":565441},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"well, if you've gotten rid\nof this ectopic extra tissue,","time":567751},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"the genome is not edited so it should\nmake a perfectly normal worm.","time":570465},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And the amazing thing is\nthat it is not what happens.","time":574349},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"These worms, when cut again and again,\nin the future, in plain water,","time":577252},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"they continue to regenerate as two-headed.","time":583188},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Think about this.","time":585811},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"The pattern memory to which these animals\nwill regenerate after damage","time":586998},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"has been permanently rewritten.","time":592231},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And in fact, we can now write it back\nand send them back to being one-headed","time":594207},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"without any genomic editing.","time":597932},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So this right here is telling you\nthat the information structure","time":599768},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that tells these worms how many heads\nthey're supposed to have","time":602896},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is not directly in the genome.","time":605837},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"It is in this additional\nbioelectric layer.","time":607392},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Probably many other things are as well.","time":609547},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And we now have the ability to rewrite it.","time":611463},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And that, of course,\nis the key definition of memory.","time":613776},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"It has to be stable, long-term stable,\nand it has to be rewritable.","time":617479},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And we are now beginning to crack\nthis morphogenetic code","time":621171},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to ask how is it that these tissues\nstore a map of what to do","time":624904},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and how we can go in\nand rewrite that map to new outcomes.","time":629809}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: I mean, that seems\nincredibly compelling evidence","time":634674},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that DNA is just not\ncontrolling the actual final shape","time":638518},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"of these organisms,","time":645533},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that there's this\nwhole other thing going on,","time":647185},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and, boy, if you could crack that code,","time":650434},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"what else could that lead to.","time":652339},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"By the way, just looking at these ones.","time":654431},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"What is life like\nfor a two-headed flatworm?","time":656474},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"I mean, it seems like\nit's kind of a trade-off.","time":659451},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"The good news is you have this amazing\nthree-dimensional view of the world,","time":661719},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"but the bad news is you have\nto poop through both of your mouths?","time":665688}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: So, the worms have\nthese little tubes called pharynxes,","time":670901},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and the tubes are sort of\nin the middle of the body,","time":674940},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and they excrete through that.","time":677421},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"These animals are perfectly viable.","time":678915},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They're completely happy, I think.","time":680617},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"The problem, however,","time":683572},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is that the two heads\ndon't cooperate all that well,","time":684779},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and so they don't really eat very well.","time":687274},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"But if you manage to feed them by hand,","time":689239},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"they will go on forever,","time":691138},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and in fact, you should know\nthese worms are basically immortal.","time":692313},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So these worms, because\nthey are so highly regenerative,","time":695401},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"they have no age limit,","time":698748},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and they're telling us that\nif we crack this secret of regeneration,","time":700213},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"which is not only growing new cells\nbut knowing when to stop --","time":703586},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you see, this is absolutely crucial --","time":706690},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"if you can continue to exert\nthis really profound control","time":708609},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"over the three-dimensional structures\nthat the cells are working towards,","time":712807},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you could defeat aging\nas well as traumatic injury","time":716307},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and things like this.","time":719217}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So one thing to keep in mind\nis that this ability to rewrite","time":720404},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"the large-scale anatomical\nstructure of the body","time":723829},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is not just a weird planarian trick.","time":726274},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"It's not just something\nthat works in flatworms.","time":728440},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"What you're seeing here is a tadpole\nwith an eye and a gut,","time":731742},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and what we've done is turned on\na very specific ion channel.","time":734712},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So we basically just manipulated\nthese little electrical transistors","time":739233},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that are inside of cells,","time":742642},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and we've imposed a state\non some of these gut cells","time":744172},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that's normally associated\nwith building an eye.","time":747949},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And as a result, what the cells do\nis they build an eye.","time":750509},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"These eyes are complete.","time":753395},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They have optic nerve, lens, retina,","time":754741},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"all the same stuff that an eye\nis supposed to have.","time":758031},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They can see, by the way,\nout of these eyes.","time":760486},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And what you're seeing here","time":762590},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is that by triggering\neye-building subroutines","time":763977},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"in the physiological software of the body,","time":766528},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you can very easily tell it\nto build a complex organ.","time":769252},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And this is important for our biomedicine,","time":772801},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"because we don't know how to micromanage\nthe construction of an eye.","time":774975},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"I think it's going to be\na really long time","time":778226},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"before we can really bottom-up build\nthings like eyes or hands and so on.","time":780296},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"But we don't need to, because the body\nalready knows how to do it,","time":785267},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and there are these subroutines\nthat can be triggered","time":788418},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"by specific electrical patterns\nthat we can find.","time":791217},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And this is what we call\n\"cracking the bioelectric code.\"","time":794163},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"We can make eyes. We can make extra limbs.","time":797468},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Here's one of our five-legged tadpoles.","time":799493},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"We can make extra hearts.","time":801586},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"We're starting to crack the code\nto understand where are the subroutines","time":803399},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"in this software","time":807144},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that we can trigger\nand build these complex organs","time":808347},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"long before we actually know\nhow to micromanage the process","time":811361},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"at the cellular level.","time":814459}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: So as you've started to get\nto learn this electrical layer","time":815901},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and what it can do,","time":820767},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you've been able to create --","time":821972},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is it fair to say it's almost\nlike a new, a novel life-form,","time":824523},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"called a xenobot?","time":828086},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Talk to me about xenobots.","time":829280}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: Right.","time":831065},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So if you think about this,\nthis leads to a really strange prediction.","time":832240},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"If the cells are really willing to build\ntowards a specific map,","time":836554},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"we could take genetically unaltered cells,","time":840534},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and what you're seeing here\nis cells taken out of a frog body.","time":844248},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They've coalesced in a way that asks them\nto re-envision their multicellularity.","time":847740},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And what you see here","time":852642},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is that when liberated from the rest\nof the body of the animal,","time":853831},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"they make these tiny little novel bodies\nthat are, in terms of behavior,","time":856850},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"you can see they can move,\nthey can run a maze.","time":860798},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They are completely different\nfrom frogs or tadpoles.","time":863249},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Frog cells, when asked to re-envision\nwhat kind of body they want to make,","time":866777},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"do something incredibly interesting.","time":872933},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"They use the hardware\nthat their genetics gives them,","time":874950},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"for example, these\nlittle hairs, these little cilia","time":879998},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that are normally used to redistribute\nmucus on the outside of a frog,","time":882426},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"those are genetically specified.","time":886055},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"But what these creatures did,","time":887741},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"because the cells are able\nto form novel kinds of bodies,","time":890119},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"they have figured out\nhow to use these little cilia","time":894792},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to instead row against the water,\nand now have locomotion.","time":897487},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So not only can they move around,\nbut they can, and here what you're seeing,","time":901617},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is that these cells\nare coalescing together.","time":906399},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Now they're starting to have conversations\nabout what they are going to do.","time":909242},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"You can see here the flashes\nare these exchanges of information.","time":912853},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Keep in mind, this is just skin.","time":916654},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"There is no nervous system.\nThere is no brain. This is just skin.","time":918945},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"This is skin that has learned\nto make a new body","time":922929},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and to explore its environment\nand move around.","time":925429},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And they have spontaneous behaviors.","time":928190},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"You can see here where\nit's swimming down this maze.","time":930745},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"At this point, it decides to turn around\nand go back where it came from.","time":933248},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So it has its own behavior,\nand this is a remarkable model system","time":936717},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"for several reasons.","time":940270},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"First of all, it shows us\nthe amazing plasticity of cells","time":941494},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that are genetically wild type.","time":945266},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"There is no genetic editing here.","time":946883},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"These are cells that are really prone\nto making some sort of functional body.","time":948609}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"The second thing,","time":953762},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and this was done in collaboration\nwith Josh Bongard's lab at UVM,","time":954937},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"they modeled the structure of these things\nand evolved it in a virtual world.","time":958274},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So this is literally -- on a computer,\nthey modeled it on a computer.","time":964584},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So this is literally the only organism\nthat I know of on the face of this planet","time":967887},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"whose evolution took place\nnot in the biosphere of the earth","time":971963},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"but inside a computer.","time":975146},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So the individual cells\nhave an evolutionary history,","time":977080},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"but this organism\nhas never existed before.","time":979792},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"It was evolved in this virtual world,","time":982260},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and then we went ahead\nand made it in the lab,","time":984693},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and you can see this amazing plasticity.","time":987353},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"This is not only\nfor making useful machines.","time":989881},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"You can imagine now programming these\nto go out into the environment","time":993116},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and collect toxins and cleanup,","time":997129},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"or you could imagine ones\nmade out of human cells","time":998809},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that would go through your body\nand collect cancer cells","time":1001326},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"or reshape arthritic joints,","time":1004345},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"deliver pro-regenerative compounds,","time":1006794},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"all kinds of things.","time":1009187},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"But not only these useful applications --\nthis is an amazing sandbox","time":1010362},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"for learning to communicate\nmorphogenetic signals to cell collectives.","time":1013861},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"So once we crack this, once we understand\nhow these cells decide what to do,","time":1018487},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and then we're going to, of course,\nlearn to rewrite that information,","time":1023417},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"the next steps are great improvements\nin regenerative medicine,","time":1026790},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"because we will then be able\nto tell cells to build healthy organs.","time":1031645},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so this is now\na really critical opportunity","time":1035406},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to learn to communicate with cell groups,","time":1038691},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"not to micromanage them,\nnot to force the hardware,","time":1040812},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to communicate and rewrite the goals\nthat these cells are trying to accomplish.","time":1043375}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: Well, it's mind-boggling stuff.","time":1048026},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Finally, Mike, give us\njust one other story","time":1050032},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"about medicine that might be to come","time":1053214},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"as you develop this understanding","time":1056349},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"of how this bioelectric layer works.","time":1059469}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: Yeah, this is incredibly exciting\nbecause, if you think about it,","time":1062818},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"most of the problems of biomedicine --","time":1066236},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"birth defects, degenerative disease,\naging, traumatic injury, even cancer --","time":1068149},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"all boil down to one thing:","time":1074239},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"cells are not building\nwhat you would like them to build.","time":1075977},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so if we understood\nhow to communicate with these collectives","time":1078911},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and really rewrite\ntheir target morphologies,","time":1082391},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"we would be able to normalize tumors,","time":1086982},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"we would be able to repair birth defects,","time":1089198},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"induce regeneration of limbs\nand other organs,","time":1091191},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and these are things\nwe have already done in frog models.","time":1093799},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so now the next really exciting step","time":1097215},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is to take this into mammalian cells","time":1099901},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and to really turn this into the next\ngeneration of regenerative medicine","time":1103654},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"where we learn to address\nall of these biomedical needs","time":1107164},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"by communicating with the cell collectives","time":1111709},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and rewriting their bioelectric\npattern memories.","time":1113813},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And the final thing I'd like to say\nis that the importance of this field","time":1117275},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is not only for biomedicine.","time":1120861},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"You see, this, as I started out by saying,","time":1122543},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"this ability of cells\nin novel environments","time":1124730},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"to build all kinds of things\nbesides what their genome tells them","time":1127366},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"is an example of intelligence,","time":1131334},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and biology has been\nintelligently solving problems","time":1133215},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"long before brains came on the scene.","time":1135896},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"And so this is also the beginnings\nof a new inspiration for machine learning","time":1137848},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"that mimics the artificial intelligence\nof body cells, not just brains,","time":1142721},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"for applications in computer intelligence.","time":1147084}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"CA: Mike Levin, thank you\nfor your extraordinary work","time":1152566},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"and for sharing it\nso compellingly with us.","time":1155729},{"__typename":"Cue","text":"Thank you.","time":1158056}]},{"__typename":"Paragraph","cues":[{"__typename":"Cue","text":"ML: Thank you so much. Thank you, Chris.","time":1159231}]}],"id":"191619","language":{"__typename":"Language","id":"35","endonym":"English","englishName":"English","internalLanguageCode":"en","rtl":false},"reviewer":null,"translator":null},"video":{"__typename":"Video","id":"68458","talkExtras":{"__typename":"TalkExtras","footnotes":[]}}},"commentsEnabled":false,"commentsLoggedInOnly":false},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/talks/[...slug]","query":{"slug":["michael_levin_the_electrical_blueprints_that_orchestrate_life"]},"buildId":"BPTMwnXPi6_eA2i40ZkNL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[71498,89765,33821,81412,47536,53607,20902,30118,24832],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}</script></body></html>