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id="toc-Personal_versus_cultural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_versus_cultural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Personal versus cultural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_versus_cultural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relative_or_absolute" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative_or_absolute"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Relative or absolute</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative_or_absolute-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intrinsic_or_extrinsic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intrinsic_or_extrinsic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Intrinsic or extrinsic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intrinsic_or_extrinsic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Summation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Summation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universal_values" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universal_values"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Universal values</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universal_values-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intensity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intensity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Intensity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intensity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positive_and_negative_value" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_and_negative_value"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Positive and negative value</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_and_negative_value-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protected_value" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protected_value"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Protected value</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protected_value-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_versus_philosophic_value" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_versus_philosophic_value"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Economic versus philosophic value</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_versus_philosophic_value-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_values" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_values"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Personal values</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_values-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Personal values subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_values-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Individual_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Individual differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_foundations_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_foundations_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Moral foundations theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral_foundations_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_values" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_values"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cultural values</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_values-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_and_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_and_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Development and transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_and_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Value_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Value system</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Value_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Value system subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Value_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consistency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consistency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Consistency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consistency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Value_exceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value_exceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Value exceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Value_exceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Value (ethics)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9_(%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="قيمة (أخلاقيات) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قيمة (أخلاقيات)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_(%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0)" title="মূল্য (নীতিশাস্ত্র) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মূল্য (নীতিশাস্ত্র)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A8-ta%CC%8Dt-koan" title="Kè-ta̍t-koan – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kè-ta̍t-koan" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Каштоўнасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каштоўнасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Ценност (философия) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ценност (философия)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valor_(%C3%A8tica_i_ci%C3%A8ncies_socials)" title="Valor (ètica i ciències socials) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Valor (ètica i ciències socials)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%C4%83%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Хаклăлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хаклăлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodnoty" title="Hodnoty – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hodnoty" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A6rdi_(sociologi)" title="Værdi (sociologi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Værdi (sociologi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wertvorstellung" title="Wertvorstellung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wertvorstellung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4%C3%A4rtused" title="Väärtused – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Väärtused" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valor_(%C3%A9tica)" title="Valor (ética) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Valor (ética)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balio_(etika)" title="Balio (etika) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Balio (etika)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%B4" title="ارزش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارزش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valeurs_(sociologie)" title="Valeurs (sociologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Valeurs (sociologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valor_(%C3%A9tica)" title="Valor (ética) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Valor (ética)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%B9%98%EA%B4%80" title="가치관 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가치관" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%AA%D5%A5%D6%84" title="Արժեք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արժեք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrijednosni_sustav" title="Vrijednosni sustav – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vrijednosni sustav" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilai_(etika_dan_ilmu_sosial)" title="Nilai (etika dan ilmu sosial) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nilai (etika dan ilmu sosial)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valore_(scienze_sociali)" title="Valore (scienze sociali) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Valore (scienze sociali)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9A_(%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94)" title="ערך (אתיקה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ערך (אתיקה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF_(%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0)" title="ಮೌಲ್ಯ (ನೀತಿಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೌಲ್ಯ (ನೀತಿಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A6%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ღირებულება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ღირებულება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D2%B1%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Құндылық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Құндылық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val%C3%A8_(syoloji)" title="Valè (syoloji) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Valè (syoloji)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valor" title="Valor – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Valor" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soatoavina" title="Soatoavina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Soatoavina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%82_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB" title="Үнэт зүйл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Үнэт зүйл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.8em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics"><span style="color:black;">Ethics</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; display:block; background-color: #efefef;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ethics" title="Outline of ethics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Error theory">Error theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralism" title="Moralism">Moralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projectivism" title="Projectivism">Projectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_anti-realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcognition" title="Transcognition">Transcognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_humility" title="Intellectual humility">Intellectual humility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">Is–ought problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">Social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialist_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialist ethics">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situational_ethics" title="Situational ethics">Situational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Ethicists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J.L._Mackie" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Works</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;;font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(book)" title="Animal Liberation (book)">Animal Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beyond_Good_and_Evil" title="Beyond Good and Evil">Beyond Good and Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Moore_book)" title="Ethics (Moore book)">Ethics (Moore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Moral_Landscape" title="The Moral Landscape">The Moral Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Philosophy_of_Freedom" title="The Philosophy of Freedom">The Philosophy of Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal; padding:1em 1em 1em;"> This is a <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_and_thinking_sidebar_templates" title="Category:Philosophy and thinking sidebar templates">subseries</a> on <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. In order to explore related topics, please visit <a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics">navigation</a>.</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethical_frameworks_sidebar" title="Template:Ethical frameworks sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Ethical_frameworks_sidebar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Ethical frameworks sidebar (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethical_frameworks_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethical frameworks sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, <b>value</b> denotes the degree of <a href="/wiki/Importance" title="Importance">importance</a> of some thing or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (<a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a>), or to describe the significance of different actions. Value systems are proscriptive and prescriptive <a href="/wiki/Beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Beliefs">beliefs</a>; they affect the ethical behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are strong and secondary values are suitable for changes. What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases, or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (<a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> sense).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights for all", "Excellence deserves admiration", and "People should be treated with <a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">respect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">dignity</a>" are representatives of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include moral values, <a href="/wiki/Doctrinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrinal">doctrinal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ideological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideological">ideological</a> values, <a href="/wiki/Social" title="Social">social</a> values, and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic">aesthetic</a> values. It is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically determined, such as <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsic</a>, and whether some, such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/acquisitiveness" class="extiw" title="wikt:acquisitiveness">acquisitiveness</a>, should be classified as <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vices</a> or <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fields_of_study">Fields of study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Fields of study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ethical issues that value may be regarded as a study under <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, which, in turn, may be grouped as <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. Similarly, <i>ethical value</i> may be regarded as a subgroup of a broader field of <a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">philosophic value</a> sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">axiology</a>. Ethical value denotes something's degree of importance, with the aim of determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions. </p><p>The study of ethical value is also included in <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">value theory</a>. In addition, values have been studied in various disciplines: <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">behavioral economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">business ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">corporate governance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Political sciences">political sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Similar_concepts">Similar concepts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Similar concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Ethical value</i> is sometimes used synonymously with <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">goodness</a>. However, "goodness" has many other meanings and may be regarded as more ambiguous. </p><p><i>Social value</i> is a concept used in the <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a> to cover the social, environmental and economic impacts of individual and collective actions.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_value">Types of value</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types of value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_versus_cultural">Personal versus cultural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Personal versus cultural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Personal values exist in relation to <a href="/wiki/Cultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural">cultural</a> values, either in agreement with or divergence from prevailing norms. A culture is a social system that shares a set of common values, in which such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good, beautiful and constructive. Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference against which to measure the virtue of individual values and so cultural identity would disintegrate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relative_or_absolute">Relative or absolute</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Relative or absolute"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relative</a> values differ between people, and on a larger scale, between people of different cultures. On the other hand, there are theories of the existence of <i>absolute values</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can also be termed <i><a href="/wiki/Noumenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Noumenal">noumenal</a> values</i> (and not to be confused with mathematical <a href="/wiki/Absolute_value" title="Absolute value">absolute value</a>). An absolute value can be described as <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">philosophically absolute</a> and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent of whether it is known or apprehended or not. <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> was pessimistic about the idea that an elucidation would ever happen regarding the absolute values of actions or objects; "we can speak as much as we want about "life" and "<a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">its meaning</a>", and believe that what we say is important. But these are no more than expressions and can never be facts, resulting from a tendency of the mind and not the heart or the will".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intrinsic_or_extrinsic">Intrinsic or extrinsic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Intrinsic or extrinsic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophic value may be split into <i><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental value">instrumental value</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsic values</a></i>. An instrumental value is worth having as a means towards getting something else that is good (e.g., a radio is instrumentally good in order to hear music). An intrinsically valuable thing is worth for itself, not as a means to something else. It is giving value <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties_(philosophy)" title="Intrinsic and extrinsic properties (philosophy)">intrinsic and extrinsic properties</a>. </p><p>An <i>ethic good</i> with <i>instrumental value</i> may be termed an <a href="/wiki/Ethic_mean" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic mean">ethic mean</a>, and an <i>ethic good</i> with <i>intrinsic value</i> may be termed an <a href="/wiki/End-in-itself" class="mw-redirect" title="End-in-itself">end-in-itself</a>. An object may be both a mean and end-in-itself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Summation">Summation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Summation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Intrinsic and instrumental goods are not mutually exclusive categories.<sup id="cite_ref-riukas_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riukas-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some objects are both good in themselves, and also good for getting other objects that are good. "Understanding science" may be such a good, being both worthwhile in and of itself, and as a means of achieving other goods. In these cases, the <a href="/wiki/Summation" title="Summation">sum</a> of instrumental (specifically the <a href="/wiki/All_instrumental_value" class="mw-redirect" title="All instrumental value">all instrumental value</a>) and intrinsic value of an object may be used when putting that object in <a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">value systems</a>, which is a set of consistent values and measures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Universal_values">Universal values</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Universal values"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Universal_value" title="Universal value">Universal value</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Shalom_H._Schwartz" title="Shalom H. Schwartz">S. H. Schwartz</a>, along with a number of psychology colleagues, has carried out <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> research investigating whether there are universal values, and what those values are. Schwartz defined 'values' as "conceptions of the desirable that influence the way people select action and evaluate events".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He hypothesised that universal values would relate to three different types of human need: biological needs, social co-ordination needs, and needs related to the welfare and survival of groups<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intensity">Intensity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Intensity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>intensity</i> of philosophic value is the degree it is generated or carried out, and may be regarded as the prevalence of the good, the object having the value.<sup id="cite_ref-riukas_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riukas-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It should not be confused with the amount of value per object, although the latter may vary too, e.g. because of <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_value_conditionality" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental value conditionality">instrumental value conditionality</a>. For example, taking a fictional life-stance of accepting waffle-eating as being the end-in-itself, the intensity may be the speed that waffles are eaten, and is zero when no waffles are eaten, e.g. if no waffles are present. Still, each waffle that had been present would still have value, no matter if it was being eaten or not, independent on intensity. </p><p><i>Instrumental value conditionality</i> in this case could be exampled by every waffle not present, making them less valued by being far away rather than easily accessible. </p><p>In many <a href="/wiki/Life_stances" class="mw-redirect" title="Life stances">life stances</a> it is the product of value and intensity that is ultimately desirable, i.e. not only to generate value, but to generate it in large degree. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maximization_(ethics)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maximization (ethics) (page does not exist)">Maximizing</a> life-stances have the highest possible intensity as an imperative. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_and_negative_value">Positive and negative value</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Positive and negative value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There may be a distinction between positive and negative philosophic or ethic value. While positive ethic value generally correlates with something that is pursued or maximized, negative ethic value correlates with something that is avoided or minimized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protected_value">Protected value</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Protected value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <i>protected value</i> (also <a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">sacred</a> value) is one that an individual is unwilling to trade off no matter what the benefits of doing so may be. For example, some people may be unwilling to kill another person, even if it means saving many other individuals. Protected values tend to be "intrinsically good", and most people can in fact imagine a scenario when trading off their most precious values would be necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If such trade-offs happen between two competing protected values such as killing a person and defending your family they are called <i>tragic trade-offs.</i><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protected values have been found to be play a role in protracted conflicts (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli-Palestinian conflict</a>) because they can hinder businesslike (''utilitarian'') negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-Atran2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atran2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of experimental studies directed by <a href="/wiki/Scott_Atran" title="Scott Atran">Scott Atran</a> and Ángel Gómez among combatants on the <a href="/wiki/ISIS" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS">ISIS</a> front line in Iraq and with ordinary citizens in Western Europe <sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggest that commitment to sacred values motivate the most "devoted actors" to make the costliest sacrifices, including willingness to fight and die, as well as a readiness to forsake close kin and comrades for those values if necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, protected values are <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">biases</a> when they prevent utility from being maximized across individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Baron" title="Jonathan Baron">Jonathan Baron</a> and Mark Spranca,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> protected values arise from <a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">norms</a> as described in theories of <a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">deontological ethics</a> (the latter often being referred to in context with <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>). The protectedness implies that people are concerned with their participation in transactions rather than just the consequences of it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_versus_philosophic_value">Economic versus philosophic value</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economic versus philosophic value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Value_(economics)" title="Value (economics)">Value (economics)</a></div> <p>Philosophical value is distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Economic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic value">economic value</a>, since it is independent from some other desired condition or commodity. The economic value of an object may rise when the exchangeable desired condition or commodity, e.g. money, become high in supply, and vice versa when supply of money becomes low. </p><p>Nevertheless, economic value may be regarded as a result of philosophical value. In the <a href="/wiki/Subjective_theory_of_value" title="Subjective theory of value">subjective theory of value</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Personal_philosophic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal philosophic value">personal philosophic value</a> a person puts in possessing something is reflected in what economic value this person puts on it. The limit where a person considers to purchase something may be regarded as the point where the <i>personal philosophic value</i> of possessing something exceeds the personal philosophic value of what is given up in exchange for it, e.g. money. In this light, everything can be said to have a "personal economic value" in contrast to its "societal economic value." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_values">Personal values</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Personal values"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive. Values are one of the factors that generate behavior (besides needs, interests and habits) and influence the choices made by an individual. </p><p>Values may help common human problems for survival by comparative rankings of value, the results of which provide answers to questions of why people do what they do and in what order they choose to do them.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Moral, religious, and personal values, when held rigidly, may also give rise to <a href="/wiki/Conflict_(process)" title="Conflict (process)">conflicts</a> that result from a clash between differing <a href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">world views</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over time the public expression of personal values that groups of people find important in their day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom and tradition. Recent research has thereby stressed the <i>implicit nature of value communication</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consumer behavior research proposes there are six internal values and three external values. They are known as List of Values (LOV) in management studies. They are <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self respect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_support" title="Social support">warm relationships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Need_for_achievement" title="Need for achievement">sense of accomplishment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-fulfillment" title="Self-fulfillment">self-fulfillment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fun" title="Fun">fun and enjoyment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">excitement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belongingness" title="Belongingness">sense of belonging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">being well respected</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">security</a>. From a functional aspect these values are categorized into three and they are interpersonal relationship area, personal factors, and non-personal factors.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From an ethnocentric perspective, it could be assumed that a same set of values will not reflect equally between two groups of people from two countries. Though the core values are related, the processing of values can differ based on the cultural identity of an individual.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individual_differences">Individual differences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Individual differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Basic_Human_Values" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Basic Human Values">Theory of Basic Human Values</a></div> <p>Schwartz proposed a theory of individual values based on surveys data. His model groups values in terms of growth versus protection, and personal versus social focus. Values are then associated with openness to change (which Schwartz views as related to personal growth), self-enhancement (which Schwartz views as mostly to do with self-protection), conservation (which Schwartz views as mostly related to social-protection), and self-transcendence (which Schwartz views as a form of social growth). Within this Schwartz places 10 universal values: self-direction, stimulation and hedonism (related to openness growth), achievement and power (related to self enhancement), security, conformity and tradition (related to conservation), and humility, benevolence and universalism (relate to self-transcendence).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 523">: 523 </span></sup> </p><p>Personality traits using the big 5 measure correlate with Schwartz's value construct. Openness and extraversion correlates with the values related to openness-to-change (openness especially with self-direction, extraversion especially with stimulation); agreeableness correlates with self-transcendence values (especially benevolence); extraversion is correlated with self-enhancement and negatively with traditional values. Conscientiousness correlates with achievement, conformity and security.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 530">: 530 </span></sup> </p><p>Men are found to value achievement, self-direction, hedonism, and stimulation more than women, while women value benevolence, universality and tradition higher.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1012">: 1012 </span></sup> </p><p> The order of Schwartz's traits are substantially stability amongst adults over time. Migrants values change when they move to a new country, but the order of preferences is still quite stable. Motherhood causes women to shift their values towards stability and away from openness-to-change but not fathers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 528">: 528 </span></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moral-foundations-value-correlation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Moral-foundations-value-correlation.svg/220px-Moral-foundations-value-correlation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Moral-foundations-value-correlation.svg/330px-Moral-foundations-value-correlation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Moral-foundations-value-correlation.svg/440px-Moral-foundations-value-correlation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Correlations between Moral foundations and Schwartz's basic values with values taken from<sup id="cite_ref-Feldman_2021_676–686_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feldman_2021_676–686-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moral_foundations_theory">Moral foundations theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Moral foundations theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations theory</a></div> <p>Moral foundation theory identifies five forms of moral foundation: harm/care, fairness/reciprocity, in-group/loyalty, authority/respect, and purity/sanctity. The first two are often termed <i>individualizing foundations</i>, with the remaining three being <i>binding foundations</i>. The moral foundations were found to be correlated with the theory of basic human values. The strong correlations are between conservatives values and binding foundations.<sup id="cite_ref-Feldman_2021_676–686_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feldman_2021_676–686-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_values">Cultural values</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cultural values"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilt%E2%80%93shame%E2%80%93fear_spectrum_of_cultures" title="Guilt–shame–fear spectrum of cultures">Guilt–shame–fear spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-trust_and_low-trust_societies" title="High-trust and low-trust societies">High/low-trust societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regality_theory" title="Regality theory">Regality theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)#Cultural_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Cultural values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Values_Survey" title="World Values Survey">World Values Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inglehart%E2%80%93Welzel_cultural_map_of_the_world" title="Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world">Inglehart–Welzel cultural map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory" title="Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory">Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-context_and_low-context_cultures" title="High-context and low-context cultures">High/low-context cultures</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cross-cultural_studies" title="Template:Cross-cultural studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cross-cultural_studies" title="Template talk:Cross-cultural studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cross-cultural_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cross-cultural studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Individual <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultures</a> emphasize values which their members broadly share. Values of a <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> can often be identified by examining the level of <a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">honor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">respect</a> received by various groups and ideas. </p><p>Values clarification differs from cognitive <a href="/wiki/Moral_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral education">moral education</a>:<a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a> </p> <ul><li>Value clarification consists of "helping people clarify what their <a href="/wiki/Personal_life" title="Personal life">lives</a> are for and what is worth working for. It encourages students to define their own values and to understand others' values."<sup id="cite_ref-Santrock_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santrock-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cognitive moral education builds on the belief that students should learn to value things like <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> as their moral reasoning develops.<sup id="cite_ref-Santrock_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santrock-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Values relate to the <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">norms of a culture</a>, but they are more global and intellectual than norms. Norms provide rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">good or evil</a>. While norms are standards, patterns, rules and guides of expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">patriotism</a>. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors to manifest <a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">respect</a> at a funeral. Different cultures represent values differently and to different levels of emphasis. "Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others."<sup id="cite_ref-Santrock_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santrock-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of the students. </p><p>Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in that culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple <a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">subcultures</a> they belong to. </p><p>If a group member expresses a value that seriously conflicts with the group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">stigmatizing</a> the <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">non-conforming behavior</a> of that member. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that the state has established as law. </p><p>Furthermore, cultural values can be expressed at a global level through institutions participating in the <a href="/wiki/Global_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Global economy">global economy</a>. For example, values important to global governance can include leadership, legitimacy, and efficiency. Within our current global governance architecture, leadership is expressed through the G20, legitimacy through the United Nations, and efficiency through member-driven international organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expertise provided by international organizations and civil society depends on the incorporation of flexibility in the rules, to preserve the expression of <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalized world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2012)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, in warlike economic competition, differing views may contradict each other, particularly in the field of culture. Thus audiences in Europe may regard a movie as an artistic creation and grant it benefits from special treatment, while audiences in the United States may see it as mere entertainment, whatever its artistic merits. <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> policies based on the notion of "cultural exception" can become juxtaposed with the liberal policy of "cultural specificity" in English-speaking countries. Indeed, <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> traditionally treats films as property and the content of television programs as a service.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Consequently, cultural interventionist policies can find themselves opposed to the Anglo-Saxon liberal position, causing failures in international negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_and_transmission">Development and transmission</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Development and transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Values are generally received through cultural means, especially <a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">diffusion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">transmission</a> or <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a> from parents to children. Parents in different cultures have different values.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, parents in a <a href="/wiki/Hunter%E2%80%93gatherer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunter–gatherer">hunter–gatherer</a> society or surviving through <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence agriculture</a> value practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Italian parents value social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spanish parents want their children to be sociable.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Swedish parents value security and happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch parents value independence, long attention spans, and predictable schedules.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American parents are unusual for strongly valuing intellectual ability, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Kipsigis_people" title="Kipsigis people">Kipsigis people</a> of Kenya value children who are not only smart, but who employ that intelligence in a responsible and helpful way, which they call <i>ng'om</i>. Luos of Kenya value education and pride which they call "nyadhi".<sup id="cite_ref-Day_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Factors that influence the development of cultural values are summarized below. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Inglehart%E2%80%93Welzel_cultural_map_of_the_world" title="Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world">Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world</a> is a two-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Inglehart%E2%80%93Welzel_cultural_map_of_the_world" title="Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world">cultural map</a> showing the cultural values of the countries of the world along two dimensions: The <i>traditional versus secular-rational values</i> reflect the transition from a religious understanding of the world to a dominance of science and bureaucracy. The second dimension named <i>survival values versus self-expression values</i> represents the transition from industrial society to <a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">post-industrial society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wvs-old_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wvs-old-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cultures can be distinguished as <a href="/wiki/Michele_J._Gelfand#Cultural_tightness–looseness" title="Michele J. Gelfand">tight and loose</a> in relation to how much they adhere to social norms and tolerates deviance.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tight cultures are more restrictive, with stricter disciplinary measures for norm violations while loose cultures have weaker social norms and a higher tolerance for deviant behavior. A history of threats, such as natural disasters, high population density, or vulnerability to infectious diseases, is associated with greater tightness. It has been suggested that tightness allows cultures to coordinate more effectively to survive threats.<sup id="cite_ref-Gelfand2011_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gelfand2011-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies in <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> have led to similar findings. The so-called <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Regal_and_Kungic_Societal_Structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Regal and Kungic Societal Structures">regality theory</a> finds that war and other perceived collective dangers have a profound influence on both the psychology of individuals and on the social structure and cultural values. A dangerous environment leads to a hierarchical, authoritarian, and warlike culture, while a safe and peaceful environment fosters an egalitarian and tolerant culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Fog2017_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fog2017-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Value_system">Value system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Value system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <i>value system</i> is a set of <a href="/wiki/Consistent" class="mw-redirect" title="Consistent">consistent</a> values used for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Ethical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical">ethical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ideological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideological">ideological</a> <a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consistency">Consistency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Consistency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a member of a society, group or community, an individual can hold both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are <b>externally <a href="/wiki/Consistency" title="Consistency">consistent</a></b> provided they bear no contradictions or situational exceptions between them. </p><p>A value system in its own right is <b>internally consistent</b> when </p> <ul><li>its values <i>do not contradict</i> each other and</li> <li>its exceptions are or could be <ul><li><i>abstract</i> enough to be used in all situations and</li> <li>consistently <i>applied</i>.</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Conversely, a value system by itself is <b>internally inconsistent</b> if: </p> <ul><li>its values <i>contradict</i> each other and</li> <li>its exceptions are <ul><li>highly <i>situational</i> and</li> <li>inconsistently <i>applied</i>.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Value_exceptions">Value exceptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Value exceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Abstract</b> exceptions serve to reinforce the ranking of values. Their definitions are generalized enough to be relevant to any and all situations. <b>Situational</b> exceptions, on the other hand, are ad hoc and pertain only to specific situations. The presence of a type of exception determines one of two more kinds of value systems: </p> <ul><li>An <b>idealized</b> value system is a listing of values that lacks exceptions. It is, therefore, absolute and can be codified as a strict set of proscriptions on behavior. Those who hold to their idealized value system and claim no exceptions (other than the default) are called <i>absolutists</i>.</li> <li>A <b>realized</b> value system contains exceptions to resolve contradictions between values in practical circumstances. This type is what people tend to use in daily life.</li></ul> <p>The difference between these two types of systems can be seen when people state that they hold one value system yet in practice deviate from it, thus holding a different value system. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> lists an absolute set of values while the practice of that religion may include exceptions. </p><p>Implicit exceptions bring about a third type of value system called a <b>formal</b> value system. Whether idealized or realized, this type contains an implicit exception associated with each value: "as long as no higher-priority value is violated". For instance, a person might feel that lying is wrong. Since preserving a life is probably more highly valued than adhering to the principle that lying is wrong, lying to save someone's life is acceptable. Perhaps too simplistic in practice, such a hierarchical structure may warrant explicit exceptions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict">Conflict</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although sharing a set of common values, like hockey is better than baseball or ice cream is better than fruit, two different parties might not rank those values equally. Also, two parties might disagree as to certain actions are <a href="/wiki/Right_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right (ethics)">right</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">wrong</a>, both in theory and in practice, and find themselves in an <a href="/wiki/Ideological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideological">ideological</a> or physical conflict. <a href="/wiki/Ethonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethonomics">Ethonomics</a>, the discipline of rigorously examining and comparing value systems<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="No citation for this as the true definition (June 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, enables us to understand <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> and motivations more fully in order to resolve conflicts. </p><p>An example conflict would be a value system based on <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> pitted against a value system based on <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivism</a>. A rational value system organized to resolve the conflict between two such value systems might take the form below. Added exceptions can become <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursive</a> and often convoluted. </p> <ul><li>Individuals may act freely unless their actions harm others or interfere with others' freedom or with functions of society that individuals need, provided those functions do not themselves interfere with these proscribed individual rights and were agreed to by a majority of the individuals.</li> <li>A society (or more specifically the system of order that enables the workings of a society) exists for the purpose of benefiting the lives of the individuals who are members of that society. The functions of a society in providing such benefits would be those agreed to by the majority of individuals in the society.</li> <li>A society may require contributions from its members in order for them to benefit from the services provided by the society. The failure of individuals to make such required contributions could be considered a reason to deny those benefits to them, although a society could elect to consider hardship situations in determining how much should be contributed.</li> <li>A society may restrict behavior of individuals who are members of the society only for the purpose of performing its designated functions agreed to by the majority of individuals in the society, only insofar as they violate the aforementioned values. This means that a society may abrogate the rights of any of its members who fails to uphold the aforementioned values.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Value_(ethics)" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Value (ethics)">Value (ethics)</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">Attitude (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kluckhohn" title="Clyde Kluckhohn">Clyde Kluckhohn</a> and his value orientation theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geert_Hofstede#Work" title="Geert Hofstede">Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value" title="Instrumental and intrinsic value">Instrumental and intrinsic value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rokeach_Value_Survey" title="Rokeach Value Survey">Rokeach Value Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_Dynamics" title="Spiral Dynamics">Spiral Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_and_the_Good" title="The Right and the Good">The Right and the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_judgment" title="Value judgment">Value judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Values_Survey" title="World Values Survey">World Values Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values_(West)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western values (West)">Western values</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVuong2023" 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De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788367405140" title="Special:BookSources/9788367405140"><bdi>9788367405140</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mindsponge+Theory&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9788367405140&rft.aulast=Vuong&rft.aufirst=Quan-Hoang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Welsh Government</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/pdf-versions/2023/4/4/1681394730/procurement-guidance-on-social-value-clauses-community-benefits.pdf">WPPN 01/20 Social value clauses/community benefits through public procurement</a>, updated on 28 March 2022, accessed on 4 September 2024</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minerva.mic.ul.ie/Vol%2015/Wittgenstein.pdf">On Wittgenstein's Claim That Ethical Value Judgments Are Nonsense</a> by Arto Tukiainen. 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(2011-05-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2302&context=articles">"Differences Between Tight and Loose Cultures: A 33-Nation Study"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>332</b> (6033): 1100–1104. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...332.1100G">2011Sci...332.1100G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1197754">10.1126/science.1197754</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1813%2F75456">1813/75456</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21617077">21617077</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18083852">18083852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Differences+Between+Tight+and+Loose+Cultures%3A+A+33-Nation+Study&rft.volume=332&rft.issue=6033&rft.pages=1100-1104&rft.date=2011-05-27&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1813%2F75456&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18083852%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...332.1100G&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1197754&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21617077&rft.aulast=Gelfand&rft.aufirst=Michele+J.&rft.au=Raver%2C+Jana+L.&rft.au=Nishii%2C+Lisa&rft.au=Leslie%2C+Lisa+M.&rft.au=Lun%2C+Janetta&rft.au=Lim%2C+Beng+Chong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2302%26context%3Darticles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarringtonGelfand2014" class="citation journal cs1">Harrington, Jesse R.; Gelfand, Michele J. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4050535">"Tightness–looseness across the 50 united states"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>111</b> (22): 7990–7995. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..111.7990H">2014PNAS..111.7990H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1317937111">10.1073/pnas.1317937111</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4050535">4050535</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24843116">24843116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Tightness%E2%80%93looseness+across+the+50+united+states&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=7990-7995&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4050535%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24843116&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1317937111&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..111.7990H&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Jesse+R.&rft.au=Gelfand%2C+Michele+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4050535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fog2017-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fog2017_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFog2017" class="citation book cs1">Fog, Agner (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/657"><i>Warlike and Peaceful Societies: The Interaction of Genes and Culture</i></a>. Open Book Publishers. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11647%2FOBP.0128">10.11647/OBP.0128</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78374-403-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78374-403-9"><bdi>978-1-78374-403-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlike+and+Peaceful+Societies%3A+The+Interaction+of+Genes+and+Culture&rft.pub=Open+Book+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11647%2FOBP.0128&rft.isbn=978-1-78374-403-9&rft.aulast=Fog&rft.aufirst=Agner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.openbookpublishers.com%2Fproduct%2F657&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTausch2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arno_Tausch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arno Tausch (page does not exist)">Tausch, Arno</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YmjiswEACAAJ"><i>The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui</i></a> (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1629488998" title="Special:BookSources/978-1629488998"><bdi>978-1629488998</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+algebra+of+global+value+change.+General+models+and+implications+for+the+Muslim+world.+With+Almas+Heshmati+and+Hichem+Karoui&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Nova+Science+Publishers%2C+New+York&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1629488998&rft.aulast=Tausch&rft.aufirst=Arno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYmjiswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span> see <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218_The_political_algebra_of_global_value_change_General_models_and_implications_for_the_Muslim_world">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218_The_political_algebra_of_global_value_change_General_models_and_implications_for_the_Muslim_world</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_(ethics)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Value_(ethics)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Value (ethics)">Value (ethics)</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Clarifying_values" class="extiw" title="v:Clarifying values">Clarifying values</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" 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of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194112#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194112#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194112#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1163906/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td 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