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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_is–ought_problem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_is–ought_problem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The is–ought problem</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_is–ought_problem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moore's_discussion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moore's_discussion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Moore's discussion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moore's_discussion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appeal_to_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appeal_to_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Appeal to nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appeal_to_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bound-up_functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bound-up_functions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Bound-up functions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bound-up_functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irrationality_of_anti-naturalistic_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irrationality_of_anti-naturalistic_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Irrationality of anti-naturalistic fallacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irrationality_of_anti-naturalistic_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inconsistent_application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inconsistent_application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Inconsistent application</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inconsistent_application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universally_normative_allegations_of_varied_harm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universally_normative_allegations_of_varied_harm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Universally normative allegations of varied harm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universally_normative_allegations_of_varied_harm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Naturalistic fallacy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fal%C2%B7l%C3%A0cia_naturalista" title="Fal·làcia naturalista – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fal·làcia naturalista" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistick%C3%BD_omyl" title="Naturalistický omyl – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Naturalistický omyl" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_naturalistiske_fejl" title="Den naturalistiske fejl – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den naturalistiske fejl" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistischer_Fehlschluss" title="Naturalistischer Fehlschluss – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Naturalistischer Fehlschluss" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falacia_naturalista" title="Falacia naturalista – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Falacia naturalista" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturisma_misrezono" title="Naturisma misrezono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Naturisma misrezono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falazia_naturalista" title="Falazia naturalista – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Falazia naturalista" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%87_%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="مغالطه طبیعت‌گرایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مغالطه طبیعت‌گرایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralogisme_naturaliste" title="Paralogisme naturaliste – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paralogisme naturaliste" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%97%B0%EB%A1%A0%EC%A0%81_%EC%98%A4%EB%A5%98" title="자연론적 오류 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자연론적 오류" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacia_naturalistica" title="Fallacia naturalistica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fallacia naturalistica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99" title="כשל נטורליסטי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כשל נטורליסטי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captio_naturalistica" title="Captio naturalistica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Captio naturalistica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistische_dwaling" title="Naturalistische dwaling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Naturalistische dwaling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9%E7%9A%84%E8%AA%A4%E8%AC%AC" title="自然主義的誤謬 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="自然主義的誤謬" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_naturalistiske_feilslutning" title="Den naturalistiske feilslutning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den naturalistiske feilslutning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistinen_virhep%C3%A4%C3%A4telm%C3%A4" title="Naturalistinen virhepäätelmä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Naturalistinen virhepäätelmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_naturalistiska_misstaget" title="Det naturalistiska misstaget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Det naturalistiska misstaget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do%C4%9Falc%C4%B1l%C4%B1k_yan%C4%B1lg%C4%B1s%C4%B1" title="Doğalcılık yanılgısı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Doğalcılık yanılgısı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Purported fallacy in deriving 'ought' from 'is'</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the claim that something is good or right because it is natural (or bad or wrong because it is unnatural), see <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Appeal to nature</a>.</div> <p> In <a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">metaethics</a>, the <b>naturalistic fallacy</b> is the claim that it is possible to define <a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a> in terms of merely described entities, properties, or processes such as <i>pleasant</i>, <i>desirable</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-sep_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sep-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was introduced by British philosopher <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> in his 1903 book <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moore's naturalistic fallacy is closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">is–ought problem</a>, which comes from <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">Treatise of Human Nature</a></i> (1738–40); however, unlike Hume's view of the is–ought problem, Moore (and other proponents of <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">ethical non-naturalism</a>) did not consider the naturalistic fallacy to be at odds with <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_uses">Common uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Common uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_is–ought_problem"><span id="The_is.E2.80.93ought_problem"></span>The is–ought problem</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The is–ought problem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">Is–ought problem</a></div> <p>The term <i>naturalistic fallacy</i> is sometimes used to label the problematic inference of an <i>ought</i> from an <i>is</i> (the <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">is–ought problem</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michael Ridge relevantly elaborates that "[t]he intuitive idea is that evaluative conclusions require at least one evaluative premise—purely factual premises about the naturalistic features of things do not entail or even support evaluative conclusions."<sup id="cite_ref-sep_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sep-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This problematic inference usually takes the form of saying that if people generally <i>do</i> something (e.g., eat three times a day, smoke cigarettes, dress warmly in cold weather), then people <i>ought to</i> do that thing. The naturalistic fallacy occurs when the is–ought inference ("People eat three times a day, so it is morally good for people to eat three times a day") is justified by the claim that whatever practice exists is a natural one ("because eating three times a day is pleasant and desirable"). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a>, in discussing the relations of law and morality, found that when people discuss problems and issues they talk about how they wish it would be, instead of how it actually is. This can be seen in discussions of <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Positive_law" title="Positive law">positive law</a>. Bentham criticized natural law theory because in his view it was an instance of the naturalistic fallacy, claiming that it described how things are rather than how they ought to be. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moore's_discussion"><span id="Moore.27s_discussion"></span>Moore's discussion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Moore's discussion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Principia_Ethica_title_page.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Principia_Ethica_title_page.png/200px-Principia_Ethica_title_page.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Principia_Ethica_title_page.png/300px-Principia_Ethica_title_page.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Principia_Ethica_title_page.png/400px-Principia_Ethica_title_page.png 2x" data-file-width="773" data-file-height="1262" /></a><figcaption>The title page of <i>Principia Ethica</i></figcaption></figure> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a></i>, when philosophers try to define <i>good</i> reductively, in terms of natural properties like <i>pleasant</i> or <i>desirable</i>, they are committing the naturalistic fallacy. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...the assumption that because some quality or combination of qualities invariably and necessarily accompanies the quality of goodness, or is invariably and necessarily accompanied by it, or both, this quality or combination of qualities is identical with goodness. If, for example, it is believed that whatever is pleasant is and must be good, or that whatever is good is and must be pleasant, or both, it is committing the naturalistic fallacy to infer from this that goodness and pleasantness are one and the same quality. The naturalistic fallacy is the assumption that because the words 'good' and, say, 'pleasant' necessarily describe the same objects, they must attribute the same quality to them.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Arthur_N._Prior" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur N. Prior">Arthur N. Prior</a>, <i>Logic And The Basis Of Ethics</i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In defense of <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">ethical non-naturalism</a> against <a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">ethical naturalism</a>, Moore's argument is concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> and metaphysical underpinnings of ethics. Moore argues that good, in the sense of <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsic value</a>, is simply ineffable. It cannot be defined because it is not reducible to other properties, being "one of those innumerable objects of thought which are themselves incapable of definition, because they are the ultimate terms by reference to which whatever 'is' capable of definition must be defined".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, ethical naturalists eschew such principles in favor of a more empirically accessible <a href="/wiki/Analysis_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis (philosophy)">analysis</a> of what it means to be good: for example, in terms of pleasure in the context of <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>That "pleased" does not mean "having the sensation of red", or anything else whatever, does not prevent us from understanding what it does mean. It is enough for us to know that "pleased" does mean "having the sensation of pleasure", and though pleasure is absolutely indefinable, though pleasure is pleasure and nothing else whatever, yet we feel no difficulty in saying that we are pleased. The reason is, of course, that when I say "I am pleased", I do not mean that "I" am the same thing as "having pleasure". And similarly no difficulty need be found in my saying that "pleasure is good" and yet not meaning that "pleasure" is the same thing as "good", that pleasure <i>means</i> good, and that good <i>means</i> pleasure. If I were to imagine that when I said "I am pleased", I meant that I was exactly the same thing as "pleased", I should not indeed call that a naturalistic fallacy, although it would be the same fallacy as I have called naturalistic with reference to Ethics.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>G. E. Moore, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.12"><i>Principia Ethica</i> § 12</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In §7, Moore argues that a property is either a complex of simple properties, or else it is irreducibly simple. Complex properties can be defined in terms of their constituent parts but a simple property lacks parts. In addition to <i>good</i> and <i>pleasure</i>, Moore suggests that colour <a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</a> are undefined: if one wants to understand yellow, one must see examples of it. It will do no good to read the dictionary and learn that <i>yellow</i> names the colour of egg yolks and ripe lemons, or that <i>yellow</i> names the primary colour between green and orange on the spectrum, or that the perception of yellow is stimulated by electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of between 570 and 590 nanometers, because yellow is all that and more, by the <a href="/wiki/Open_question_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Open question argument">open question argument</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appeal_to_nature">Appeal to nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Appeal to nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Appeal to nature</a></div> <p>Some people use the phrase, <i>naturalistic fallacy</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">appeal to nature</a></i>, in a different sense, to characterize inferences of the form "Something is natural; therefore, it is morally acceptable" or "This property is unnatural; therefore, this property is undesirable." Such inferences are common in discussions of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">veganism</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The naturalistic fallacy is the idea that what is found in nature is good. It was the basis for <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">social Darwinism</a>, the belief that helping the poor and sick would get in the way of evolution, which depends on the survival of the fittest. Today, biologists denounce the naturalistic fallacy because they want to describe the natural world honestly, without people deriving morals about how we ought to behave (as in: If birds and beasts engage in adultery, infanticide, cannibalism, it must be OK).</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a><sup id="cite_ref-Pinker_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pinker-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem#Responses" title="Is–ought problem">Is–ought problem § Responses</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a> called Moore's use of the term <i>naturalistic fallacy</i> a "spectacular misnomer", the matter in question being metaphysical, as opposed to rational.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some philosophers reject the naturalistic fallacy or suggest solutions for the proposed is–ought problem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bound-up_functions">Bound-up functions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bound-up functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ralph McInerny suggests that <i>ought</i> is already bound up in <i>is</i>, insofar as the very nature of things have ends/goals within them. For example, a clock is a device used to keep time. When one understands the function of a clock, then a standard of evaluation is implicit in the very description of the clock, i.e., because it <i>is</i> a clock, it <i>ought</i> to keep the time. Thus, if one cannot pick a good clock from a bad clock, then one does not really know what a clock is. In like manner, if one cannot determine good human action from bad, then one does not really know what the human person is.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2016)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irrationality_of_anti-naturalistic_fallacy">Irrationality of anti-naturalistic fallacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Irrationality of anti-naturalistic fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy fallacy">belief that naturalistic fallacy is inherently flawed has been criticized as lacking rational bases</a>, and labelled anti-naturalistic fallacy.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2016)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For instance, Alex Walter wrote: </p> <dl><dd>"The naturalistic fallacy and Hume's 'law' are frequently appealed to for the purpose of drawing limits around the scope of scientific inquiry into ethics and morality. These two objections are shown to be without force."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>That is because said beliefs implicitly assert that there is no connection between the facts and the norms (in particular, between the facts and the mental process that led to adoption of the norms).<sup id="cite_ref-nat-fal_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-fal-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, philosophers show that these connections are inevitable. </p><p>A very basic example is that if people view rescuing people as morally correct, this would shape their beliefs on what constitutes danger and what situations warrant intervention. For wider-ranging examples, if one believes that a certain ethnic group of humans have a population-level statistical hereditary predisposition to destroy civilization while the other person does not believe that such is the case, that difference in beliefs about factual matters will make the first person conclude that persecution of said ethnic group is an excusable "necessary evil" while the second person will conclude that it is a totally unjustifiable evil. </p><p>Similarly, if two people think it is evil to keep people working extremely hard in extreme poverty, they will draw different conclusions on de facto rights (as opposed to purely semantic rights) of <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> owners. The latter is dependent on whether they believe property owners are responsible for the aforementioned exploitation. One who accepts this premise would conclude that it is necessary to persecute property owners to mitigate exploitation. The one who does not, on the other hand, would conclude that the persecution is unnecessary and evil.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inconsistent_application">Inconsistent application</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Inconsistent application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some critics of the assumption that is-ought conclusions are fallacies point at observations of people who purport to consider such conclusions as fallacies do not do so consistently. Examples mentioned are that <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychologists</a> who gripe about "the naturalistic fallacy" do make is-ought conclusions themselves when, for instance, alleging that the notion of <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" title="Noble savage">the blank slate</a> would lead to totalitarian social engineering or that certain views on sexuality would lead to attempts to convert homosexuals to heterosexuals. Critics point at this as a sign that charges of the naturalistic fallacy are inconsistent rhetorical tactics rather than detection of a fallacy.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Universally_normative_allegations_of_varied_harm">Universally normative allegations of varied harm</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Universally normative allegations of varied harm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A criticism of the concept of the naturalistic fallacy is that while "descriptive" statements (used here in the broad sense about statements that purport to be about facts regardless of whether they are true or false, used simply as opposed to normative statements) about specific differences in effects can be inverted depending on values (such as the statement "people X are predisposed to eating babies" being normative against group X only in the context of protecting children while the statement "individual or group X is predisposed to emit greenhouse gases" is normative against individual/group X only in the context of protecting the environment), the statement "individual/group X is predisposed to harm whatever values others have" is universally normative against individual/group X. This refers to individual/group X being "descriptively" alleged to detect what other entities capable of valuing are protecting and then destroying it without individual/group X having any values of its own. For example, in the context of one philosophy advocating child protection considering eating babies the worst evil and advocating industries that emit greenhouse gases to finance a safe short term environment for children while another philosophy considers long term damage to the environment the worst evil and advocates eating babies to reduce overpopulation and with it consumption that emits greenhouse gases, such an individual/group X could be alleged to advocate both eating babies and building autonomous industries to maximize greenhouse gas emissions, making the two otherwise enemy philosophies become allies against individual/group X as a "common enemy". The principle, that of allegations of an individual or group being predisposed to adapt their harm to damage any values including combined harm of apparently opposite values inevitably making normative implications regardless of which the specific values are, is argued to extend to any other situations with any other values as well due to the allegation being of the individual or group adapting their destruction to different values. This is mentioned as an example of at least one type of "descriptive" allegation being bound to make universally normative implications, as well as the allegation not being <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">scientifically self-correcting</a> due to individual or group X being alleged to <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">manipulate</a> others to support their alleged all-destructive agenda which dismisses any scientific criticism of the allegation as "part of the agenda that destroys everything", and that the objection that some values may condemn some specific ways to persecute individual/group X is irrelevant since different values would also have various ways to do things against individuals or groups that they would consider acceptable to do. This is pointed out as a falsifying counterexample to the claim that "no descriptive statement can in itself become normative".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Appeal to nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Appeal to novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Appeal to tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definist_fallacy" title="Definist fallacy">Definist fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact%E2%80%93value_distinction" title="Fact–value distinction">Fact–value distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Is-Ought_Problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Is-Ought Problem">Is-Ought Problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Metaethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Philosophical naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-question_argument" title="Open-question argument">Open-question argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_and_the_Good" title="The Right and the Good">The Right and the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-sep-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sep_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sep_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRidge2019" class="citation web cs1">Ridge, Michael (Fall 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-non-naturalism/#NatFal">"Moral Non-Naturalism"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Moral+Non-Naturalism&rft.ssn=fall&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Ridge&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmoral-non-naturalism%2F%23NatFal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, G.E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.10#s10p1"><i>Principia Ethica</i> § 10 ¶ 3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. H. Bruening, "Moore on 'Is-Ought'," <i>Ethics</i> 81 (January 1971): 143–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Prior" title="Arthur Prior">Prior, Arthur N.</a> (1949), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.utilitarian.org/texts/prior.html#intro">Chapter 1</a> of <i>Logic And The Basis Of Ethics</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824157-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824157-7">0-19-824157-7</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, G.E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.10#s10p1"><i>Principia Ethica</i> § 10 ¶ 1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pinker-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pinker_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSailer2002" class="citation web cs1">Sailer, Steve (30 October 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2002/10/30/QA-Steven-Pinker-of-Blank-Slate/26021035991232/">"Q&A: Steven Pinker of 'Blank Slate'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/UPI" class="mw-redirect" title="UPI">UPI</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151205074319/http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2002/10/30/QA-Steven-Pinker-of-Blank-Slate/26021035991232/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UPI&rft.atitle=Q%26A%3A+Steven+Pinker+of+%27Blank+Slate%27&rft.date=2002-10-30&rft.aulast=Sailer&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FOdd_News%2F2002%2F10%2F30%2FQA-Steven-Pinker-of-Blank-Slate%2F26021035991232%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams, Bernard Arthur Owen</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WrNMQCZA6FMC&pg=121"><i>Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Abingdon,_Oxfordshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Abingdon, Oxfordshire">Abingdon, Oxfordshire</a>: Taylor & Francis. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39984-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39984-5"><bdi>978-0-415-39984-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+and+the+Limits+of+Philosophy&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxfordshire&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-39984-5&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Bernard+Arthur+Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWrNMQCZA6FMC%26pg%3D121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcInerny1982" class="citation book cs1">McInerny, Ralph (1982). "Chp. 3". <i>Ethica Thomistica</i>. Cua Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chp.+3&rft.btitle=Ethica+Thomistica&rft.pub=Cua+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=McInerny&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Casebeer, W. D., "Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition", <i>Cambridge, MA: MIT Press</i>, (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter2006" class="citation journal cs1">Walter, Alex (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147470490600400102">"The Anti-naturalistic Fallacy: Evolutionary Moral Psychology and the Insistence of Brute Facts"</a>. <i>Evolutionary Psychology</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">33–</span>48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147470490600400102">10.1177/147470490600400102</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+Anti-naturalistic+Fallacy%3A+Evolutionary+Moral+Psychology+and+the+Insistence+of+Brute+Facts&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F147470490600400102&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F147470490600400102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nat-fal-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nat-fal_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/naturalistic+fallacy">"naturalistic fallacy"</a>, <i>TheFreeDictionary</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TheFreeDictionary&rft.atitle=naturalistic+fallacy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreedictionary.com%2Fnaturalistic%2Bfallacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susana Nuccetelli, Gary Seay (2011) "Ethical Naturalism: Current Debates"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Simpson (2001) "Vices, Virtues, and Consequences: Essays in Moral and Political Philosophy"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan Narveson (2002) "Respecting persons in theory and practice: essays on moral and political philosophy"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. J. McCloskey (2013) "Meta-Ethics and Normative Ethics"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Scalet, John Arthur (2016) "Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N.T. Potter, Mark Timmons (2012) "Morality and Universality: Essays on Ethical Universalizability"</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1903" class="citation book cs1">Moore, George Edward (1903). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brieflymoorespri0000dani"><i>Principia Ethica</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-334-04040-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-334-04040-X"><bdi>0-334-04040-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principia+Ethica&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1903&rft.isbn=0-334-04040-X&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=George+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrieflymoorespri0000dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankena1939" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_K._Frankena" class="mw-redirect" title="William K. Frankena">Frankena, W. K.</a> (1939). "The Naturalistic Fallacy". <i>Mind</i>. <b>XLVIII</b> (192): <span class="nowrap">464–</span>77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2FXLVIII.192.464">10.1093/mind/XLVIII.192.464</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2250706">2250706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=The+Naturalistic+Fallacy&rft.volume=XLVIII&rft.issue=192&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E464-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FXLVIII.192.464&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2250706%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Frankena&rft.aufirst=W.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurry2006" class="citation journal cs1">Curry, Oliver (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147470490600400120">"Who's afraid of the naturalistic fallacy?"</a>. <i>Evolutionary Psychology</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">234–</span>47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147470490600400120">10.1177/147470490600400120</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Psychology&rft.atitle=Who%27s+afraid+of+the+naturalistic+fallacy%3F&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E234-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F147470490600400120&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F147470490600400120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter2006" class="citation journal cs1">Walter, Alex (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147470490600400102">"The anti-naturalistic fallacy: Evolutionary moral psychology and the insistence of brute facts"</a>. <i>Evolutionary Psychology</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">33–</span>48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147470490600400102">10.1177/147470490600400102</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+anti-naturalistic+fallacy%3A+Evolutionary+moral+psychology+and+the+insistence+of+brute+facts&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F147470490600400102&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F147470490600400102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonDietrichClark2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Sloan_Wilson" title="David Sloan Wilson">Wilson, David Sloan</a>; Dietrich, Eric; Clark, Anne B. (2003). "On the inappropriate use of the naturalistic fallacy in evolutionary psychology". <i>Biology and Philosophy</i>. <b>18</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">669–</span>81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1026380825208">10.1023/A:1026380825208</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30891026">30891026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=On+the+inappropriate+use+of+the+naturalistic+fallacy+in+evolutionary+psychology&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E669-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1026380825208&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30891026%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=David+Sloan&rft.au=Dietrich%2C+Eric&rft.au=Clark%2C+Anne+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalistic_fallacy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/">Principia Ethica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412230825/http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica">Archived</a> 2021-04-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore/">"G.E. Moore"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=G.E.+Moore&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmoore%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-non-naturalism/">"Moral non-naturalism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Moral+non-naturalism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmoral-non-naturalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalistic+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fallacyfiles.org/adnature.html#Exposure">Appeal to Nature</a> entry in <i>The Fallacy Files</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fallacies" title="Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fallacies" title="Template talk:Fallacies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Common_fallacies_(list)222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_a_disjunct" title="Affirming a disjunct">Affirming a disjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Affirming the consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">Denying the antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_fallacy" title="Argument from fallacy">Argument from fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masked-man_fallacy" title="Masked-man fallacy">Masked man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantificational logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Illicit conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_by_example" title="Proof by example">Proof by example</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_shift" title="Quantifier shift">Quantifier shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syllogistic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogistic fallacy">Syllogistic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_conclusion_from_a_negative_premise" title="Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise">Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_conclusion_from_affirmative_premises" title="Negative conclusion from affirmative premises">Negative conclusion from affirmative premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_exclusive_premises" title="Fallacy of exclusive premises">Exclusive premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_scope_fallacy" title="Modal scope fallacy">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_four_terms" title="Fallacy of four terms">Four terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_major" title="Illicit major">Illicit major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_minor" title="Illicit minor">Illicit minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle" title="Fallacy of the undistributed middle">Undistributed middle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equivocation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_attribution" title="False attribution">False attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Wager">Loki's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">Reification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Question-begging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a> / <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">Leading question</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barreled_question" title="Double-barreled question">Compound question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Correlative-based_fallacies" title="Correlative-based fallacies">Correlative-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_fallacy" title="Nirvana fallacy">Perfect solution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_correlative" title="Denying the correlative">Denying the correlative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_correlative" title="Suppressed correlative">Suppressed correlative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_illicit_transference" title="Fallacies of illicit transference">Illicit transference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">Secundum quid</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accident_(fallacy)" title="Accident (fallacy)">Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converse_accident" title="Converse accident">Converse accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_counting_(fallacy)" title="Double counting (fallacy)">Double counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">False analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slothful_induction" title="Slothful induction">Slothful induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwhelming_exception" title="Overwhelming exception">Overwhelming exception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_accent" title="Fallacy of accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_precision" title="False precision">False precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorites_paradox" title="Sorites paradox">Sorites paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">Syntactic ambiguity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animistic_fallacy" title="Animistic fallacy">Animistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive</a></li></ul></li> <li>Correlation implies causation <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Cum hoc</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_fallacy" title="Regression fallacy">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">Single cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" title="Texas sharpshooter fallacy">Texas sharpshooter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_law" title="Appeal to the law">Law/Legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_stone" title="Appeal to the stone">Stone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_consequences" title="Appeal to consequences">Consequences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">Wishful thinking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Think_of_the_children" title="Think of the children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_fear" title="Appeal to fear">Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_flattery" title="Appeal to flattery">Flattery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_pity" title="Appeal to pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Ridicule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_here" title="Invented here">Invented here</a> / <a href="/wiki/Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_mentality" title="Island mentality">Island mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_loyalty" title="Appeal to loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_of_horribles" title="Parade of horribles">Parade of horribles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_spite" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to spite">Spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Stirring symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_repugnance" title="Wisdom of repugnance">Wisdom of repugnance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_fallacy" title="Genetic fallacy">Genetic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ad_hominem18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_motive" title="Appeal to motive">Appeal to motive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godwin%27s_law" title="Godwin's law">Godwin's law</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red-baiting" title="Red-baiting">Reductio ad Stalinum</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulverism" title="Bulverism">Bulverism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_the_well" title="Poisoning the well">Poisoning the well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_policing" title="Tone policing">Tone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">Tu quoque</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_accomplishment" title="Appeal to accomplishment">Accomplishment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ipse_dixit" title="Ipse dixit">Ipse dixit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lazarum" title="Argumentum ad lazarum">Poverty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_crumenam" title="Argumentum ad crumenam">Wealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Tradition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">Chronological snobbery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies<br /> of relevance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Arguments13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">Argument from anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">Argument from silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_to_moderation" title="Argument to moderation">Argument to moderation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Ignoratio elenchi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invincible_ignorance_fallacy" title="Invincible ignorance fallacy">Invincible ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Naturalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_fallacy" title="Motte-and-bailey fallacy">Motte-and-bailey fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist%27s_fallacy" title="Psychologist's fallacy">Psychologist's fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_wrongs_make_a_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Two wrongs make a right">Two wrongs make a right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_pleading" title="Special pleading">Special pleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">Straw man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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