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href="#Civil_war_between_al-Amin_and_al-Ma'mun,_809–813"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Civil war between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, 809–813</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_war_between_al-Amin_and_al-Ma'mun,_809–813-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sahlid_dominance_and_reaction,_813–819" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sahlid_dominance_and_reaction,_813–819"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sahlid dominance and reaction, 813–819</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sahlid_dominance_and_reaction,_813–819-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reunification_and_pacification_of_the_Caliphate,_820–837" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reunification_and_pacification_of_the_Caliphate,_820–837"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reunification and pacification of the Caliphate, 820–837</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reunification_and_pacification_of_the_Caliphate,_820–837-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Aftermath and impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%88_%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="امین و مأمون ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="امین و مأمون ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_dels_abb%C3%A0ssides" title="Guerra Civil dels abbàssides – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra Civil dels abbàssides" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuarta_Fitna" title="Cuarta Fitna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cuarta Fitna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%88_%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86" title="جنگ امین و مأمون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ امین و مأمون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quatri%C3%A8me_Fitna" title="Quatrième Fitna – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Quatrième Fitna" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Saudara_Islam_IV" title="Perang Saudara Islam IV – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Saudara Islam IV" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarta_Fitna" title="Quarta Fitna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Quarta Fitna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%97%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მეოთხე ფიტნა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მეოთხე ფიტნა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierde_Fitna" title="Vierde Fitna – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vierde Fitna" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%CA%BBrtinchi_fitna" title="Toʻrtinchi fitna – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Toʻrtinchi fitna" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%91%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Четвёртая фитна – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" 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all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Fourth Fitna</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabische_Eroberung_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Arabische_Eroberung_2.jpg/250px-Arabische_Eroberung_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Arabische_Eroberung_2.jpg/375px-Arabische_Eroberung_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Arabische_Eroberung_2.jpg/500px-Arabische_Eroberung_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4496" data-file-height="2841" /></a></span><br />Map of the Muslim expansion and the Muslim world under the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> caliphates</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>811–813/837</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> territories</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <p>Victory of al-Ma'mun </p> Defeat and death of <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> is recognized as Caliph on 27 September <a href="/wiki/813" title="813">813</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a>'s forces</td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a>'s forces</td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em"> Local rulers & rebel leaders</td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_ibn_Mahan" title="Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan">Ali ibn Isa</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Jabala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Jabala (page does not exist)">Abd al-Rahman ibn Jabala</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Yazid_al-Muhallabi" title="Muhammad ibn Yazid al-Muhallabi">Muhammad al-Muhallabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tahir_ibn_Husayn" title="Tahir ibn Husayn">Tahir ibn Husayn</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Harthama_ibn_A%27yan" title="Harthama ibn A'yan">Harthama ibn A'yan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Tahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdallah ibn Tahir">Abdallah ibn Tahir</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasan_ibn_Sahl" title="Al-Hasan ibn Sahl">al-Hasan ibn Sahl</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Sahl" title="Al-Fadl ibn Sahl">al-Fadl ibn Sahl</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaydallah_ibn_al-Sari" title="Ubaydallah ibn al-Sari">Ubaydallah ibn al-Sari</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nasr_ibn_Shabath_al-Uqayli" title="Nasr ibn Shabath al-Uqayli">Nasr al-Uqayli</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Babak_Khorramdin" title="Babak Khorramdin">Babak Khorramdin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Saraya" title="Abu'l-Saraya">Abu'l-Saraya</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq">Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Musa_al-Kadhim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrahim ibn Musa al-Kadhim">Ibrahim ibn Musa al-Kadhim</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Umaytir_al-Sufyani" title="Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani">Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="line-height:1.6em">Civil wars of <br /> the early Caliphates</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">Ridda Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Ash%27ath" title="Ibn al-Ash'ath">Revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashdaq" title="Al-Ashdaq">Revolt of al-Ashdaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_al-Muhallab" title="Yazid ibn al-Muhallab">Revolt of Yazid b. al-Muhallab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Surayj" title="Al-Harith ibn Surayj">Revolt of Harith b. Surayj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Zayd_ibn_Ali" title="Revolt of Zayd ibn Ali">Revolt of Zayd b. Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a></li> <li>Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Zayd" title="Yahya ibn Zayd">Yahya ibn Zayd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Fitna" title="Third Fitna">Third Fitna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_revolt" title="Ibadi revolt">Ibadi revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">Zab River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Wasit" title="Siege of Wasit">Wasit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_revolt_of_762%E2%80%93763" title="Alid revolt of 762–763">Revolt of Muhammad the Pure Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fakhkh" title="Battle of Fakhkh">Battle of Fakhkh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qays%E2%80%93Yaman_war_(793%E2%80%93796)" title="Qays–Yaman war (793–796)">Qays–Yaman war (793–796)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fourth Fitna</a> <ul><li>Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Saraya" title="Abu'l-Saraya">Abu'l-Saraya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_expeditions_to_East_Africa" title="Abbasid expeditions to East Africa">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashmurian_revolts" title="Bashmurian revolts">Bashmurian revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_civil_war_(865%E2%80%93866)" title="Abbasid civil war (865–866)">Fifth Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijite_Rebellion_(866%E2%80%93896)" title="Kharijite Rebellion (866–896)">Kharijite Rebellion (866–896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Fourth Fitna</b>, <b>Fourth Muslim Civil War</b>, or <b>Great Abbasid Civil War</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulted from the conflict between the brothers <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> over the succession to the throne of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>. Their father, Caliph <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>, had named al-Amin as the first successor, but had also named al-Ma'mun as the second, with <a href="/wiki/Khurasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurasan">Khurasan</a> granted to him as an <a href="/wiki/Appanage" title="Appanage">appanage</a>. Later a third son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Harun_al-Rashid" title="Al-Qasim ibn Harun al-Rashid">al-Qasim</a>, had been designated as third successor. After Harun died in 809, al-Amin succeeded him in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. Encouraged by the Baghdad court, al-Amin began trying to subvert the autonomous status of Khurasan, and al-Qasim was quickly sidelined. In response, al-Ma'mun sought the support of the provincial élites of Khurasan and made moves to assert his own autonomy. As the rift between the two brothers and their respective camps widened, al-Amin declared his own son Musa as his heir and assembled a large army. In 811, al-Amin's troops marched against Khurasan, but al-Ma'mun's general <a href="/wiki/Tahir_ibn_Husayn" title="Tahir ibn Husayn">Tahir ibn Husayn</a> defeated them in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ray_(811)" title="Battle of Ray (811)">Battle of Ray</a>, and then invaded <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(812%E2%80%93813)" title="Siege of Baghdad (812–813)">besieged</a> Baghdad itself. The city fell after a year, al-Amin was executed, and al-Ma'mun became Caliph. </p><p>Al-Ma'mun chose to remain in Khurasan, however, rather than coming to the capital. This allowed the power vacuum which the civil war had fostered in the Caliphate's provinces to grow, and several local rulers sprang up in <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)" title="Al-Jazira (caliphal province)">Jazira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Egypt</a>. In addition, a series of <a href="/wiki/Alid" class="mw-redirect" title="Alid">Alid</a> uprisings occurred, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Saraya" title="Abu'l-Saraya">Abu'l-Saraya</a> at <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> and spreading to southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq (region)">Iraq</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. The pro-Khurasani policies followed by al-Ma'mun's powerful chief minister, <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Sahl" title="Al-Fadl ibn Sahl">al-Fadl ibn Sahl</a>, and al-Ma'mun's eventual espousal of an Alid succession in the person of <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Ali al-Ridha</a>, alienated the traditional Baghdad élites, who saw themselves increasingly marginalized. Consequently, al-Ma'mun's uncle <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim</a> was proclaimed rival caliph at Baghdad in 817, forcing al-Ma'mun to intervene in person. Fadl ibn Sahl was assassinated and al-Ma'mun left Khurasan for Baghdad, which he entered in 819. The next years saw the consolidation of al-Ma'mun's authority and the re-incorporation of the western provinces against local rebels, a process not completed until the pacification of Egypt in 827. Some local rebellions, notably that of the <a href="/wiki/Khurramites" title="Khurramites">Khurramites</a>, dragged on for far longer, into the 830s. </p><p>Historians have interpreted the conflict variously; in the words of the Iranologist <a href="/wiki/Elton_L._Daniel" title="Elton L. Daniel">Elton L. Daniel</a>, it has been regarded as "a conflict over the succession between a rather incompetent, besotted al-Amin and his shrewdly competent brother al-Ma'mun; as the product of <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> intrigues; as an extension of the personal rivalry between the ministers <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_al-Rabi" title="Al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi">al-Fadl b. Rabi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Sahl" title="Al-Fadl ibn Sahl">al-Fadl b. Sahl</a>; or as a struggle between Arabs and Persians for the control of the government".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel197917_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel197917-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The origins of the civil war lie in the succession arrangements of <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 786–809</span>) as well as the internal political dynamics of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>. The two main contenders, <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">Muhammad al-Amin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Abdallah al-Ma'mun</a>, were born six months apart in <a href="/wiki/Anno_Hegirae" class="mw-redirect" title="Anno Hegirae">AH</a> 170 (786/7) with al-Ma'mun being the elder.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was al-Amin however who was named first heir in 792, while al-Ma'mun followed in 799, a sequence which was influenced by their lines of descent and their political implications: al-Amin had a solidly Abbasid lineage, being Harun's son by <a href="/wiki/Zubaidah_bint_Ja%60far" class="mw-redirect" title="Zubaidah bint Ja`far">Zubayda</a>, herself descended from the second Abbasid Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 754–775</span>), while al-Ma'mun's mother was <a href="/wiki/Marajil" title="Marajil">Marajil</a>, a Persian concubine from <a href="/wiki/Badghis_Province" title="Badghis Province">Badhgis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Khurasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurasan">Khurasan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While al-Ma'mun's origin was less prestigious than the purely Arab al-Amin, his ties to Khurasan and the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>-dominated eastern provinces were an important factor in his choice as heir.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to the exclusively Arab-ruled <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, the Abbasid state was under heavy Iranian, and particularly Khurasani, influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010301_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010301-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a>, which brought the Abbasids to power, originated in Khurasan, and the Abbasid dynasty relied heavily on Khurasanis as military leaders and administrators. Many of the original Khurasani Arab army (<i>Khurasaniyya</i>) that came west with the Abbasids were given estates in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Iraq</a> and the new Abbasid capital, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, and became an elite group known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Abna_al-dawla" title="Abna al-dawla">abnaʾ al-dawla</a></i> ("sons of the state/dynasty").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010274_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010274-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004133–134_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004133–134-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khurasan retained a privileged position among the Caliphate's provinces,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004135_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004135-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Harun al-Rashid, in particular, was careful to cultivate his ties with the Iranian element of the Caliphate, not least through his promotion of the Khurasani <a href="/wiki/Barmakid" class="mw-redirect" title="Barmakid">Barmakid</a> family to positions of power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010281–282_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010281–282-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both al-Amin and al-Ma'mun had been tutored in their youth by the Barmakids, al-Amin by <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Yahya" title="Al-Fadl ibn Yahya">al-Fadl ibn Yahya</a> and al-Ma'mun by <a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_ibn_Yahya" title="Ja'far ibn Yahya">Ja'far ibn Yahya</a>. While al-Amin would distance himself from the Barmakids and become closely associated with the <i>abnaʾ</i> aristocracy of Baghdad, al-Ma'mun remained influenced by Ja'far and his associates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 802, Harun and the most powerful officials of the Abbasid government made the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">pilgrimage</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, where the definitive succession arrangement was drawn up: al-Amin would succeed Harun in Baghdad, but al-Ma'mun would remain al-Amin's heir and would additionally rule over an enlarged and practically independent Khurasan. A third son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Qasim_ibn_Harun_al-Rashid" title="Al-Qasim ibn Harun al-Rashid">al-Qasim</a> (al-Mu'tamin), was also added as third heir and received responsibility over the <a href="/wiki/Al-%27Awasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-'Awasim">frontier areas</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979175–176_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979175–176-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stipulations of the agreement, extensively recorded by the historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>, may however have been distorted by later apologists of al-Ma'mun, especially as regards the extent of the autonomy granted to al-Ma'mun's eastern viceroyalty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282–283_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282–283-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost immediately after it returned to Baghdad, in January 803, the Abbasid court witnessed the abrupt fall of the Barmakid family from power. On the one hand, this decision may reflect the fact that the Barmakids may have become indeed too powerful for the Caliph's liking, but its timing suggests that it was tied to the succession issue as well: with al-Amin siding with the <i>abnaʾ</i> and al-Ma'mun with the Barmakids, and the two camps becoming more estranged every day, if al-Amin was to have a chance to succeed, the power of the Barmakids had to be broken.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142–143_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142–143-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, the years after the fall of the Barmakids saw an increasing centralization of the administration and the concomitant rise of the influence of the <i>abnaʾ</i>, many of whom were now dispatched to take up positions as provincial governors and bring these provinces under closer control from Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This led to unrest in the provinces, especially Khurasan, where, according to <a href="/wiki/Elton_L._Daniel" title="Elton L. Daniel">Elton L. Daniel</a>, "Abbasid policies [fluctuated] between two extremes. One governor would attempt to extract as much wealth as he could from the province for the benefit of Iraq, the central government, and, not infrequently, himself. When the people protested loudly enough, such governors would be temporarily replaced by ones who would attend to local interests".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979168_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979168-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Khurasani elites had a long-standing rivalry with the <i>abnaʾ</i>. Although the latter now resided chiefly in what is now Iraq, they insisted on retaining control of Khurasani affairs and demanded that the province's revenues be sent west to supply their salaries, something strongly resisted by the local Arab and Iranian elites. The resulting tension was eased when al-Fadl ibn Yahya, universally praised as a model governor, was appointed to Khurasan in 793, but was re-fanned in 796, when a member of the <i>abnaʾ</i>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_ibn_Mahan" title="Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan">Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan</a>, was placed in charge of the province.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979169–171_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979169–171-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His harsh taxation measures provoked increasing unrest, which expressed itself in <a href="/wiki/Kharijite" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharijite">Kharijite</a> uprisings and, finally, a rebellion by the governor of <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rafi_ibn_al-Layth" title="Rafi ibn al-Layth">Rafi ibn al-Layth</a>. This uprising forced Harun himself, accompanied by al-Ma'mun and the powerful chamberlain (<i><a href="/wiki/Hajib" title="Hajib">hajib</a></i>) and chief minister <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_al-Rabi" title="Al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi">al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi</a>, to travel to the province in 808. Al-Ma'mun was sent ahead with part of the army to <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Marv</a>, while Harun stayed at <a href="/wiki/Tus,_Iran" title="Tus, Iran">Tus</a>, where he died on 24 March 809.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979171–175_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979171–175-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144–145_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144–145-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_war_between_al-Amin_and_al-Ma'mun,_809–813"><span id="Civil_war_between_al-Amin_and_al-Ma.27mun.2C_809.E2.80.93813"></span>Civil war between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, 809–813</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Civil war between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, 809–813"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_victory_of_Ma%CA%BFmun_over_Amin,_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Nigaristan,_Iran,_probably_Shiraz,_dated_1573-74.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/The_victory_of_Ma%CA%BFmun_over_Amin%2C_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Nigaristan%2C_Iran%2C_probably_Shiraz%2C_dated_1573-74.jpg/220px-The_victory_of_Ma%CA%BFmun_over_Amin%2C_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Nigaristan%2C_Iran%2C_probably_Shiraz%2C_dated_1573-74.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/The_victory_of_Ma%CA%BFmun_over_Amin%2C_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Nigaristan%2C_Iran%2C_probably_Shiraz%2C_dated_1573-74.jpg/330px-The_victory_of_Ma%CA%BFmun_over_Amin%2C_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Nigaristan%2C_Iran%2C_probably_Shiraz%2C_dated_1573-74.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/The_victory_of_Ma%CA%BFmun_over_Amin%2C_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Nigaristan%2C_Iran%2C_probably_Shiraz%2C_dated_1573-74.jpg/440px-The_victory_of_Ma%CA%BFmun_over_Amin%2C_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Nigaristan%2C_Iran%2C_probably_Shiraz%2C_dated_1573-74.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1102" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>"The victory of Maʿmun over Amin". Folio from a manuscript of <i>Nigaristan</i>, Iran, probably <a href="/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a>, dated 1573–74.</figcaption></figure> <p>Upon Harun's death, al-Amin ascended the throne in Baghdad, where his popularity was great, while al-Ma'mun remained at Marv, from where he planned to campaign against the remaining rebels. However, al-Amin recalled the army and treasury from the east, leaving al-Ma'mun with little in the way of military forces. It was in this time that al-Ma'mun came to rely upon his <i><a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">wazir</a></i>, the former Barmakid protégé <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Sahl" title="Al-Fadl ibn Sahl">al-Fadl ibn Sahl</a>, who began to implement a policy of conciliation and cooperation with the local elites, whose autonomy and privileges were guaranteed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The covenant of 802 however soon began to fall apart over Baghdad's centralizing ambitions and the dispute over the status of Khurasan: the <i>abnaʾ</i>, led by Ali ibn Isa, whom Harun had imprisoned but who was now set free and appointed head of the Caliph's bodyguard, were joined by other influential officials, chief amongst them al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi, in demanding that Khurasan and its revenue return to the direct control of the central government, even if that meant breaking the stipulations of the Mecca agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979176_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979176-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331–332_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331–332-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some modern scholars have tried to interpret the conflict between the two brothers as a confrontation between the Arab and Iranian elements of the caliphate, represented by the two contenders' mothers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is true that the Iranian-dominated East generally backed al-Ma'mun, but neither was al-Amin a conscious champion of "Arabism",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nor was the support for al-Ma'mun the result of his Iranian origin, although his supporters did make propaganda among the local population for the "son of their sister". Al-Ma'mun enjoyed the support of the local elites of Khurasan mainly because they saw in him a champion of their newly won autonomy, and because he himself assiduously cultivated that support. Later, during the war, the prospect of his victory also offered the Khurasanis the promise of a yet more privileged position in the new regime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331,_333_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331,_333-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the conflict was first and foremost a dynastic dispute, with al-Amin attempting to institute a direct patrilineal succession. In this he did nothing but follow the footsteps of his predecessors since <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a>, all of whom struggled against the claims of brothers or cousins. Harun al-Rashid himself was imprisoned during the brief reign of his elder brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 785–786</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given to indolence and lacking any political ability himself, al-Amin entrusted this project to al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi, who is generally portrayed as the "evil genius" behind al-Amin,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one of the main instigators of the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Very quickly, al-Amin moved to sideline the youngest brother, Qasim. Initially, Qasim was removed from his governorship of the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Jazira</a>, but soon after he was stripped altogether of his place in the succession and placed under guard at Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFishbein199220,_22,_27_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFishbein199220,_22,_27-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was only because al-Ma'mun resided far from the Caliph's immediate area of control that he escaped sharing this fate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rift between the two camps manifested in 810, when al-Amin added his own son, Musa, to the line of succession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Amin then sent a delegation to Marv, asking al-Ma'mun to return to Baghdad. After al-Ma'mun, fearing for his safety, refused, al-Amin began to interfere with his brother's domain: he protested al-Ma'mun's pardon to Ibn al-Layth after his surrender and asked for tribute from the governors of the western provinces of Khurasan as a sign of submission. He then demanded of his brother the cession of the western regions of Khurasan, the admission of caliphal tax and postal agents into the province, and the forwarding of Khurasan's revenue to Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979176–177_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979176–177-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Ma'mun, who could not rely on large military forces and whose position was consequently weak, was at first inclined to accede to his brother's demands, but <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Sahl" title="Al-Fadl ibn Sahl">al-Fadl ibn Sahl</a> dissuaded him from this course and encouraged him to seek support among the native population of Khurasan, who also opposed control by the caliphal court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147–148_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147–148-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Ma'mun, who was already favourably regarded after the excesses of Ali ibn Isa, consciously set about to cultivate the support of the local population, reducing taxes, dispensing justice in person, conceding privileges to the native princes, and demonstratively evoking episodes from the beginnings of the Abbasid movement in the province. He now became a "political magnet for Iranian sympathisers" (El-Hibri) refused to cede his province or return to Baghdad, and began to gather around him those dissatisfied with Baghdad's centralizing policies or who had simply been left out of the share of spoils and power after the Abbasid Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010284_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010284-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979177–178_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979177–178-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the influence of their respective chief ministers, al-Amin and al-Ma'mun took steps that further polarized the political climate and made the breach irreparable. After al-Ma'mun symbolically removed al-Amin's name from his coins and from the <a href="/wiki/Friday_prayer" title="Friday prayer">Friday prayer</a>, in November 810 al-Amin removed al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tamin from the succession and nominated his own sons Musa and Abdallah instead. Al-Ma'mun replied by declaring himself <i><a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">imam</a></i>, a religious title which shied of directly challenging the Caliph but nevertheless implied independent authority, as well as hearkening back to the early days of the <i><a href="/wiki/Hashimiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashimiyya">Hashimiyya</a></i> movement which had carried the Abbasids to power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the reservations of some of his senior ministers and governors, two months later, in January 811, al-Amin formally began the civil war when he appointed Ali ibn Isa governor of Khurasan, placed him at the head of an unusually large army of 40,000 men, drawn from the <i>abnaʾ</i>, and sent him to depose al-Ma'mun. When Ali ibn Isa set out for Khurasan, he reportedly took along a set of silver chains with which to bind al-Ma'mun and carry him back to Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332–333_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332–333-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The news of Ali's approach threw Khurasan into panic, and even al-Ma'mun considered fleeing. The only military force available to him was a small army of some 4,000–5,000 men, under <a href="/wiki/Tahir_ibn_al-Husayn" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahir ibn al-Husayn">Tahir ibn al-Husayn</a>. Tahir was sent to confront Ali's advance, but it was widely regarded as almost a suicide mission, even by Tahir's own father. The two armies met at <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rayy</a>, on the western borders of Khurasan, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ray_(811)" title="Battle of Ray (811)">ensuing battle</a> on 3 July 811 resulted in a crushing victory for the Khurasanis, in which Ali was killed and his army disintegrated on its flight west.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tahir's unexpected victory was decisive: al-Ma'mun's position was secured, while his main opponents, the <i>abnaʾ</i>, lost men, prestige and their most dynamic leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tahir now advanced westwards, defeated another <i>abnaʾ</i> army of 20,000 under <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Jabala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Jabala (page does not exist)">Abd al-Rahman ibn Jabala</a> after a series of hard-fought engagements near <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a>, and reached <a href="/wiki/Hulwan" title="Hulwan">Hulwan</a> by winter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979179–180_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979179–180-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Amin now desperately tried to bolster his forces by alliances with Arab tribes, notably the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Shayban" title="Banu Shayban">Banu Shayban</a> of <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)" title="Al-Jazira (caliphal province)">Jazira</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qays" title="Qays">Qays</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a>. The veteran <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Salih" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Salih">Abd al-Malik ibn Salih</a> was sent to Syria to mobilize its troops along with Ali ibn Isa's son, Husayn. However, al-Amin's efforts failed due to the <a href="/wiki/Qays%E2%80%93Yaman_rivalry" title="Qays–Yaman rivalry">long-standing intertribal divisions</a> between the Qays and the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kalb" title="Banu Kalb">Kalb</a>, the Syrians' reluctance to get involved in the civil war,<sup id="ref_a" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_a">[a]</a></sup> as well as the unwillingness of the <i>abnaʾ</i> to cooperate with the Arab tribes and to make political concessions to them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These failed efforts to secure Arab tribal support backfired on al-Amin, as the <i>abnaʾ</i> began to doubt whether their interests were best served by him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 812, Husayn ibn Ali led a short-lived coup against al-Amin in Baghdad, proclaiming al-Ma'mun as the rightful Caliph, until a counter-coup, led by other factions within the <i>abnaʾ</i>, restored al-Amin to the throne. Fadl ibn al-Rabi, however, one of the main instigators of the war, concluded that al-Amin's case was lost and resigned from his court offices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At about the same time, al-Ma'mun was officially proclaimed caliph, while Fadl ibn Sahl acquired the unique title of <i>Dhu 'l-Ri'asatayn</i> ("he of the two headships"), signifying his control over both civil and military administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq_in_812.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Iraq_in_812.svg/260px-Iraq_in_812.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Iraq_in_812.svg/390px-Iraq_in_812.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Iraq_in_812.svg/520px-Iraq_in_812.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Map of Iraq and surrounding regions in the early ninth century</figcaption></figure> <p>In spring 812, Tahir, reinforced with more troops under <a href="/wiki/Harthama_ibn_A%27yan" title="Harthama ibn A'yan">Harthama ibn A'yan</a>, resumed his offensive. He invaded <a href="/wiki/Khuzistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzistan">Khuzistan</a>, where he defeated and killed the <a href="/wiki/Muhallabids_(clan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhallabids (clan)">Muhallabid</a> governor <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Yazid_al-Muhallabi" title="Muhammad ibn Yazid al-Muhallabi">Muhammad ibn Yazid</a>, whereupon the Muhallabids of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> surrendered to him. Tahir also took <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Mada%27in" title="Al-Mada'in">al-Mada'in</a>, advancing on Baghdad from the west while Harthama closed in from the east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, al-Amin's authority crumbled as supporters of al-Ma'mun took control of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, while most of Syria, <a href="/wiki/Arminiya" title="Arminiya">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adharbayjan" class="mw-redirect" title="Adharbayjan">Adharbayjan</a> fell under the control of local Arab tribal leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Tahir's army closed on Baghdad, the rift between al-Amin and the <i>abnaʾ</i> was solidified when the desperate Caliph turned to the common people of the city for help and gave them arms. The <i>abnaʾ</i> began defecting to Tahir in droves, and in August 812, when Tahir's army appeared before the city, he established his quarters in the suburb of Harbiyya, traditionally an <i>abnaʾ</i> stronghold.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The historian <a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Hugh N. Kennedy</a> characterized the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(812%E2%80%93813)" title="Siege of Baghdad (812–813)">siege of the city</a> as "an episode almost without parallel in the history of early Islamic society" and "the nearest early Islamic history saw to an attempt at social revolution", as Baghdad's urban proletariat defended their city for over a year in a vicious urban <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149–150_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149–150-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333–334_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333–334-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, it was this "revolutionary" situation in the city as much as famine and the besiegers' professional expertise, that brought about its fall: in September 813, Tahir convinced some of the richer citizens to cut the <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">pontoon bridges</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> that connected the city to the outside world, allowing al-Ma'mun's men to occupy the city's eastern suburbs. Al-Ma'mun's troops then launched a final assault, in which al-Amin was captured and executed at Tahir's orders while trying to seek refuge with his old family friend Harthama.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While al-Ma'mun was probably not implicated in the act, it was politically convenient, as it left him both <i>de jure</i> and <i>de facto</i> the legitimate caliph.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437–438_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437–438-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sahlid_dominance_and_reaction,_813–819"><span id="Sahlid_dominance_and_reaction.2C_813.E2.80.93819"></span>Sahlid dominance and reaction, 813–819</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sahlid dominance and reaction, 813–819"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph,_al-Ma%27mun_(6124531161).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg/200px-The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg/300px-The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg/400px-The_populace_pays_allegiance_to_the_new_Abbasid_Caliph%2C_al-Ma%27mun_%286124531161%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="1444" /></a><figcaption>The populace pays <a href="/wiki/Bay%27ah" title="Bay'ah">Allegiance</a> to the Abbasid caliph, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a> in 813. (from the book <i>Tarikh-i Alfi</i> 1593 CE)</figcaption></figure> <p>Nevertheless, the regicide soured al-Ma'mun's victory. Tahir was soon transferred out of the public eye to an unimportant post in <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, but his deed lastingly tarnished the prestige and image of the Abbasid dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150,_151_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150,_151-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Elton Daniel, "It shattered the sacrosanct aura which had surrounded the person of the Abbasid caliphs; For the first time, an Abbasid ruler had been humiliated and put to death by rebellious subjects".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As al-Ma'mun remained in Marv and made no signs of returning to the caliphal capital, a wave of Arab antipathy towards al-Ma'mun and his "Persian" supporters came to the fore in the western regions of the Caliphate, particularly in Baghdad and surroundings, which feared being degraded to a mere province. This was furthered when the new Caliph entrusted the governance of the state to Fadl ibn Sahl, who intended to permanently move the Muslim world's centre of power eastwards to Khurasan, where he and his circle could control the reins of power to the exclusion of other groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150–151_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150–151-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fadl was also responsible for side-lining many other supporters of al-Ma'mun; thus, when Harthama ibn A'yan went to Marv to inform al-Ma'mun of the real situation in the west, the Sahlids turned the Caliph against him and he was executed on charges of treason in June 816. In response, Harthama's son Hatim led a short-lived revolt in Armenia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004151_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004151-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334–335_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334–335-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The result of these policies was that revolts and local power struggles erupted across the Caliphate, with only Khurasan and the frontier districts with the Byzantine Empire exempt from this turmoil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150–151_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150–151-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iraq in particular descended into near-anarchy. The new governor of Iraq, Fadl's brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasan_ibn_Sahl" title="Al-Hasan ibn Sahl">al-Hasan ibn Sahl</a>, soon lost the support of the <i>abnaʾ</i>. The local population's alienation from his regime was exploited by the <a href="/wiki/Zaidiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaidiyyah">Zaydi</a> <a href="/wiki/Alids" title="Alids">Alids</a>,<sup id="ref_b" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_b">[b]</a></sup> who on 26 January 815 rose in revolt at <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Saraya" title="Abu'l-Saraya">Abu'l-Saraya</a>. The revolt spread quickly through Iraq region as various groups with old grievances against the Abbasids used the opportunity to exact revenge. The revolt was nominally led by the Alid <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tabataba" title="Ibn Tabataba">Ibn Tabataba</a>, and after his death by Zayd, a son of the <i>imam</i> <a href="/wiki/Musa_al-Kadhim" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa al-Kadhim">Musa al-Kadhim</a> who had been executed in 799 on Harun al-Rashid's orders. The uprising came close to threatening Baghdad itself, and it was only through the intervention of the capable Harthama that it was quelled, with Abu'l-Saraya being captured and executed in October.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondary pro-Alid movements also seized control of <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> (under <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Musa_al-Kadhim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrahim ibn Musa al-Kadhim">Ibrahim al-Jazzar</a>, another son of Musa al-Kadhim) and the <a href="/wiki/Tihamah" title="Tihamah">Tihamah</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Dibaj" title="Muhammad al-Dibaj">Muhammad al-Dibaj</a>, a grandson of the Alid <i>imam</i> <a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" title="Ja'far al-Sadiq">Ja'far al-Sadiq</a>, was proclaimed anti-caliph in November 815. The suppression of these revolts was entrusted to Ali ibn Isa's son <a href="/wiki/Hamdawayh_ibn_%27Ali_ibn_%27Isa_ibn_Mahan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamdawayh ibn 'Ali ibn 'Isa ibn Mahan">Hamdawayh</a>, with an army of <i>abnaʾ</i>. Hamdawayh was successful in subduing these provinces, but then attempted, unsuccessfully, to secede from the Caliphate himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 816, to bolster his flagging prestige, al-Ma'mun assumed the title "God's Caliph". Taking note of the widespread Alid support in his western provinces, al-Ma'mun not only spared the lives of the various Alid anti-caliphs, but on 24 March 817 also named the Alid <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha</a>, third son of Musa al-Kadhim, as his heir apparent, and even changed the official dynastic colour from Abbasid black to Alid green.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334,_335_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334,_335-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the seriousness of al-Ma'mun's commitment to the Alid succession is uncertain—there are suggestions that Ali al-Ridha was so old that he could hardly be expected to actually succeed al-Ma'mun<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—its impact was disastrous: not only did it fail to produce any tangible popular support, but also provoked an uproar among the members of the Abbasid family in Baghdad. Hasan ibn Sahl had already been forced to abandon the city, where various factional leaders now shared power, and the news of the Alid succession ruined his attempts at conciliation. Instead, on 17 July 817 the members of the Abbasid family in Baghdad nominated a new Caliph of their own, Harun al-Rashid's younger brother <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004151–153_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004151–153-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibrahim received broad backing from the Baghdad elites, from Abbasid princes like al-Ma'mun's younger brother Abu Ishaq (the future Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a>, <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 833–842</span>) to old-established members of the bureaucracy like Fadl ibn al-Rabi (who returned to his office as <i>hajib</i>), and leaders of the <i>abnaʾ</i>. As the scholar Mohamed Rekaya commented, "in other words, it was a revival of the war between the two camps [Baghdad and Khurasan], dormant since 813".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RezaShrine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/RezaShrine.jpg/260px-RezaShrine.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/RezaShrine.jpg/390px-RezaShrine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/RezaShrine.jpg/520px-RezaShrine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Imam_Reza_shrine" title="Imam Reza shrine">Imam Reza shrine</a>, erected over the grave of Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha</figcaption></figure> <p>Ibrahim moved to secure control of Iraq, but although he captured Kufa, Hasan ibn Sahl, who had made <a href="/wiki/Wasit" title="Wasit">Wasit</a> his base of operations, managed to get to Basra first. However, the governor of Egypt, Abd al-Aziz al-Azdi, recognized Ibrahim as Caliph.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Khurasan, the Sahlids at first downplayed the events at Baghdad, falsely informing al-Ma'mun that Ibrahim had merely been declared governor (<i><a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">amir</a></i>) rather than Caliph. Finally, in December 817 Ali al-Ridha succeeded in revealing to al-Ma'mun the real situation in Iraq, and convinced him that the turmoil in the Caliphate was far greater than the Sahlids presented it to be, and that a reconciliation with Baghdad was necessary. Al-Ma'mun now resolved to assume personal control of his empire, and on 22 January 818 he left Marv and began a very slow journey west to Baghdad. Fadl ibn Sahl was murdered on 13 February, probably on al-Ma'mun's orders, although the rest of his family was spared a persecution like that which had befallen the Barmakids. Indeed, Hasan ibn Sahl was for the time being confirmed in his brother's position, and al-Ma'mun was betrothed to one of his daughters. Ali al-Ridha also died during the march on 5 September, possibly of poison. His burial place at Sanabad, now known as <a href="/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a> ("the place of martyrdom"), was to become a major <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a">Shi'a</a> <a href="/wiki/Imam_Reza_shrine" title="Imam Reza shrine">pilgrimage site</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the meantime, back in Baghdad, Ibrahim faced desertions, rebellions and conspiracies, one of which involved his half-brother al-Mansur. Hasan ibn Sahl was able to use this turmoil and advance north, capturing Mada'in. As the months passed, discontent in Baghdad grew. Ibrahim's supporters, including Fadl ibn al-Rabi, began abandoning him, and in April and July 819 there was a plot to take Ibrahim captive and surrender him to al-Ma'mun's forces. Narrowly escaping from this conspiracy, Ibrahim abandoned the throne and went into hiding, opening the path for al-Ma'mun to reclaim Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335–336_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335–336-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 17 August 819, al-Ma'mun entered Baghdad without resistance, and the political turmoil quickly subsided.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Ma'mun now set about to reconcile himself with the opposition: he rescinded the Alid succession, restored black as the dynastic colour, sent Hasan ibn Sahl into retirement, and recalled Tahir from his exile in Raqqa. Al-Ma'mun did however retain the title of <i>imam</i>, which became part of the standard caliphal titulature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991336_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991336-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 812–813 siege of Baghdad, Tahir had established close ties with the <i>abnaʾ</i>, which now proved useful in smoothing their acceptance of al-Ma'mun. Tahir was further rewarded with the governorship of Khurasan in September 821, and when he died in October 822, he was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Talha_ibn_Tahir" title="Talha ibn Tahir">Talha</a>. For the next fifty years, the <a href="/wiki/Tahirid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahirid">Tahirid</a> line would provide the governors of a vast eastern province centred on Khurasan, while also providing the governors of Baghdad, securing the city's loyalty to the caliphal government even after the capital was moved to <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010288–289_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010288–289-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153–154,_159–160_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153–154,_159–160-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reunification_and_pacification_of_the_Caliphate,_820–837"><span id="Reunification_and_pacification_of_the_Caliphate.2C_820.E2.80.93837"></span>Reunification and pacification of the Caliphate, 820–837</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reunification and pacification of the Caliphate, 820–837"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the time al-Ma'mun entered Baghdad, the western provinces of the Caliphate had slipped away from effective Abbasid control, with local rulers claiming various degrees of autonomy from the central government. Egypt had become divided between two bitterly hostile factions, one under <a href="/wiki/Ubaydallah_ibn_al-Sari" title="Ubaydallah ibn al-Sari">Ubayd Allah ibn al-Sari</a> which had come to control <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a> and the south, while his rival <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ali_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz_al-Jarawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ali ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Jarawi (page does not exist)">Ali ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Jarawi</a> and his Qaysi Arabs controlled the north of the country around the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a>. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> was in the hands of a group of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusian</a> exiles. In northern Syria and the Jazira, the traditionally dominant Qays tribe had taken control, led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abdallah_ibn_Bayhas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abdallah ibn Bayhas (page does not exist)">Abdallah ibn Bayhas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nasr_ibn_Shabath_al-Uqayli" title="Nasr ibn Shabath al-Uqayli">Nasr ibn Shabath al-Uqayli</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> had fallen under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> was troubled by pro-Alid revolts. Perhaps the most threatening rebellion of all was the anti-Muslim <a href="/wiki/Khurramite" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurramite">Khurramite</a> movement, which controlled large parts of Adharbayjan and Armenia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286–287_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286–287-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154–155_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154–155-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To face these insurgencies, al-Ma'mun turned to another of Tahir's sons, <a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Tahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdallah ibn Tahir">Abdallah ibn Tahir</a>, to whom he entrusted the command of his army. Ibn Tahir first targeted Nasr ibn Shabath in northern Syria and the Jazira. Nasr was willing to acknowledge al-Ma'mun's authority, but demanded concessions for his followers and remained hostile to the Abbasids' Persian officials, so that he had to be browbeaten into submission by a show of force before his capital, <a href="/wiki/Kaysum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaysum">Kaysum</a>, in 824–825.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After securing his northern flank, Ibn Tahir marched through Syria into Egypt. There the two rivals, although not opposed in principle to al-Ma'mun as Caliph, were eager to maintain the <i>status quo</i>, and had already repulsed an invasion in 824 under <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid_ibn_Mazyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad">Khalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad</a>. Ibn Tahir however managed to outmanoeuvre both, so that Ali al-Jarawi quickly went over to him, leaving Ubayd Allah to submit and face deportation to Baghdad. In Alexandria, Ibn Tahir secured the departure of the Andalusians, who left the city for the Byzantine island of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, which they conquered and transformed into a <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Muslim emirate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On his return to Baghdad in 827, Abdallah ibn Tahir received a triumphal reception, and was appointed governor of Khurasan in 828, replacing Talha. His place in the west was taken over by al-Ma'mun's younger brother Abu Ishaq al-Mu'tasim.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Yemen, another Alid revolt broke out in 822 under Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad, but al-Ma'mun managed to secure his surrender by negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elsewhere, however, the process of consolidation was harder, or failed completely: Aghlabid-controlled Ifriqiya was confirmed in its autonomous status, effectively slipping entirely from Abbasid control, while in Adharbayjan, al-Ma'mun's general Isa ibn Abi Khalid re-established control over the various local Muslim lords in the cities, but was unable to suppress the Khurramite revolt. Expeditions were sent against the Khurramites under <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sadaka_ibn_Ali_al-Azdi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sadaka ibn Ali al-Azdi (page does not exist)">Sadaka ibn Ali al-Azdi</a> in 824 and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_ibn_Humayd_al-Ta%27i&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad ibn Humayd al-Ta'i (page does not exist)">Muhammad ibn Humayd al-Ta'i</a> in 827–829, but both failed before the mountainous terrain and the Khurramites' guerrilla tactics, with Ibn Humayd losing his life as well. It was not until the accession of al-Mu'tasim, who employed his new military corps composed of Turkish slave-soldiers (<i><a href="/wiki/Mawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawali">mawali</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ghilman</a></i>) against the Khurramites, that their rebellion was suppressed in 837, after years of hard campaigning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287–288_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287–288-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153–154,_165_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153–154,_165-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the restoration of caliphal authority in most provinces, the Caliphate continued to be troubled by rebellions: the rest of al-Ma'mun's reign saw a series of uprisings by the <a href="/wiki/Zutt" class="mw-redirect" title="Zutt">Zutt</a> in lower Iraq, a three-year revolt against oppressive taxation in Egypt in 829, in which both the Christian <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Copts</a> and the Muslims participated, as well as the unsuccessful revolt of Ali ibn Hisham, Ibn Humayd's successor as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337–338_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337–338-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_impact">Aftermath and impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aftermath and impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg/260px-John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg/390px-John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg/520px-John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="907" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>The Caliph al-Ma'mun (left) as depicted in the 13th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Madrid_Skylitzes" title="Madrid Skylitzes">Madrid Skylitzes</a></i> manuscript, seen receiving the embassy of <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_John_VII_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch John VII of Constantinople">John the Grammarian</a> in 829, sent by the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (depicted right)</figcaption></figure> <p>The long civil war shattered the social and political order of the early Abbasid state, and a new system began to emerge under al-Ma'mun, which would characterize the middle period of the Abbasid Caliphate. The most tangible change was in the elites who supported the new regime: the <i>abnaʾ</i>, the old Arab families and the members of the Abbasid dynasty itself lost their positions in the administrative and military machinery, and with them their influence and power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010290_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010290-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004155_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004155-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The provinces of the Caliphate were now grouped into larger units, often controlled by a hereditary dynasty, like the Tahirids in Khurasan or the <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, usually of Iranian descent. At the same time, however, al-Ma'mun tried to lessen his dependence on the Iranian element of his empire, and counterbalanced them through the creation of two new military corps: his brother Abu Ishaq's Turkish slaves, and the Arab tribal army of the Byzantine frontier, which was now reorganized and placed under the command of al-Ma'mun's son <a href="/wiki/Al-Abbas_ibn_al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun">al-Abbas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010288–290_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010288–290-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system was further elaborated and acquired its definite characteristics in the reign of Abu Ishaq (al-Mu'tasim), who created a tightly controlled, centralized state, and expanded his Turkish corps into an effective military force with which he waged campaigns against the Byzantines and internal rebellions alike. The Turkish leaders came to political power as provincial governors, while the old Arab and Iranian elites were completely sidelined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004156–166_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004156–166-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Ma'mun's victory also had repercussions in the Abbasid official theological doctrine: in 829, al-Ma'mun adopted <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a>, in an attempt reconcile doctrinal differences in Islam and reduce social inequities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991336–337_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991336–337-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, the willingness of al-Ma'mun and his successors to embrace the non-Arab populations of the Caliphate, especially in the Iranian East, as well as to entrust the governance of these provinces to local dynasties with considerable autonomy, helped to end a long series of religiously motivated rebellions and reconciled these populations to Islam: the rate of conversion during al-Ma'mun's reign increased markedly, and that was the time when most of the local princely families of the Iranian lands finally became Muslims. As El-Hibri comments, "in time this development represented a prelude to the emergence of autonomous provincial dynasties in the east, which would relate to the caliphal centre in nominal terms of loyalty only".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010295_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010295-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <p><span id="cnote_a"><b><a href="#ref_a">^</a></b></span> <b>a:</b> At the outbreak of the civil war, large parts of <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a> threw off allegiance to the Abbasids. The governor in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, the Abbasid prince <a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_Abi_Ja%27far" title="Sulayman ibn Abi Ja'far">Sulayman ibn Abi Ja'far</a>, was expelled by pro-<a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad</a> forces with particular backing from the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Kalb" title="Banu Kalb">Kalb</a> tribe. A descendant of the Umayyad caliph <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Umaytir_al-Sufyani" title="Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani">Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani</a>, was proclaimed caliph in Damascus in 811 and gained recognition in <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> and other parts of Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000327,_331,_333–334_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000327,_331,_333–334-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was less well-received by the Kalb's longtime rivals, the Qays, who mobilized against Abu al-Umaytir and the Kalb under the pro-Abbasid tribal chief, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bayhas_al-Kilabi" title="Ibn Bayhas al-Kilabi">Ibn Bayhas al-Kilabi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobb200160–61_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb200160–61-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000334_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000334-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter toppled the Umayyad government in Damascus in 813 and was recognized as governor by al-Ma'mun. Ibn Bayhas ruled semi-independently, even minting his own coins. He remained in office until being dismissed in the mid-820s by al-Ma'mun's viceroy over Syria and the Jazira, <a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Tahir_al-Khurasani" title="Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani">Abd Allah ibn Tahir ibn al-Husayn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000339–340_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000339–340-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> <span id="cnote_b"><b><a href="#ref_b">^</a></b></span> <b>b:</b> The relationship between the Abbasids and the Alids was troubled and underwent many changes. The Alids, claiming descent from <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, had been the focal point of several failed revolts directed against the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a>–whose regime was widely regarded as oppressive and more concerned with the worldly aspects of the caliphate than the teachings of Islam–inspired by the belief that only a "chosen one from the Family of Muhammad" (<i>al-ridha min Al Muhammad</i>) would have the divine guidance necessary to rule according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></i> and create a truly Islamic government that would bring justice to the Muslim community. However, it was the Abbasid family, who like the Alids formed part of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Banu Hashim</a> clan and hence could lay claim to be members of the wider "Family of the Prophet", who successfully seized the Caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004123–127_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004123–127-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010269–271_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010269–271-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the Abbasid Revolution, the Abbasids tried to secure Alid support or at least acquiescence through salaries and honours at court, but some, chiefly the Zaydi and <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasanid</a> branches of the Alids, continued to reject them as usurpers. Thereafter, periods of conciliatory efforts alternated with periods of suppression by the caliphs, provoking Alid uprisings which were followed in turn by large-scale persecutions of the Alids and their supporters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004130–131,_136,_139,_141_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004130–131,_136,_139,_141-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010272_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010272-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </p> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel197917-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel197917_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010301-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010301_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010274-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010274_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004133–134-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004133–134_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 133–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004135-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004135_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010281–282-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010281–282_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, pp. 281–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979175–176-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979175–176_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, pp. 175–176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282–283-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010282–283_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, pp. 282–283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142–143-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004142–143_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 142–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010283_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979168-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979168_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979169–171-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979169–171_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, pp. 169–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979171–175-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979171–175_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, pp. 171–175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144–145-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004144–145_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 144–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979176-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979176_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, p. 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331–332-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331–332_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 331–332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960438_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGabrieli1960">Gabrieli 1960</a>, p. 438.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331,_333-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331,_333_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 331, 333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333_25-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFishbein199220,_22,_27-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFishbein199220,_22,_27_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFishbein1992">Fishbein 1992</a>, pp. 20, 22, 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979176–177-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979176–177_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, pp. 176–177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147–148-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004147–148_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 147–148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010284-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010284_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979177–178-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979177–178_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, pp. 177–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010285_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004148_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332–333-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991332–333_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 332–333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149_34-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979179–180-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979179–180_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, pp. 179–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149–150-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004149–150_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 149–150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333–334-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991333–334_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 333–334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437–438-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437–438_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGabrieli1960">Gabrieli 1960</a>, pp. 437–438.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150,_151-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150,_151_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 150, 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniel1979180_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniel1979">Daniel 1979</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150–151-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150–151_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004150–151_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 150–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004151-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004151_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334–335-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334–335_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 334–335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004152_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334,_335-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991334,_335_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 334, 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004151–153-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004151–153_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 151–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335_50-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335–336-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991335–336_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 335–336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991336-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991336_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010288–289-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010288–289_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, pp. 288–289.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153–154,_159–160-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153–154,_159–160_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 153–154, 159–160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286–287-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010286–287_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, pp. 286–287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154–155-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154–155_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 154–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004154_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337_60-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287–288-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010287–288_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, pp. 287–288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153–154,_165-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004153–154,_165_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 153–154, 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337–338-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991337–338_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 337–338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010290-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010290_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 290.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004155-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004155_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010288–290-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010288–290_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, pp. 288–290.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004156–166-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004156–166_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 156–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991336–337-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991336–337_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, pp. 336–337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010295-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010295_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 295.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000327,_331,_333–334-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000327,_331,_333–334_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMadelung2000">Madelung 2000</a>, pp. 327, 331, 333–334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobb200160–61-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobb200160–61_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCobb2001">Cobb 2001</a>, pp. 60–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000334-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000334_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMadelung2000">Madelung 2000</a>, p. 334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000339–340-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung2000339–340_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMadelung2000">Madelung 2000</a>, pp. 339–340.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004123–127-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004123–127_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 123–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010269–271-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010269–271_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, pp. 269–271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004130–131,_136,_139,_141-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004130–131,_136,_139,_141_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 130–131, 136, 139, 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010272-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2010272_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2010">El-Hibri 2010</a>, p. 272.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCobb2001" class="citation book cs1">Cobb, Paul M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC"><i>White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880</i></a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791448809" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791448809"><bdi>978-0791448809</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Banners%3A+Contention+in+%27Abbasid+Syria%2C+750%E2%80%93880&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0791448809&rft.aulast=Cobb&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2C6KIBw4F9YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elton_L._Daniel" title="Elton L. Daniel">Daniel, Elton L.</a> (1979). <i>The Political and Social History of Khurasan under Abbasid Rule, 747–820</i>. Minneapolis & Chicago: Bibliotheca Islamica, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88297-025-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-88297-025-9"><bdi>0-88297-025-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+and+Social+History+of+Khurasan+under+Abbasid+Rule%2C+747%E2%80%93820&rft.place=Minneapolis+%26+Chicago&rft.pub=Bibliotheca+Islamica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-88297-025-9&rft.aulast=Daniel&rft.aufirst=Elton+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Hibri2010" class="citation book cs1">El-Hibri, Tayeb (2010). "The empire in Iraq, 763–861". In <a href="/wiki/Chase_F._Robinson" title="Chase F. Robinson">Robinson, Chase F.</a> (ed.). <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">269–</span>304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83823-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83823-8"><bdi>978-0-521-83823-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+empire+in+Iraq%2C+763%E2%80%93861&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+Islam%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Formation+of+the+Islamic+World%2C+Sixth+to+Eleventh+Centuries&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E269-%3C%2Fspan%3E304&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83823-8&rft.aulast=El-Hibri&rft.aufirst=Tayeb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishbein1992" class="citation book cs1">Fishbein, Michael, ed. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Utb5Z1h_RtoC"><i>The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXI: The War Between Brothers: The Caliphate of Muḥammad al-Amīn, A.D. 809–813/A.H. 193–198</i></a>. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1085-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1085-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-1085-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+al-%E1%B9%ACabar%C4%AB%2C+Volume+XXXI%3A+The+War+Between+Brothers%3A+The+Caliphate+of+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+al-Am%C4%ABn%2C+A.D.+809%E2%80%93813%2FA.H.+193%E2%80%93198&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+Series+in+Near+Eastern+Studies.&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-1085-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUtb5Z1h_RtoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabrieli1960" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gabrieli, F. (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0599">"al-Amīn"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/H._A._R._Gibb" title="H. A. R. Gibb">Gibb, H. A. R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hendrik_Kramers" title="Johannes Hendrik Kramers">Kramers, J. H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Évariste Lévi-Provençal">Lévi-Provençal, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume I:<i> A–B</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">437–</span>438. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0599">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0599</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469456">495469456</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-Am%C4%ABn&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+I%3A+A%E2%80%93B&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E437-%3C%2Fspan%3E438&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469456&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0599&rft.aulast=Gabrieli&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0599&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Kennedy, Hugh</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wux0lWbxs1kC"><i>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century</i></a> (Second ed.). Harlow: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-40525-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-40525-7"><bdi>978-0-582-40525-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet+and+the+Age+of+the+Caliphates%3A+The+Islamic+Near+East+from+the+6th+to+the+11th+Century&rft.place=Harlow&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-582-40525-7&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWux0lWbxs1kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelung2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Madelung, Wilferd</a> (2000). "Abūʾl-Amayṭar al-Sufyānī". <i>Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam</i>. <b>24</b>: <span class="nowrap">327–</span>341.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jerusalem+Studies+in+Arabic+and+Islam&rft.atitle=Ab%C5%AB%CA%BEl-Amay%E1%B9%ADar+al-Sufy%C4%81n%C4%AB&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E327-%3C%2Fspan%3E341&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=Wilferd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRekaya1991" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rekaya, M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4889">"al-Maʾmūn"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume VI:<i> Mahk–Mid</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">331–</span>339. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_4889">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4889</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08112-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08112-3"><bdi>978-90-04-08112-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-Ma%CA%BEm%C5%ABn&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+VI%3A+Mahk%E2%80%93Mid&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E331-%3C%2Fspan%3E339&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_4889&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08112-3&rft.aulast=Rekaya&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_4889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Fitna&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmabe1995" class="citation book cs1">Amabe, Fukuzo (1995). <i>The Emergence of the ʿAbbāsid Autocracy: The Abbasid Army, Khurāsān and Adharbayjān</i>. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9784876980246" title="Special:BookSources/9784876980246"><bdi>9784876980246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emergence+of+the+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81sid+Autocracy%3A+The+Abbasid+Army%2C+Khur%C4%81s%C4%81n+and+Adharbayj%C4%81n&rft.place=Kyoto&rft.pub=Kyoto+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9784876980246&rft.aulast=Amabe&rft.aufirst=Fukuzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Hibri1999" class="citation book cs1">El-Hibri, Tayeb (1999). <i>Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Hārūn al-Rashı̄d and the Narrative of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-65023-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-65023-2"><bdi>0-521-65023-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reinterpreting+Islamic+Historiography%3A+H%C4%81r%C5%ABn+al-Rash%C4%B1%CC%84d+and+the+Narrative+of+the+%CA%BFAbb%C4%81sid+Caliphate&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-65023-2&rft.aulast=El-Hibri&rft.aufirst=Tayeb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYücesoy2002" class="citation journal cs1">Yücesoy, Hayrettin (2002). "Between Nationalism and the Social Sciences: A History of Modern Scholarship on the Abbasid Civil War and the Reign of al-Ma'mun". <i>Medieval Encounters</i>. <b>8</b>: <span class="nowrap">56–</span>78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157006702320365940">10.1163/157006702320365940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medieval+Encounters&rft.atitle=Between+Nationalism+and+the+Social+Sciences%3A+A+History+of+Modern+Scholarship+on+the+Abbasid+Civil+War+and+the+Reign+of+al-Ma%27mun&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E78&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157006702320365940&rft.aulast=Y%C3%BCcesoy&rft.aufirst=Hayrettin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYücesoy2009" class="citation book cs1">Yücesoy, Hayrettin (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ikB14gKKIQIC"><i>Messianic Beliefs and Imperial Politics in Medieval Islam: The ʻAbbāsid Caliphate in the Early Ninth Century</i></a>. University of South Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781570038198" title="Special:BookSources/9781570038198"><bdi>9781570038198</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Messianic+Beliefs+and+Imperial+Politics+in+Medieval+Islam%3A+The+%CA%BBAbb%C4%81sid+Caliphate+in+the+Early+Ninth+Century&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781570038198&rft.aulast=Y%C3%BCcesoy&rft.aufirst=Hayrettin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DikB14gKKIQIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFourth+Fitna" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Abbasid_Caliphate_topics_(750–1258)86" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Abbasid_Caliphate_topics" title="Template:Abbasid Caliphate topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Abbasid_Caliphate_topics" title="Template talk:Abbasid Caliphate topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Abbasid_Caliphate_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Abbasid Caliphate topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Abbasid_Caliphate_topics_(750–1258)86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> topics <span style="font-size:85%;">(750–1258)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Background</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Third_Fitna" title="Third Fitna">Third Fitna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashimiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashimiyya">Hashimiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Early period</b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(750–833)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Establishment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">al-Saffah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Battle of Talas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_conquest_of_Ifriqiya" title="Abbasid conquest of Ifriqiya">Conquest of Ifriqiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_revolt_of_762%E2%80%93763" title="Alid revolt of 762–763">Revolt of Muhammad the Pure Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdad" title="Round city of Baghdad">Round city of Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid%E2%80%93Carolingian_alliance" title="Abbasid–Carolingian alliance">Abbasid–Carolingian alliance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Apogee</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(806)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)">Sack of Heraclea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fourth Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">Graeco-Arabic translation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Fragmentation of<br />the Abbasid empire</b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(833–946)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Amorium" title="Sack of Amorium">Sack of Amorium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">al-Muntasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in" title="Al-Musta'in">al-Musta'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tazz" title="Al-Mu'tazz">al-Mu'tazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijite_Rebellion_(866%E2%80%93896)" title="Kharijite Rebellion (866–896)">Kharijite Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Abbasid revival</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">al-Mu'tamid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muwaffaq" title="Al-Muwaffaq">al-Muwaffaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">al-Muktafi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Collapse</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qahir" title="Al-Qahir">al-Qahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Radi" title="Al-Radi">al-Radi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muttaqi" title="Al-Muttaqi">al-Muttaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">al-Mustakfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27nis_al-Muzaffar" title="Mu'nis al-Muzaffar">Mu'nis al-Muzaffar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Hasan_Ali_ibn_al-Furat" title="Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Furat">Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Furat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_ibn_al-Jarrah" title="Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah">Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarmatian_invasion_of_Iraq" title="Qarmatian invasion of Iraq">Qarmatian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Mecca_(930)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Mecca (930)">Sack of Mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajkam" title="Bajkam">Bajkam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Abdallah_al-Baridi" title="Abu Abdallah al-Baridi">Abu Abdallah al-Baridi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Dawla" title="Nasir al-Dawla">Nasir al-Dawla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Buyid" class="mw-redirect" title="Buyid">Buyid</a> period</b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(946–1055)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muti" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muti">al-Muti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ta%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ta'i">al-Ta'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Manifesto" title="Baghdad Manifesto">Baghdad Manifesto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">al-Qa'im</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Buyid emirs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27izz_al-Dawla" title="Mu'izz al-Dawla">Mu'izz al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izz_al-Dawla" title="Izz al-Dawla">Izz al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Adud_al-Dawla" title="'Adud al-Dawla">'Adud al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsam_al-Dawla" title="Samsam al-Dawla">Samsam al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharaf_al-Dawla" title="Sharaf al-Dawla">Sharaf al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha_al-Dawla" title="Baha al-Dawla">Baha al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Dawla" title="Sultan al-Dawla">Sultan al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musharrif_al-Dawla" title="Musharrif al-Dawla">Musharrif al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Dawla" title="Jalal al-Dawla">Jalal al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Kalijar" title="Abu Kalijar">Abu Kalijar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Malik_al-Rahim" title="Al-Malik al-Rahim">al-Malik al-Rahim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a> period</b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1055–1157)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadi" title="Al-Muqtadi">al-Muqtadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustazhir" title="Al-Mustazhir">al-Mustazhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rashid_Billah" title="Al-Rashid Billah">al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Seljuk sultans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tughril" class="mw-redirect" title="Tughril">Tughril</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alp_Arslan" title="Alp Arslan">Alp Arslan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik-Shah_I" title="Malik-Shah I">Malik-Shah I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_I_of_Great_Seljuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud I of Great Seljuk">Mahmud I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berkyaruq" title="Berkyaruq">Berkyaruq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik-Shah_II" title="Malik-Shah II">Malik-Shah II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_Tapar" title="Muhammad I Tapar">Muhammad I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sanjar" title="Ahmad Sanjar">Ahmad Sanjar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Final period</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1157–1258)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Caliphs7" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">al-Mustanjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahir_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah">al-Zahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_(Baghdad)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)">al-Mustansir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustansiriya_Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustansiriya Madrasah">Mustansiriya Madrasah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Sack of Baghdad</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Aftermath</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliphs_of_Cairo" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliphs of Cairo">Abbasid caliphs of Cairo</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Geography</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arminiya" title="Arminiya">Arminiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Bahrayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Barqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq (region)">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sawad" title="Sawad">Sawad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)" title="Al-Jazira (caliphal province)">Jazira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jibal" title="Jibal">Jibal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Sind" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Sind">Sindh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awasim" title="Al-Awasim">Awasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Jund al-Urdunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Dimashq" title="Jund Dimashq">Jund Dimashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Jund Filastin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Hims" title="Jund Hims">Jund Hims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Qinnasrin" title="Jund Qinnasrin">Jund Qinnasrin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Government_and_military86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Government and military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Palace and central government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amir_al-umara" title="Amir al-umara">Amir al-umara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barid" title="Barid">Barid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajib" title="Hajib">Hajib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazalim" title="Mazalim">Mazalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Officials_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Officials of the Abbasid Caliphate">Officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robe_of_honour" title="Robe of honour">Robe of honour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiraz" title="Tiraz">tiraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shurta" title="Shurta">Shurta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">Vizier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Financial administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divan" title="Divan">Diwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iqta%27" title="Iqta'">Iqta'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharaj" title="Kharaj">Kharaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abna_al-dawla" title="Abna al-dawla">Abna al-dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battles_involving_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Battles involving the Abbasid Caliphate">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Generals_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Generals of the Abbasid Caliphate">Commanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Wars involving the Abbasid Caliphate">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_and_law86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion and law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Islam in the Abbasid Caliphate">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hanafism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafism">Hanafism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbalism">Hanbalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'ism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Revival" title="Sunni Revival">Sunni Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a Islam">Shi'a Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Imams" title="Twelve Imams">Twelve Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_Century" title="Shi'a Century">Shi'a Century</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Christianity in the Abbasid Caliphate">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Jews and Judaism in the Abbasid Caliphate">Jews and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khurramites" title="Khurramites">Khurramites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture_and_society86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture and society</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abbasid_architecture" title="Category:Abbasid architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abbasid_literature" title="Category:Abbasid literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Musicians_from_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Musicians from the Abbasid Caliphate">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Science in the Abbasid Caliphate">Science and learning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">Graeco-Arabic translation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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