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class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Papacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Papacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Papacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Papacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li 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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg/300px-Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg/450px-Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg/600px-Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2691" data-file-height="1965" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius">Abraham Ortelius</a>: Map of Europe, 1595</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Early modern Europe</b>, also referred to as the <b>post-medieval period</b>, is the period of <a href="/wiki/European_history" class="mw-redirect" title="European history">European history</a> between the end of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, roughly the mid 15th century to the late 18th century. Historians variously mark the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> with the invention of <a href="/wiki/Moveable_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Moveable type">moveable type</a> printing in the 1450s, the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> and end of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> in 1453, the end of the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> in 1485, the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a> in Italy in the 1490s, the end of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">voyages of Christopher Columbus</a> to the Americas in 1492, or the start of the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> in 1517. The precise dates of its end point also vary and are usually linked with either the start of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in 1789 or with the more vaguely defined beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in late 18th century England. </p><p>Some of the more notable trends and events of the early modern period included the Reformation and the religious conflicts it provoked (including the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>), the rise of <a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">capitalism</a> and modern <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a>, widespread <a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">witch hunts</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modern period was characterized by profound changes in many realms of human endeavor. Among the most important include the development of science as a formalized practice, increasingly rapid <a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">technological progress</a>, and the establishment of secularized civic politics, <a href="/wiki/Law_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Law court">law courts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>. <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist economy">Capitalist economies</a> began to develop in a nascent form, first in the northern Italian republics such as <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> as well as in the cities of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, and later in France, Germany and England. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>. As such, the early modern period is often associated with the decline and eventual disappearance (at least in Western Europe) of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serfdom</a>. The Protestant <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> greatly altered the religious balance of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>, creating a formidable new opposition to the dominance of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, especially in Northern Europe. The early modern period also witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Circumnavigation" title="Circumnavigation">circumnavigation</a> of the Earth and the establishment of regular European contact with the Americas and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South</a> and East Asia. The ensuing rise of global systems of international economic, cultural and intellectual exchange played an important role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and represents an identifiable early phase of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Periodization">Periodization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Periodization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_about_1560.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Europe_about_1560.jpg/220px-Europe_about_1560.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Europe_about_1560.jpg/330px-Europe_about_1560.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Europe_about_1560.jpg/440px-Europe_about_1560.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2398" data-file-height="1929" /></a><figcaption>Europe about 1560, as in the 1923 <a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Shepherd" title="William Robert Shepherd">William Shepherd</a> Atlas</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Early_modern_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Early modern Europe">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Early+modern+Europe%22">"Early modern Europe"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Early+modern+Europe%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Early+modern+Europe%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Early+modern+Europe%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Early+modern+Europe%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Early+modern+Europe%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Regardless of the precise dates used to define its beginning and end points, the early modern period is generally agreed to have comprised the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. As such, historians have attributed a number of fundamental changes to the period, notably the increasingly rapid progress of science and technology, the secularization of politics, and the diminution of the absolute authority of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> as well as the lessening of the influence of all faiths upon national governments. Many historians have identified the early modern period as the epoch in which individuals began to think of themselves as belonging to a national polity—a notable break from medieval modes of self-identification, which had been largely based upon religion (belonging to a universal <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>), language, or feudal allegiance (belonging to the manor or extended household of a particular <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">lord</a>). </p><p>The beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cut, but is generally accepted to be in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Significant dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early modern Europe can be noted: </p> <ul><li>1450: The invention of the first European <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> printing process by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a>, a device that fundamentally changed the circulation of information. Movable type, which allowed individual characters to be arranged to form words and which is an invention separate from the printing press, had been invented earlier in China.</li></ul> <ul><li>1453: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">The conquest of Constantinople</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottomans</a> signalled the end of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castillon" title="Battle of Castillon">Battle of Castillon</a> concluded the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>1485: The last <a href="/wiki/Plantagenet" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantagenet">Plantagenet</a> king of England, <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a>, was killed at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Bosworth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> gave way to early modern <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor dynasty">Tudor</a> monarchy, in the person of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>1492: The first documented European voyage to the Americas by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> explorer <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>; the end of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>, with the final expulsion of the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>; the Spanish government <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">expels the Jews</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>1494: French king <a href="/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France" title="Charles VIII of France">Charles VIII</a> invaded Italy, drastically altering the status quo and beginning a <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">series of wars</a> which would punctuate the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>1513: First formulation of modern politics with the publication of <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i>.</li></ul> <ul><li>1517: The <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> begins with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> nailing his <a href="/wiki/95_theses" class="mw-redirect" title="95 theses">ninety-five theses</a> to the door of the church in <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a>, Germany.</li></ul> <ul><li>1526: <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor</a> gains the crowns of <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>1545: The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> begins <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> and marks the end of the medieval <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The end date of the early modern period is variously associated with the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, which began in Britain in about 1750, or the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in 1789, which drastically transformed the state of <a href="/wiki/European_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="European politics">European politics</a> and ushered in the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a> and modern Europe. </p><p>The role of nobles in the <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudal System</a> had yielded to the notion of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Right_of_Kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Right of Kings">Divine Right of Kings</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> (in fact, this consolidation of power from the land-owning nobles to the titular monarchs was one of the most prominent themes of the Middle Ages). Among the most notable political changes included the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> and the crystallization of kingdoms into nation-states. Perhaps even more significantly, with the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>, the notion of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> as a unified political entity was destroyed. Many kings and rulers used this radical shift in the understanding of the world to further consolidate their sovereignty over their territories. For instance, many of the Germanic states (as well as <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English Reformation</a>) converted to <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> in an attempt to slip out of the grasp of the Pope. </p><p>The intellectual developments of the period included the creation of the economic theory of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> and the publication of enduringly influential works of political and social philosophy, such as <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> (1513) and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopia (More book)">Utopia</a></i> (1515). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reformation">Reformation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></div> <p>The Protestant Reformation was a reform-oriented <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a> from the Roman <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> initiated by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and continued by <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a>, and other early <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">Protestant Reformers</a>. It is typically dated from 1517, lasting until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648) with the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648. It was launched on 31 October 1517 by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, who posted his <a href="/wiki/95_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="95 Theses">95 Theses</a> criticizing the practice of indulgences to the door of the Castle Church in <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a>, Germany, commonly used to post notices to the University community. It was very widely publicized across Europe and caught fire. Luther began by criticizing the sale of <a href="/wiki/Indulgences" class="mw-redirect" title="Indulgences">indulgences</a>, insisting that the Pope had no authority over <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">purgatory</a> and that the Catholic doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Treasury_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Treasury of Merit">merits of the saints</a> had no foundation in the gospel. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as <i><a href="/wiki/Sola_scriptura" title="Sola scriptura">sola scriptura</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">sola fide</a></i>. </p><p>The Reformation ended in division and the establishment of new church movements. The four most important traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheranism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a>) tradition, <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptists</a>. Subsequent Protestant churches generally trace their roots back to these initial four schools of the Reformation. It also led to the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic or Counter Reformation</a> within the Roman Catholic Church through a variety of new spiritual movements, reforms of religious communities, the founding of seminaries, the clarification of Catholic theology as well as structural changes in the institution of the Church.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest Protestant groups were the <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinists</a>. Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The availability of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The core motivation behind the Reformation was <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">theological</a>, though many other factors played a part, including the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> that eroded faith in the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">Papacy</a>, the perceived corruption of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Curia" title="Roman Curia">Roman Curia</a>, the impact of <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>, and the new learning of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> that questioned much traditional thought.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a>, which gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietistic</a> movements.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman Catholic Church responded with a <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> initiated by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a>. Much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a>. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism. Southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>, which left it devastated.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Church_of_England">Church of England</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Church of England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:After_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/After_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/170px-After_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/After_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/255px-After_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/After_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/340px-After_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2041" data-file-height="3589" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> broke England's ties with the Catholic Church, becoming the sole head of the English Church.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Reformation reshaped the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> decisively after 1547. The separation of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> (or Anglican Church) from Rome under <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement; however, religious changes in the English national church proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (<i><a href="/wiki/Via_media" title="Via media">via media</a></i>) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences_of_the_Protestant_Reformation">Consequences of the Protestant Reformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consequences of the Protestant Reformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following outcomes of the Protestant Reformation regarding <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> formation, the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant ethic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance</a>, and "dark" outcomes have been identified by scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and also the theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">new social history</a> in the 1960s look at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation was then seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement and textured and rich because of its diversity."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Age_of_Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Age of Enlightenment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <p>"The Age of Enlightenment" refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a period which includes the Age of Reason. The term also more specifically refers to a historical intellectual movement, <i>The Enlightenment</i>. This movement advocated <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationality</a> as a means to establish an authoritative system of <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, ethics, and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>. The intellectual leaders of this movement regarded themselves as a courageous elite, and regarded their purpose as one of leading the world toward progress and out of a long period of doubtful tradition, full of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny, which they believed began during a historical period they called the <i><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></i>. This movement also provided a framework for the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolutions</a>, the Latin American independence movement, and the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_May_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of May 3">Constitution of May 3</a>, and also led to the rise of liberalism and the birth of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is matched by the high <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">baroque</a> and classical eras in music, and the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neo-classical</a> period in the arts, and receives contemporary application in the unity of science movement which includes <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difference_between_'early_modern'_and_the_Renaissance"><span id="Difference_between_.27early_modern.27_and_the_Renaissance"></span>Difference between 'early modern' and the Renaissance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Difference between 'early modern' and the Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The expression "early modern" is sometimes used as a substitute for the term <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, and vice versa. However, "Renaissance" is properly used in relation to a diverse series of cultural developments; which occurred over several hundred years in many different parts of Europe—especially central and northern Italy—and span the transition from late <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> civilization and the opening of the early modern period. </p><p>The term "early modern" is most often applied to Europe, and its overseas empire. However, it has also been employed in the history of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. In the historiography of Japan, the <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a> from 1590 to 1868 is also sometimes referred to as the "early modern" period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diplomacy_and_warfare">Diplomacy and warfare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diplomacy and warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herman_Moll_Map_of_Europe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Herman_Moll_Map_of_Europe.jpg/350px-Herman_Moll_Map_of_Europe.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Herman_Moll_Map_of_Europe.jpg/525px-Herman_Moll_Map_of_Europe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Herman_Moll_Map_of_Europe.jpg/700px-Herman_Moll_Map_of_Europe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>After the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648, Europe's borders were largely stable. 1708 map by Herman Moll</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_relations_1648%E2%80%931814" class="mw-redirect" title="International relations 1648–1814">International relations 1648–1814</a></div> <p>The 17th century saw very little peace in Europe – major wars were fought in 95 years (every year except 1610, 1669 to 1671, and 1680 to 1682.)<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wars were unusually ugly. Europe in the late 17th century, 1648 to 1700, was an age of great intellectual, scientific, artistic and cultural achievement. Historian Frederick Nussbaum says it was: </p><p>"prolific in genius, in common sense, and in organizing ability. It could properly have been expected that intelligence, comprehension and high purpose would be applied to the control of human relations in general and to the relations between states and peoples in particular. The fact was almost completely opposite. It was a period of marked unintelligence, immorality and frivolity in the conduct of international relations, marked by wars undertaken for dimly conceived purposes, waged with the utmost brutality and conducted by reckless betrayals of allies."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The worst came during the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>, 1618–1648, which had an extremely negative impact on the civilian population of Germany and surrounding areas, with massive loss of life and disruption of the economy and society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thirty_Years'_War:_1618–1648"><span id="Thirty_Years.27_War:_1618.E2.80.931648"></span>Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_(Gerard_Terborch_1648).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/250px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/375px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/500px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4649" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Westphalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Westphalia">Treaty of Westphalia</a> allowed <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> to be freely exercised.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Reformation led to a <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">series of religious wars</a> that culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648), which devastated much of <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_history_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern history of Germany">Germany</a>, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman Catholic <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a> and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Crown of Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovene_Lands" title="Slovene Lands">Slovene Lands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Martin Luther, political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe. </p><p>Two main tenets of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: </p> <ul><li>All parties would now recognise the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a></i>).</li> <li>Christians living in principalities where their denomination was <i>not</i> the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.</li></ul> <p>The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_X" title="Pope Innocent X">Pope Innocent X</a> declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull <i>Zelo Domus Dei</i>. European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCCWestphalia_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCCWestphalia-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars taking a <a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">"realist" perspective</a> on wars and diplomacy have emphasized the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> (1648) as a dividing line. It ended the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648), where religion and ideology had been powerful motivating forces for warfare. Westphalia, in the realist view, ushered in a new international system of sovereign states of roughly equal strength, dedicated not to ideology or religion but to enhance status, and territorial gains. The Catholic Church, for example, no longer devoted its energies to the very difficult task of reclaiming dioceses lost to Protestantism, but to build large-scale missions in overseas colonial possessions that could convert the natives by the thousands Using devoted members of society such as the Jesuits.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Hamish_Scott_(historian)" title="Hamish Scott (historian)">Hamish Scott</a>, the realist model assumes that "foreign policies were guided entirely by "Realpolitik," by the resulting struggle for resources and, eventually, by the search for what became known as a 'balance of power.'<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Diplomacy before 1700 was not well developed, and chances to avoid wars were too often squandered. In England, for example, King Charles II paid little attention to diplomacy, which proved disastrous. During the Dutch war of 1665–67, England had no diplomats stationed in Denmark or Sweden. When King Charles realized he needed them as allies, he sent special missions that were uninformed about local political, military, and diplomatic situations, and were ignorant of personalities and political factionalism. Ignorance produced a series of blunders that ruined their efforts to find allies.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King Louis XIV of France, by contrast, developed the most sophisticated diplomatic service, with permanent ambassadors and lesser ministers in major and minor capitals, all preparing steady streams of information and advice to Paris. Diplomacy became a career that proved highly attractive to rich senior aristocrats who enjoyed very high society at royal courts, especially because they carried the status of the most powerful nation in Europe. Increasingly, other nations copied the French model; French became the language of diplomacy, replacing Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1700, the British and the Dutch, with small land armies, large navies, and large treasuries, used astute diplomacy to build alliances, subsidizing as needed land powers to fight on their side, or as in the case of the Hessians, hiring regiments of soldiers from mercenary princes in small countries.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The balance of power was very delicately calculated, so that winning a battle here was worth the slice of territory there, with no regard to the wishes of the inhabitants. Important peacemaking conferences at Utrecht (1713), Vienna (1738), Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) and Paris (1763) had a cheerful, cynical, game-like atmosphere in which professional diplomats cashed in victories like casino chips in exchange for territory.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_states">Major states</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Major states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Holy Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 1512, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> was also known as the <i>Holy Roman Empire of the <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German nation</a></i>. The Habsburg <a href="/wiki/House_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Austria">House of Austria</a> held the position of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperors</a> since the mid-1400s and for the entire Early modern period. Despite the lack of a centralized political structure in a period in which national monarchies were emerging, the Habsburg Emperors of the Early modern period came close to form a <a href="/wiki/Universal_monarchy" title="Universal monarchy">universal monarchy</a> in Western Europe. </p><p>The Habsburgs expanded their control within and outside the Holy Roman Empire as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor</a>. Maximilian I married <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy" title="Mary of Burgundy">Mary of Burgundy</a>, thus bringing the <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a> into the Habsburg inheritance. Their son, <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Handsome" title="Philip the Handsome">Philip the Handsome</a>, married <a href="/wiki/Joanna_the_Mad" class="mw-redirect" title="Joanna the Mad">Joanna the Mad</a> of Spain (daughter of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Castile" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella of Castile">Isabella of Castile</a>). <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> (son of Philip and Joanna) inherited the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a> in 1506, <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburg Spain</a> and its territories in 1516, and <a href="/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria" title="Archduchy of Austria">Habsburg Austria</a> in 1519. </p><p>The main opponents of the Habsburg Empire were the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a>. The Habsburgs clashed <a href="/wiki/French-Habsburg_rivalry" class="mw-redirect" title="French-Habsburg rivalry">with France</a> in a series of Italian wars. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Battle of Pavia</a> (1525) initiated the Habsburg primacy in Italy and the replacement of France as the main European power. Nevertheless, religious wars forced Charles V to abdicate in 1556 and divide the Habsburg possessions between Spain and Austria. The next Holy Roman <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ferdinand_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Ferdinand I">Emperor Ferdinand I</a> completed the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> and maintained Germany at peace until the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648). The Habsburgs controlled the elective monarchies of Hungary and Bohemia as well, and eventually turned these states into hereditary domains. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">History of Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern period">Early Modern period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></div> <p>In 1492 the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a> funded <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s plan to sail west to reach the <a href="/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">Indies</a> by crossing the Atlantic. He landed on a continent uncharted by Europeans and seen as a <a href="/wiki/New_world" class="mw-redirect" title="New world">new world</a>, the Americas. To prevent conflict between Portugal and Castile (the crown under which Columbus made the voyage), the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> was signed dividing the world into two regions of exploration, where each had exclusive rights to claim newly discovered lands.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The structure of the Spanish Empire was established under the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spanish Habsburgs</a> (1516–1700) and under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Spanish Bourbon</a> monarchs, the empire was brought under greater crown control and increased its revenues from the Indies.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crown's authority in The Indies was enlarged by the papal grant of <a href="/wiki/Patronato_Real" class="mw-redirect" title="Patronato Real">powers of patronage</a>, giving it power in the religious sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, Spain, rather than the Habsburg empire, was identified as a more powerful nation than France and England globally. Furthermore, despite attacks from other European states, Spain retained its position of dominance with apparent ease. Spain controlled the Netherlands until the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch revolt">Dutch revolt</a>, and important states in southern Italy. The Spanish claims to Naples and Sicily dated back to the 15th century, but had been marred by rival claims until the mid-16th century and the rule of Philip II. There would be no Italian revolts against Spanish rule until 1647. The death of the Ottoman emperor <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> in 1566 and the naval victory over the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a> in 1571 cemented the status of Spain as a superpower in Europe and the world. The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies of the Spanish Monarch in the Americas, Asia (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Philippines">Spanish Philippines</a>), Europe and some territories in Africa and Oceania. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History of France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a> (French for "old regime") was the political and social system of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a> from about 1450 until the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> that started in 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ancien Régime was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">late Valois</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> dynasties. Much of the medieval political centralization of France had been lost in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, and the Valois Dynasty's attempts at re-establishing control over the scattered political centres of the country were hindered by the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">Wars of Religion</a>). Much of the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII" title="Louis XIII">Louis XIII</a> and the early years of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> were focused on administrative centralisation. Despite, however, the notion of "<a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a>" (typified by the king's right to issue <i><a href="/wiki/Lettres_de_cachet" title="Lettres de cachet">lettres de cachet</a></i>) and the efforts by the kings to create a centralized state, Ancien Régime France remained a country of systemic irregularities: administrative (including taxation), legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions and prerogatives frequently overlapped, while the French nobility struggled to maintain their own rights in the matters of local government and justice, and powerful internal conflicts (like the <a href="/wiki/The_Fronde" title="The Fronde">Fronde</a>) protested against this centralization.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The need for centralization in this period was directly linked to the question of royal finances and the ability to wage war. The internal conflicts and dynastic crises of the 16th and 17th centuries (the wars between Catholics and Protestants and the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a>'s internal family conflict) and the territorial expansion of France in the 17th century demanded great sums which needed to be raised through taxes, such as the land tax (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Taille" title="Taille">taille</a></i></span></i>) and the tax on salt (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Gabelle" title="Gabelle">gabelle</a></i></span></i>) and by contributions of men and service from the nobility. The key to this centralization was the replacing of personal <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a> systems organized around the king and other nobles by institutional systems around the state.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The creation of <a href="/wiki/Intendant" title="Intendant">intendants</a>—representatives of royal power in the provinces—did much to undermine local control by regional nobles. The same was true of the greater reliance shown by the royal court on the "noblesse de robe" as judges and royal counselors. The creation of regional <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">parlements</a> had initially the same goal of facilitating the introduction of royal power into newly assimilated territories, but as the parlements gained in self-assurance, they began to be sources of disunity.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England">England</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Early modern Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_succession_allegory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Elizabeth_succession_allegory.jpg/220px-Elizabeth_succession_allegory.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Elizabeth_succession_allegory.jpg/330px-Elizabeth_succession_allegory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Elizabeth_succession_allegory.jpg/440px-Elizabeth_succession_allegory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="495" /></a><figcaption><b>Elizabeth ushers in Peace and Plenty.</b> Detail from <i>The Family of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession</i>, c. 1572, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Lucas_de_Heere" title="Lucas de Heere">Lucas de Heere</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>This period refers to England 1558–1603. The <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan Era">Elizabethan Era</a> is the period associated with the reign of <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Queen Elizabeth I</a> (1558–1603) and was a <a href="/wiki/Golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age">golden age</a> in English cultural history. It was the height of the <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a>, and saw the flowering of <a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">poetry</a>. This was also the time during which <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan theatre">Elizabethan theatre</a> grew. <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, among others, composed highly innovative and powerful plays. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad. At home the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> was established and successfully defended against the Catholic powers of Spain and France.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean era</a></i> was the reign <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="James I of England">James I of England</a> (1603–1625). Overseas exploration and establishment of trading factories sped up, with the first permanent settlements in North America at <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown, Virginia</a> in 1607, in <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> in 1610, and at <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth Colony</a> in Massachusetts in 1620. One king now ruled England and Scotland; the latter was fully absorbed by the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tumultuous <a href="/wiki/Caroline_era" title="Caroline era">Caroline era</a> was the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">King Charles I</a> (1625–1645), followed by his beheading by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>'s regime in 1649 . The Caroline era was dominated by the growing religious, political, and social conflict between the King and his supporters, termed the Royalist party, and the <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> opposition that evolved in response to particular aspects of Charles' rule. The colonization of North America continued apace, with new colonies in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> (1634), <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> (1635), and <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> (1636).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">History of Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_in_the_early_modern_period_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)">History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Poland">Crown of Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberties" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Liberties">Golden Liberties</a></div> <p>In early modern Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> was the largest country with a large population and was very powerful. It was the largest semi-democratically governed polity of its time. It had low taxes but managed to field thousands of <a href="/wiki/Winged_Hussars" class="mw-redirect" title="Winged Hussars">Winged Hussars</a> who composed of nobility who followed <a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Polish_military" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish military">Polish military</a> routinely beat other respectable opponents such as the Ottomans, the Swedes and the Russians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Papacy">Papacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Papacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The papacy continued to exercise significant diplomatic influence during the Early modern period. The Popes were frequently assembling Holy Leagues to assert Catholic supremacy in Europe. During the Renaissance, <a href="/wiki/Julius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius II">Julius II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul III">Paul III</a> were largely involved in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> and worked to preserve their primacy among the Italian princes. During the Counter-Reformation, the Papacy supported Catholic powers and factions all over Europe. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pope Pius V</a> assembled the Catholic coalition that won the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a> against the Turks. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_V" title="Pope Sixtus V">Pope Sixtus V</a> sided with the Catholics during the <a href="/wiki/French_wars_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="French wars of religion">French wars of religion</a>. Worldwide religious missions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China mission">Jesuit China mission</a>, were established by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII" title="Pope Gregory XIII">Pope Gregory XIII</a>. Gregory XIII is also responsible for the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> and the birth of <a href="/wiki/Nation-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-states">nation-states</a>, Papal claims to universal authority came effectively to an end. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_political_powers">Other political powers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other political powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Florence" title="Duchy of Florence">Duchy of Florence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a> (Czech)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> (Austria)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_history_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern history of Germany">Early Modern Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Prussia" title="Duchy of Prussia">Duchy of Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bavaria" title="Duchy of Bavaria">Duchy of Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Bavaria" title="Electorate of Bavaria">Electorate of Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_the_Palatinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Electorate of the Palatinate">Electorate of the Palatinate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden#Early_Modern" title="History of Sweden">Early Modern Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Romania">Early Modern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">International relations 1648–1814</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern warfare">Early Modern warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li>Catholic <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ODCC-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODCC_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Trent, Council of" in Cross, F. L. (ed.) <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>, Oxford University Press, 2005 (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3">978-0-19-280290-3</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20070629_responsa-quaestiones_en.html">Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130813100622/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20070629_responsa-quaestiones_en.html">Archived</a> August 13, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth G. Appold, <i>The Reformation: A Brief History</i> (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120083934/the-reformation-a-brief-history">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Johnston, <i>The protestant reformation in Europe</i> (Routledge, 2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a wide range of causes see G.R. Elton, ed. <i>The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 2: The Reformation, 1520–1559</i> (1st ed. 1958) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.111462">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Huntston Williams, <i>The Radical Reformation</i> (3rd ed, 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.D. Wright, <i>The Counter-Reformation: Catholic Europe and the Non-Christian World</i> (Ashgate, 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.G. Dickens, <i>The English Reformation</i> (1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Collinson, <i>The Reformation: A History</i> (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret_C._Jacob1991" class="citation book cs1">Margaret C. Jacob (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w9y1pF-Na3UC&pg=PA215"><i>Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199762798" title="Special:BookSources/9780199762798"><bdi>9780199762798</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+the+Enlightenment%3A+Freemasonry+and+Politics+in+Eighteenth-Century+Europe&rft.pages=215&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780199762798&rft.au=Margaret+C.+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw9y1pF-Na3UC%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bax, Ernest Belfort. "Gracchus Babeuf and the Conspiracy of the Equals", 1911 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/bax/1911/babeuf/index.htm">[1]</a>, accessed June 12, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John A. Mears, "The Emergence Of The Standing Professional Army In Seventeenth-Century Europe," <i>Social Science Quarterly</i> (1969) 50#1 pp. 106–115 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42858465">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick L. Nussbaum, <i>The triumph of science and reason, 1660–1685</i> (1953) pp. 147–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics#ref=ref310375">History of Europe – Demographics</a>". Encyclopædia Britannica.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODCCWestphalia-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODCCWestphalia_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" <i>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman Davies, <i>Europe: A History</i> (1996) pp. 593–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamish Scott, book review in <i>English Historical Review</i> (Oct 2013) pp. 1239–1241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.R. Jones, <i>Britain and the World: 1649–1815</i> (1980), pp. 38–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaston Zeller, "French diplomacy and foreign policy in their European setting." in Carsten, ed., <i>The New Cambridge Modern History</i> vol. 5 (1961) pp. 198–99, 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles W. Ingrao, <i>The Hessian mercenary state: ideas, institutions, and reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785</i> (2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, <i>Europe</i> (1996) pp. 581–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Gaylord Bourne, <i>The History and Determination of the Line of Demarcation Established by Pope Alexander VI Between the Spanish and Portuguese Fields of Discovery and Colonization</i> (1892) online in Gutenberg.org.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTracy1993" class="citation book cs1">Tracy, James D. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=heEdZziizrUC&pg=PA35"><i>The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350–1750</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45735-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45735-4"><bdi>978-0-521-45735-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Merchant+Empires%3A+Long-Distance+Trade+in+the+Early+Modern+World%2C+1350%E2%80%931750&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45735-4&rft.aulast=Tracy&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DheEdZziizrUC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, John. <i>Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 1989, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwaller, John F., "Patronato Real" in <i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i> vol. 4, pp. 323–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mecham, J. Lloyd, <i>Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations</i>, revised edition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966, pp. 4–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Haring" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence Haring">Haring, Clarence</a>, <i>The Spanish Empire in America</i>. New York: Oxford University Press 1947, pp. 181–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/ancient-history-middle-ages-and-feudalism/ancien-regime">"Ancien Regime"</a>, <i>Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World</i>, The Gale Group Inc., 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2017</span> – via Encyclopedia.com</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancien+Regime&rft.btitle=Europe%2C+1450+to+1789%3A+Encyclopedia+of+the+Early+Modern+World&rft.pub=The+Gale+Group+Inc.&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fhistory%2Fmodern-europe%2Fancient-history-middle-ages-and-feudalism%2Fancien-regime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See William Doyle, ed. <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime</i> (2012) 656 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Ancien-Handbooks-History/dp/0199291209/">excerpt and text search</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMajor1994">Major 1994</a>, pp. xx–xxi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, <i>The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610–1774</i> (1999), political survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0631211969">excerpt and text search</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. M. Palliser, <i>The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barry Coward, and Peter Gaunt. <i>The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714</i> (5th ed. 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GjElDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">excerpt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Godfrey Davies, <i>The Early Stuarts, 1603–1660</i> (Oxford UP, 1959).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajor1994" class="citation book cs1">Major, J. Russell (1994). <i>From Renaissance Monarchy to Absolute Monarchy: French Kings, Nobles & Estates</i>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-5631-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-5631-0"><bdi>0-8018-5631-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Renaissance+Monarchy+to+Absolute+Monarchy%3A+French+Kings%2C+Nobles+%26+Estates&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8018-5631-0&rft.aulast=Major&rft.aufirst=J.+Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_F._Rice,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene F. Rice, Jr.">Rice, Eugene, F. Jr.</a> (1970). <i>The Foundations of Early Modern Europe: 1460–1559</i>. W.W. Norton & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Early+Modern+Europe%3A+1460%E2%80%931559&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=Eugene%2C+F.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+Europe" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li>John Coffey (2000), <i>Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689</i>, Studies in Modern History, Pearson Education</li> <li>Benjamin J. Kaplan (2007), <i>Divided by Faith. Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe.</i> Cambridge University Press</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_S._Freedman" title="Joseph S. Freedman">Joseph S. Freedman</a> (1999), <i>Philosophy and the Arts in Central Europe, 1500–1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities</i> Aldershot: Ashgate</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_Europe&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Black, Jeremy. <i> European International Relations, 1648–1815</i> (2002)</li> <li>Blanning, T. C. W. <i>The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe 1660–1789</i> (2003)</li> <li>Cameron, Euan. <i>Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History</i> (2001)</li> <li>de Gouges, Linnea. <i>Witch Hunts and State Building in Early Modern Europe</i> Nisus Publications, 2017.</li> <li>de Vries, Jan. <i>The Economy of Europe in an Age of Crisis, 1600–1750</i> (1976)</li> <li>de Vries, Jan. <i>European Urbanization, 1500–1800</i> (1984)</li> <li>Dewald, Jonathan. "The Early Modern Period." in <i>Encyclopedia of European Social History</i>, edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 1: 2001), pp. 165–177. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3460500030/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=c0c7f990">online</a></li> <li>Dorn, Walter L. <i>Competition For Empire 1740–1763</i> (1940) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.505410">online</a></li> <li>DuPlessis, Robert S. <i>Transitions to capitalism in early modern Europe</i> (2019).</li> <li>Flinn, Michael W. <i>The European Demographic System, 1500–1820</i> (1981)</li> <li>Gatti, Hilary. <i>Ideas of Liberty in Early Modern Europe</i> (2015).</li> <li>Gershoy, Leo. <i>From Despotism To Revolution: 1763–1789</i> (1944) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499216">online</a></li> <li>Grafton, Anthony. <i>Inky Fingers: The Making of Books in Early Modern Europe</i> (2020).</li> <li>Gribben, Crawford, and Graeme Murdock, eds. <i>Cultures of Calvinism in Early Modern Europe</i> (Oxford UP, 2019).</li> <li>Gutmann, Myron P. <i>Toward the Modern Economy: Early Industry in Europe, 1500–1800</i> (1988)</li> <li>Hesmyr, Atle: <i>Scandinavia in the Early Modern Era</i>(2017).</li> <li>Hill, David Jayne. <i>A history of diplomacy in the international development of Europe</i> (3 vol. 1914) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=Jayne%20diplomacy%20Europe">online</a></li> <li>Jacob, Margaret C. <i>Strangers nowhere in the world: the rise of cosmopolitanism in early modern Europe</i> (2017).</li> <li>Kennedy, Paul. <i>The rise and fall of the great powers</i> (2010).</li> <li>Klein, Alexander, and Jelle Van Lottum. "The Determinants of International Migration in Early Modern Europe: Evidence from the Maritime Sector, c. 1700–1800." <i>Social Science History</i> 44.1 (2020): 143–167 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/175521/1/1710.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Langer, William. <i>An Encyclopedia of World History</i> (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline</li> <li>Levine, David. "The Population of Europe: Early Modern Demographic Patterns." in <i>Encyclopedia of European Social History,</i> edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 2, 2001), pp. 145–157. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3460500079/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=e9e450e5">online</a></li> <li>Lindsay, J. O. ed. <i>New Cambridge Modern History: The Old Regime, 1713–1763</i> (1957) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.111467">online</a></li> <li>Merriman, John. <i>A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present</i> (3rd ed. 2009, 2 vol), 1412 pp.</li> <li>Mowat, R. B. <i>History of European Diplomacy, 1451–1789</i> (1928) 324 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00mowa">online free</a></li> <li>Nussbaum, Frederick L. <i>The triumph of science and reason, 1660–1685</i> (1953), Despite the narrow title is a general survey of European history.</li> <li>Parker, Geoffrey. <i>The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800</i> (1996)</li> <li>Petrie, Charles. <i>Earlier diplomatic history, 1492–1713</i> (1949), covers all of Europe; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015027344731">online</a> <ul><li>Petrie, Charles. <i>Diplomatic History, 1713–1933</i> (1946), broad summary <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0000petr">online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pollmann, Judith. <i>Memory in early modern Europe, 1500–1800</i> (Oxford UP, 2017).</li> <li>Rice, Eugene F. <i>The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460–1559</i> (2nd ed. 1994) 240 pp.</li> <li>Schroeder, Paul. <i>The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848</i> (1994) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/3696068/the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848">online</a>; advanced diplomatic history</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamish_Scott_(historian)" title="Hamish Scott (historian)">Scott, Hamish</a>, ed. <i>The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750: Volume I: Peoples and Place</i> (2015); Volume II: Cultures and Power (2015).</li> <li>"The State Church in Early-Modern Europe." in <i>Arts and Humanities Through the Eras</i>, edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., (vol. 5: The Age of the Baroque and Enlightenment 1600–1800, Gale, 2005), pp. 336–341. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3427400915/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=d5fa9bdf">online</a></li> <li>Stearns, Peter N., ed. <i>Encyclopedia of European Social History</i> (6 vol 2000), 3000 pp; overview vol. 1 pp. 165–77, plus hundreds of articles</li> <li>Tallett, Frank. <i>War and Society in Early Modern Europe: 1495–1715</i> (2016).</li> <li>Wiesner, Merry E. <i>Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789</i> (3rd ed. 2022)</li> <li>Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. <i>Women and gender in early modern Europe</i> (Cambridge UP, 2019).</li> <li>Wolf, John B. <i>The Emergence of the Great Powers, 1685–1715</i> (1951) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/emergenceofgreat0000wolf">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span 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<li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Early_modern_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Template:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Template talk:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Early_modern_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early modern Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance" title="Outline of the Renaissance">Outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early modern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">International relations (1648–1814)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Papacy" title="Renaissance Papacy">Papacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>Technological:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing#Impact_of_German_movable_type_printing_press" title="Printing">Printing Revolution</a></li> <li>Intellectual:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_of_Early_Modern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalism of Early Modern Europe">Journalism of Early Modern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_imperial_city" title="Free imperial city">Free imperial city</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Germany </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Lands of the Bohemian Crown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Union" title="Protestant Union">Protestant Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li>England <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a></li></ul></li> <li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_wars" title="Cabinet wars">Cabinet wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry" title="French–Habsburg rivalry">French–Habsburg rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Nijmegen" title="Treaties of Nijmegen">Treaties of Nijmegen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic Revolution of 1756">Diplomatic Revolution of 1756</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">History of European Jews in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic <br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Philosophy:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe" title="Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance" title="Science in the Renaissance">Science in the Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)</a></i></li> <li><u> Authors</u>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Palmieri" title="Matteo Palmieri">Matteo Palmieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance art</a></li> <li>Painting: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_painting" title="Florentine painting">Florentine painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">Venetian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish painting</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">End of period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" 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