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citation_lastpage=3004; citation_doi=10.3390/nu5082969"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Postprandial circulating miRNAs in response to a dietary fat challenge; citation_author=Mantilla-Escalante, DC; citation_author=de las Hazas, MCL; citation_author=Gil-Zamorano, J; citation_publication_date=2019; citation_journal_title=Nutrients; citation_volume=11; citation_firstpage=1; citation_lastpage=17; citation_doi=10.3390/nu11061326"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=High-fat diet-induced upregulation of exosomal phosphatidylcholine contributes to insulin resistance; citation_author=Kumar, A; citation_author=Sundaram, K; citation_author=Mu, J; citation_publication_date=2021; citation_journal_title=Nat Commun; citation_volume=12; citation_firstpage=213; citation_doi=10.1038/s41467-020-20500-w"> <meta name="citation_abstract" content="Lipids play an important role in human nutrition. Although adequate lipid consumption is necessary for an optimal functioning of the human body, overconsumption of saturated fatty acids can lead to postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, which triggers the development of atherosclerosis. Important parameters that impact postprandial lipaemia and inflammation are related to the matrix structure and the fat-soluble micronutrient profile of ingested foods/lipids, but the specific effect of these parameters should be further studied, as most of the available studies evaluate their effect at fasting state. This review specifically explores the effects of food structure and fat-soluble micronutrients, from either micronutrient-rich foods or supplements, on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation. The review also highlights the potential of emerging biomarkers such as miRNAs or circulating microvesicles, as an alternative to the widely use biomarkers (e.g. low-density lipoproteins or blood concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines), to identify inflammation associated with postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia at early stages."> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1017/S0954422424000155"> <link rel="alternate" href="/core/journals/nutrition-research-reviews/article/evaluating-the-roles-of-food-matrix-lipid-micronutrients-and-bioactives-in-controlling-postprandial-hypertriglyceridaemia-and-inflammation/CA99D06BCF715ED3071D8CDD4AD87F9D" hreflang="en" /> <link rel="icon" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link href='//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Noto+Sans:400,700,400italic,700italic' rel='stylesheet' type='text/css'>  <link 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data-v-63dfaf6e>Nutrition Research Reviews</span> </a></li><li class="page-breadcrumbs__item" data-v-3692cf84><span aria-hidden="true" class="breadcrumbs-wrapper__arrow" data-v-3692cf84>></span><a href="/core/journals/nutrition-research-reviews/firstview" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-3692cf84><span data-v-63dfaf6e>FirstView</span> </a></li><li class="page-breadcrumbs__item" data-v-3692cf84><span aria-hidden="true" class="breadcrumbs-wrapper__arrow" data-v-3692cf84>></span><span data-v-3692cf84>Evaluating the roles of food matrix, lipid micronutrients...</span></li></ul></div></div> <div class="language" data-v-3692cf84><ul class="language-switch" data-v-6b1118dd data-v-3692cf84><li aria-label="English" data-v-6b1118dd><span class="language-option current divider" data-v-6b1118dd>English</span></li><li aria-label="Français" data-v-6b1118dd><span role="button" tabindex="0" href="#" lang="fr" class="language-option" data-v-6b1118dd> Français </span></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <div class="container container__modified" data-v-01274b1d>  <div class="row" data-v-01274b1d><div role="complementary" aria-label="table of content" class="column__left" data-v-01274b1d><div class="col journal-container row" data-v-146270e8 data-v-01274b1d><img src="https://static.cambridge.org/covers/NRR_0_0_0/nutrition-research-reviews.jpg" alt="" class="journal__image" data-v-146270e8> <a href="/core/journals/nutrition-research-reviews" class="app-link journal__title app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-146270e8><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Nutrition Research Reviews </span> </a> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-146270e8></div>  <div id="toc" class="table-of-content" data-v-01274b1d><h2>Article contents</h2> <div id="toc-list-wrapper" class="table-of-content__wrapper"><ul id="toc-list" class="list"><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec0" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">Abstract</span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#s1" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Introduction</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s2" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation: where are we now?</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s3" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Effect of food structure and composition on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s4" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Effects of FSM on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s5" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Novel biomarkers to determine the effect of liposoluble vitamins on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s6" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Future prospects</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s8" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Financial support</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s9" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Competing interests</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s10" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Authorship</div></span></a></li>  <li class="list__item"><a href="#references-list" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">References</span></a></li></ul></div></div></div> <div class="column__main" data-v-01274b1d><div class="row" data-v-01274b1d><div class="column__main__left" data-v-01274b1d><div id="maincontent" class="col" data-v-862424e6 data-v-01274b1d> <hgroup data-v-862424e6><h1 data-v-862424e6>Evaluating the roles of food matrix, lipid micronutrients and bioactives in controlling postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation</h1> </hgroup>     <div class="row published-date" data-v-862424e6><p data-v-862424e6> Published online by Cambridge University Press: <strong data-v-862424e6>07 November 2024</strong></p></div>   <div class="contributors-details" data-v-99f6eb26 data-v-862424e6><div class="row contributors" data-v-99f6eb26><div class="col" data-v-99f6eb26><div class="row contributor-type" data-v-792406ce data-v-99f6eb26> <div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=%C3%81ngela%20Bravo-N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Ángela Bravo-Núñez</span> </a> <a target="_blank" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5983-5334" data-test-orcid="Ángela Bravo-Núñez" class="app-link contributor-type__contributor__orcid app-link__icon app-link--" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="Open the ORCID record for Ángela Bravo-Núñez" class="app-icon icon orcid" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a> <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Ren%C3%A9%20Val%C3%A9ro&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>René Valéro</span> </a> <a target="_blank" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2176-3280" data-test-orcid="René Valéro" class="app-link contributor-type__contributor__orcid app-link__icon app-link--" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PD94bWwgdmVyc2lvbj0iMS4wIiBlbmNvZGluZz0idXRmLTgiPz4KPHN2ZyB3aWR0aD0iMjIiIGhlaWdodD0iMjIiIHZlcnNpb249IjEuMSIgaWQ9IkxheWVyXzEiIHhtbG5zPSJodHRwOi8vd3d3LnczLm9yZy8yMDAwL3N2ZyIgeG1sbnM6eGxpbms9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzE5OTkveGxpbmsiIHg9IjBweCIgeT0iMHB4IgoJIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAyNTYgMjU2IiBzdHlsZT0iZW5hYmxlLWJhY2tncm91bmQ6bmV3IDAgMCAyNTYgMjU2OyIgeG1sOnNwYWNlPSJwcmVzZXJ2ZSI+CjxzdHlsZSB0eXBlPSJ0ZXh0L2NzcyI+Cgkuc3Qwe2ZpbGw6I0E2Q0UzOTt9Cgkuc3Qxe2ZpbGw6I0ZGRkZGRjt9Cjwvc3R5bGU+CjxwYXRoIGNsYXNzPSJzdDAiIGQ9Ik0yNTYsMTI4YzAsNzAuNy01Ny4zLDEyOC0xMjgsMTI4QzU3LjMsMjU2LDAsMTk4LjcsMCwxMjhDMCw1Ny4zLDU3LjMsMCwxMjgsMEMxOTguNywwLDI1Niw1Ny4zLDI1NiwxMjh6Ii8+CjxnPgoJPHBhdGggY2xhc3M9InN0MSIgZD0iTTg2LjMsMTg2LjJINzAuOVY3OS4xaDE1LjR2NDguNFYxODYuMnoiLz4KCTxwYXRoIGNsYXNzPSJzdDEiIGQ9Ik0xMDguOSw3OS4xaDQxLjZjMzkuNiwwLDU3LDI4LjMsNTcsNTMuNmMwLDI3LjUtMjEuNSw1My42LTU2LjgsNTMuNmgtNDEuOFY3OS4xeiBNMTI0LjMsMTcyLjRoMjQuNQoJCWMzNC45LDAsNDIuOS0yNi41LDQyLjktMzkuN2MwLTIxLjUtMTMuNy0zOS43LTQzLjctMzkuN2gtMjMuN1YxNzIuNHoiLz4KCTxwYXRoIGNsYXNzPSJzdDEiIGQ9Ik04OC43LDU2LjhjMCw1LjUtNC41LDEwLjEtMTAuMSwxMC4xYy01LjYsMC0xMC4xLTQuNi0xMC4xLTEwLjFjMC01LjYsNC41LTEwLjEsMTAuMS0xMC4xCgkJQzg0LjIsNDYuNyw4OC43LDUxLjMsODguNyw1Ni44eiIvPgo8L2c+Cjwvc3ZnPgo=" alt="Open the ORCID record for René Valéro" class="app-icon icon orcid" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a> <span data-v-792406ce> and</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Emmanuelle%20Reboul&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Emmanuelle Reboul</span> </a> <a target="_blank" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4576-1992" data-test-orcid="Emmanuelle Reboul" class="app-link contributor-type__contributor__orcid app-link__icon app-link--" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="Open the ORCID record for Emmanuelle Reboul" class="app-icon icon orcid" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a> <span data-v-792406ce></span></div> </div> </div> <div class="col-2 collapse-link" data-v-99f6eb26><a href="#authors-details" data-toggle="collapse" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="authors-details" class="app-link collapsed app-link__text-icon app-link--secondary reverse" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-99f6eb26><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="" class="app-icon icon arrow-down" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Show author details </span> </a></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-99f6eb26> <dl id="authors-details" class="authors-details collapse" data-v-2edb8da6 data-v-99f6eb26><div data-test-author="Ángela Bravo-Núñez" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Ángela Bravo-Núñez</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Aix-Marseille University, INRAE, INSERM, C2VN, Marseille, France</span> </span><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="René Valéro" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>René Valéro</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Aix-Marseille University, INRAE, INSERM, C2VN, Marseille, France</span> </span><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>APHM, Department of Nutrition, Metabolic Diseases and Endocrinology, University Hospital La Conception, Marseille, France</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Emmanuelle Reboul" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Emmanuelle Reboul*</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Aix-Marseille University, INRAE, INSERM, C2VN, Marseille, France</span> </span></div></dd></div> <div class="row" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-sm-2 col-12 title" data-v-2edb8da6> * </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="row" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="d-sm-flex d-inline flex-sm-1 flex-sm-wrap" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><div class="corresp"><span class="label">*</span><span class="bold">Corresponding author:</span> Emmanuelle Reboul, email: <a href="mailto:Emmanuelle.Reboul@univ-amu.fr">Emmanuelle.Reboul@univ-amu.fr</a></div></span></div></div></div></dd></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-2edb8da6></dl></div></div> <div id="app-tabs" class="tabs" data-v-1d90c6ce data-v-01274b1d><div id="app-tabs-wrapper" class="tabs__wrapper" data-v-1d90c6ce><div role="navigation" aria-label="tab navigation" class="container" data-v-1d90c6ce><a data-toggle="collapse" href="#appTabs" role="button" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="appTabs" class="tabs__collapse collapsed d-sm-none d-print-none" data-v-1d90c6ce><span data-v-1d90c6ce></span> <span class="tabs-arrow-up" data-v-1d90c6ce></span> <span class="tabs-arrow-down" data-v-1d90c6ce></span></a> <ul id="appTabs" role="tablist" class="nav nav-tabs tabs__list collapse show" data-v-1d90c6ce><li role="none" class="tabs__tab" data-v-1d90c6ce><a aria-selected="true" href="#article-tab" role="tab" aria-controls="article-tab" tabindex="-1" class="active" data-v-1d90c6ce>Article </a></li><li role="none" class="tabs__tab" data-v-1d90c6ce><a href="#figures-tab" role="tab" aria-controls="figures-tab" tabindex="-1" data-v-1d90c6ce>Figures </a></li><li role="none" class="tabs__tab" data-v-1d90c6ce><a href="#metrics-tab" role="tab" aria-controls="metrics-tab" tabindex="-1" data-v-1d90c6ce>Metrics </a></li></ul></div></div> <div tabindex="0" role="region" aria-label="Tab content" class="tab-content" data-v-1d90c6ce><div id="article-tab" class="tab-pane active" data-v-43a4d572><div id="toc-mobile" class="table-of-content-mobile d-sm-none" data-v-43a4d572><a data-toggle="collapse" href="#toc-list-mobile" role="button" aria-expanded="false" class="toc-collapse-switch collapsed"><span class="default-heading">Article contents</span>  <span class="toc-arrow-up"></span> <span class="toc-arrow-down"></span></a> <ul id="toc-list-mobile" class="list collapse"><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec0" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">Abstract</span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#s1" class="list__item__link"> <span>Introduction</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s2" class="list__item__link"> <span>Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation: where are we now?</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s3" class="list__item__link"> <span>Effect of food structure and composition on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s4" class="list__item__link"> <span>Effects of FSM on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s5" class="list__item__link"> <span>Novel biomarkers to determine the effect of liposoluble vitamins on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s6" class="list__item__link"> <span>Future prospects</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s8" class="list__item__link"> <span>Financial support</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s9" class="list__item__link"> <span>Competing interests</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#s10" class="list__item__link"> <span>Authorship</span></a></li>  <li class="list__item"><a href="#references-list" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">References</span></a></li></ul></div> <div class="action-bar" data-v-43a4d572><div class="row items"> <div class="app-dropdown d-print-none" data-v-fab090b8 data-v-113567da data-v-43a4d572><button aria-expanded="false" data-test-id="buttonSavePDFOptions" id="save-pdf-dropdown" class="app-button dropdown-menu-button app-button__text-icon app-button--secondary" data-v-2a038744 data-v-fab090b8><img 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target="_blank" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?publisherName=CUP&publication=NRR&title=Evaluating%20the%20roles%20of%20food%20matrix%2C%20lipid%20micronutrients%20and%20bioactives%20in%20controlling%20postprandial%20hypertriglyceridaemia%20and%20inflammation&publicationDate=07%20November%202024&author=%C3%81ngela%20Bravo-N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez%2C%20Ren%C3%A9%20Val%C3%A9ro%2C%20Emmanuelle%20Reboul©right=%C2%A9%20The%20Author(s)%2C%202024.%20Published%20by%20Cambridge%20University%20Press%20on%20behalf%20of%20The%20Nutrition%20Society&contentID=10.1017%2FS0954422424000155&startPage=1&endPage=14&orderBeanReset=True&volumeNum=&issueNum=&oa=CC-BY" data-test-id="buttonRightLink" class="app-link rights-link d-print-none app-link__text-icon app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-92ee52a2 data-v-43a4d572><img src="/core/page-component/img/rights-icon.d4a677c.svg" alt="" class="app-icon icon rights" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Rights & Permissions </span> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a></div> <div class="share-modal-overlay" style="display:none;" data-v-43a4d572></div> <div data-spy="scroll" data-target="#toc" class="scrollspy-content" data-v-43a4d572> <div id="sec0" class="col article-abstract sec" data-v-2fa8b348 data-v-43a4d572><div class="abstract-text-container" data-v-2fa8b348><div lang="en"><h2>Abstract</h2>  <div class="abstract-content"><div class="abstract" data-abstract-type="normal"><p>Lipids play an important role in human nutrition. Although adequate lipid consumption is necessary for an optimal functioning of the human body, overconsumption of saturated fatty acids can lead to postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, which triggers the development of atherosclerosis. Important parameters that impact postprandial lipaemia and inflammation are related to the matrix structure and the fat-soluble micronutrient profile of ingested foods/lipids, but the specific effect of these parameters should be further studied, as most of the available studies evaluate their effect at fasting state. This review specifically explores the effects of food structure and fat-soluble micronutrients, from either micronutrient-rich foods or supplements, on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation. The review also highlights the potential of emerging biomarkers such as miRNAs or circulating microvesicles, as an alternative to the widely use biomarkers (e.g. low-density lipoproteins or blood concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines), to identify inflammation associated with postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia at early stages.</p></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="abstract-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a></div></div>   </div>  <div class="keywords" data-v-86c27100 data-v-43a4d572><h2 data-v-86c27100>Keywords</h2> <div class="row keywords__pills" data-v-86c27100><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=carotenoids" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>carotenoids</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=emulsions" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>emulsions</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=fat-soluble vitamins" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>fat-soluble vitamins</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=inflammation" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>inflammation</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia</span></a></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-86c27100></div>  <dl class="article-details" data-v-6e32a161 data-v-43a4d572><div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Type </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161>Review Article</dd></div> <div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Information </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161><div class="content__journal" data-v-6e32a161><a href="/core/journals/nutrition-research-reviews" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Nutrition Research Reviews </span> </a> <span data-v-6e32a161> , <a href="/core/journals/nutrition-research-reviews/firstview" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>First View </span> </a></span>  <span data-v-6e32a161>, pp. 1 - 14</span> </div> <div class="doi-data" data-v-6e32a161><div data-v-6e32a161>DOI: <a target="_blank" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422424000155" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422424000155 </span> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a></div> <a data-target="crossmark" aria-label="Check for updates" href="#" class="crossmark-widget" data-v-6e32a161><img src="/core/page-component/img/crossmark-logo.61d5da3.svg" alt="Check for updates" data-v-6e32a161></a></div>  </dd></div> <div class="row creative-commons" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 creative-commons__title"> Creative Commons </dt> <dd class="col"><div class="creative-commons__content"><div class="creative-commons__icons"><img src="/core/page-component/img/license-cc-icon.e3a74ed.svg" alt="Creative Common License - CC" class="app-icon creative-commons__icon license-cc" data-v-d2c09870><img src="/core/page-component/img/license-by-icon.33e212c.svg" alt="Creative Common License - BY" class="app-icon creative-commons__icon license-by" data-v-d2c09870></div> <div class="creative-commons__description">This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</a>), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.</div></div></dd></div>  <div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Copyright </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161><div data-v-6e32a161> © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Nutrition Society </div></dd></div></dl>  <div id="content-container" class="content-container" data-v-43a4d572><div class="content-box"><div class="article review-article NLM"> <div class="body"> <div class="sec intro" data-magellan-destination="s1" id="s1"> <h2 class="A"> Introduction</h2> <p class="p"> Lipids play an important role in human nutrition. They not only represent a high percentage of our caloric intake but are also a source of essential fatty acids and carriers of fat-soluble micronutrients (FSM) such as liposoluble vitamins and carotenoids. Although adequate lipid consumption is necessary for an optimal functioning of the human body, an overconsumption of saturated fatty acids can lead to postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia (overaccumulation of triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins (TRL) in blood), which triggers the development of atherosclerosis. Indeed, a high TRL level in blood is the major pattern of lipid abnormality in many patients who are treated for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref1"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Libby</span>1</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref2"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Nordestgaard</span>2</a>)</sup> . Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia has been associated with increases in different biomarkers of metabolic health associated with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, such as oxidation rate of low-density lipoproteins (LDL)<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref3"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Borén, John Chapman and Krauss</span>3</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref5"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Matsuura, Hughes and Khamashta</span>5</a>)</sup> or blood concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref6"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Burdge and Calder</span>6</a>)</sup>, two groups of biomarkers widely used by the research community. However, emerging biomarkers such as microRNAs (miRNA)<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup>, circulating microvesicles<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Araujo, Silva and Guerra</span>8</a>)</sup> or changes in gene expression in blood cells associated with miRNA expression<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref9"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Quintanilha, Pinto Ferreira and Ferreira</span>9</a>)</sup> have shown promising results.</p> <p class="p"> The food matrices in which lipids are embedded are very diverse and are responsible for the modulation of fatty acid release during digestion, bioavailability and metabolic fate once absorbed<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Michalski, Genot and Gayet</span>10</a>)</sup>. However, very little information is available regarding the specific effect of food structure on postprandial lipaemia. The available studies focused mainly on emulsion-based dairy products and have highlighted the impact of lipid emulsion structure on lipid absorption rate and lipid postprandial response<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref11"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dias, Zhu and Thompson</span>11</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref12"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Tan, Sun and Goh</span>12</a>)</sup> . Food compounds can also modulate postprandial lipaemia. Hydrosoluble micronutrients such as niacin (vitamin B<sub>3</sub>), minerals (zinc, copper, magnesium, calcium) and phytochemicals such as polyphenols have a positive effect on postprandial lipaemia, as previously reviewed by our research group<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref13"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Desmarchelier, Borel and Lairon</span>13</a>)</sup>. Other reviews have also highlighted the effect of macro- and micronutrients on postprandial lipaemia<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref14"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Botelho Dias, Moughan and Wood</span>14</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref16"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lairon and Defoort</span>16</a>)</sup>, but none of them addressed the effect of fat-soluble vitamins and carotenoids. This may be related to the fact that fat-soluble vitamin- and carotenoid-specific effects on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and associated inflammation are still not well understood. The link between nutritional supplementation and fasting hypertriglyceridaemia has been reviewed elsewhere<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref17"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Schiano, Annunziata and Ciampaglia</span>17</a>)</sup>, but, to date, no review linking FSM supplementation and postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia is available.</p> <p class="p"> This review aims to cover this gap and brings up to date the state of the art regarding the effects of: (i) food structure and (ii) FSM, from either micronutrient-rich foods or supplements, on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. We will also discuss the potential of emerging biomarkers (miRNAs, circulating microvesicles) to determine the inflammatory state associated with postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.</p> </div> <div class="sec other" data-magellan-destination="s2" id="s2"> <h2 class="A"> Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation: where are we now?</h2> <p class="p"> Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the dominant cause of death in the world<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref18">18</a>)</sup>. Residual cardiovascular risk, which is defined as the risk of cardiovascular events that persists despite achievement of treatment goals for low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), blood pressure and glycaemia is largely associated with atherogenic dyslipidaemia (AD). AD is mainly characterised by fasting and postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia (postprandial hyperlipidaemia), low high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) and increase of small and dense LDL. AD is often present in individuals at high cardiovascular risk such as persons with overweight or obesity, individuals suffering from type 2 diabetes and subjects suffering from metabolic syndrome who frequently share the same insulin-resistant state<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref19"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Aguiar, Alegria and Bonadonna</span>19</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref20"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ferrari, Aguiar and Alegria</span>20</a>)</sup> . The pathophysiology of AD is widely explained by the blood accumulation of TRL synthesised by the liver (very low-density lipoproteins, VLDL) and the intestine (chylomicrons). This accumulation has been attributed to the overproduction of both VLDL<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref21"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Adiels, Olofsson and Taskinen</span>21</a>)</sup> and chylomicrons<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref22"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Duez, Lamarche and Uffelman</span>22</a>)</sup> and a defective TRL removal process because of several associated mechanisms: reduction of lipoprotein lipase activity, changes in the apolipoprotein composition of TRL impairing particle clearance, and defect in the hepatic uptake of TRL and their remnants<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref23"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Vergès</span>23</a>)</sup>. Elevated fasting and postprandial blood TRL concentrations, which are mainly related to the increase in chylomicron and VLDL production, are now considered a causal risk factor for low-grade inflammation, atherosclerotic CVD and all-cause mortality. Indeed, there are extensive epidemiological, genetic and biological data showing that the increase of TRL reflected by the fasting and postprandial blood triacylglycerol (TG) level and/or the measurement of remnant cholesterol (remnant cholesterol = total cholesterol − LDL-C − HDL-C) is a causal risk factor for atherosclerosis through direct and indirect mechanisms<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref24"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Nordestgaard</span>24</a>)</sup>. TRL and its remnants can promote atherosclerosis via modulating inflammation, oxidative stress and formation of foam cells<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref25"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Zhang, Yin and Qiao</span>25</a>)</sup>. In a multi-directional Mendelian randomisation human study, it has been shown that elevated non-fasting remnant cholesterol was causally associated with low-grade inflammation. Indeed, a 1-mmol/L-higher level of non-fasting remnant cholesterol was associated observationally with a 37% higher C-reactive protein (CRP) level and causally with a 28% higher level of ischaemic heart disease<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref26"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Varbo, Benn and Tybjærg-Hansen</span>26</a>)</sup>. The potential inflammatory mechanisms for atherogenesis in hypertriglyceridaemia have been described in a recent review<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref27"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Peng and Wu</span>27</a>)</sup>. In summary, circulating monocytes can take up TRL and their remnants and possibly non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) to become foamy monocytes with an inflammatory phenotype (high level expression of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and type I transmembrane protein CD11c). Foamy monocytes adhere firmly to vascular cell adhesion molecule 1(VCAM-1)/intercellular adhesion molecule 1(ICAM-1) expressed on activated endothelial cells and infiltrate into plaques, where foamy monocytes differentiate into foam macrophages, thereby contributing to atherosclerosis. Foamy monocytes can also possibly infiltrate other tissues and may therefore play a pivotal role in the development of inflammation in other tissues. TRL remnants and NEFA can also enter arterial walls directly, be engulfed by lesional macrophages and increase macrophage lipid accumulation, promoting foam macrophage formation and contributing to atherogenesis. Macrophages including foam macrophages secrete cytokines, which, along with those derived from foamy monocytes, can further increase inflammation in macrophages and other cells in plaques and promote atherosclerosis progression. TRL, their remnants and NEFA can interact with endothelial cells and induce endothelial cell inflammation and activation, with up-regulation of cytokines and adhesion molecules such as ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, which mediate monocyte adhesion and recruitment into atherosclerotic plaques. Finally, TRL remnants and NEFA also impair the balance of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in endothelial cells, leading to endothelial dysfunction.</p> <p class="p"> Given the damaging consequences of postprandial hyperlipaemia, mitigating nutritional strategies should be implemented in patients in addition to their usual medical treatment.</p> </div> <div class="sec other" data-magellan-destination="s3" id="s3"> <h2 class="A"> Effect of food structure and composition on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</h2> <p class="p"> Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia can be modulated by many factors, such as structure and composition of the meal/food consumed, lifestyle factors or biological factors<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref14"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Botelho Dias, Moughan and Wood</span>14</a>)</sup>. The effect of food matrix on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, which can be defined as the nutrient and non-nutrient components of foods and their molecular relationships, is still not very well characterised<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref13"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Desmarchelier, Borel and Lairon</span>13</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref28"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Acevedo-Fani and Singh</span>28</a>)</sup> . More particularly, food structure, that is, the organisation of food constituents, can be innate or built during food manufacturing. Food matrix/structure can impact food destructuring during digestion and, therefore, the release and transformation of macro- and micronutrients<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref29"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Shahidi and Pan</span>29</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref30"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Golding and Wooster</span>30</a>)</sup> , which affects their <em class="italic">in vivo</em> absorption<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref31"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Margier, Antoine and Siriaco</span>31</a>)</sup>. This part of the review thus summarises the latest insights on the relationships between food structure built during food manufacturing and postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.</p> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s3-1" id="s3-1"> <h3 class="B"> Effect of food structure with a focus on fat distribution</h3> <p class="p"> The first study that assessed the impact of food structure on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia was that of Drouin-Chartier <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref32"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Drouin-Chartier, Tremblay and Maltais-Giguère</span>32</a>)</sup>. The authors showed that dairy fat from a soft cream cheese induced a higher TG response in the early postprandial phase compared with butter or with firm cheddar cheese. However, the measured absolute TG response for the intervention period (6 h) was similar for all products. Although the authors did not measure fat droplet size in their products, they suggested that TG could increase faster with the soft cream owing to the smaller fat droplet size of this product compared with butter or cheddar. However, this may not be the only reason, as discussed later. Hansson <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref33"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hansson, Holven and Øyri</span>33</a>)</sup> then reported different TG responses of four different dairy meals (butter, cheese, whipped cream and sour cream) containing the same fat content. The authors reported that the intake of sour cream induced a significantly higher serum TG response than all the other dairy meals. Like Drouin-Chartier <em class="italic">et al.</em>,<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref32"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Drouin-Chartier, Tremblay and Maltais-Giguère</span>32</a>)</sup>, the authors attributed these differences to fat droplet sizes without reporting the related values. A limiting factor in this second study was that the different products were given with toast, which probably influenced the TG postprandial response. In both studies, the results could partially be influenced by food consistency (liquid, semi-liquid or solid), as it seems that liquid foods trigger higher TG response of foods with similar composition<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref11"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dias, Zhu and Thompson</span>11</a>)</sup>. Food structure, which also encompasses food consistency, affects gastric emptying<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref34"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Goyal, Guo and Mashimo</span>34</a>)</sup> and kinetics of lipid digestion, as proven by several <em class="italic">in vitro</em> studies<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref35"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mulet-Cabero, Rigby and Brodkorb</span>35</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref36"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Salt, Mandalari and Parker</span>36</a>)</sup> . However, these <em class="italic">in vitro</em> data sometimes conflict with the conclusion of <em class="italic">in vivo</em> studies. For example, Mulet-Cabero <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref35"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mulet-Cabero, Rigby and Brodkorb</span>35</a>)</sup> suggested that lipid digestion occurs faster for semi-solid foods than for liquid foods, because of a predicted faster gastric emptying of lipids. These data disagree with the <em class="italic">in vivo</em> TG responses to solid and liquid dairy matrices reported by Drouin-Chartier<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref32"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Drouin-Chartier, Tremblay and Maltais-Giguère</span>32</a>)</sup>, Hansson <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref33"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hansson, Holven and Øyri</span>33</a>)</sup> and Diaz <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref11"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dias, Zhu and Thompson</span>11</a>)</sup>. The comparison and validation of gastric behaviour of such <em class="italic">in vitro</em> and <em class="italic">in vivo</em> studies is difficult because the <em class="italic">in vivo</em> studies scarcely address the structural changes of food in the stomach and the composition of each gastric emptying. However, Kjølbæk <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref37"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Kjølbæk, Schmidt and Rouy</span>37</a>)</sup> showed a higher TG response for a gel-based casein product than for a casein drink, supporting the hypothesis of Mulet-Cabero<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref35"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mulet-Cabero, Rigby and Brodkorb</span>35</a>)</sup>. Kjølbæk <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref37"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Kjølbæk, Schmidt and Rouy</span>37</a>)</sup> suggested that these results could be due to the structure of each product, as the only difference between the two products was that the gel-based product was the result of the acid gelation of the drink. Differences in TG response could also be linked to the fact that casein loses its micellar structure at acid pH, which could affect the lipid digestion rate. However, in the same study, Kjølbæk <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref37"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Kjølbæk, Schmidt and Rouy</span>37</a>)</sup> reported a similar TG response of two cheddar cheeses with the same nutritional profile but different structures (one solid, one semi-solid), in disagreement with the hypothesis of Mulet-Cabero<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref35"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mulet-Cabero, Rigby and Brodkorb</span>35</a>)</sup>. It seems that not only macrostructure of foods but also the fine structure of ingredients can affect the postprandial triglyceridaemia response via different digestion rates of lipids. This was illustrated recently in a study that showed a strong influence of the amylose content of starches on lipid digestion of starch-based gels: the higher the amylose content, the higher the lipid digestion per gram of oil<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref38"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Qazi, Ye and Acevedo-Fani</span>38</a>)</sup>. Other <em class="italic">in vitro</em> studies have suggested that food processing can also affect lipid digestion<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref39"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Cauty and Guyomarc’h</span>39</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref41"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Qazi, Ye and Acevedo-Fani</span>41</a>)</sup> via structural modification of macro- and micronutrients and, therefore, potential TG response, although validation with <em class="italic">in vivo</em> models is needed before health/nutrition-related conclusions can be made, as results may differ<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref42"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Berton-Carabin and Schroën</span>42</a>)</sup>. More recently, Gleize <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier</span>43</a>)</sup> conducted a study on twelve healthy subjects who received four starchy foods with similar compositions but different structures (custard, pudding, sponge cake and biscuit)<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier</span>43</a>)</sup>. Results showed that custard TG response was significantly higher than pudding and biscuit TG responses. This could be linked to the lipid droplet size/structure of the products: biscuits displayed big fat “flakes” (18 000 μm) while custard was composed of very small droplets (30 μm)<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier</span>43</a>)</sup>. Overall, the available studies suggest that solid food structure limits the TG response, perhaps because solid food structure may modify the accessibility of the lipid droplets to enzymes. Results of Salt <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref36"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Salt, Mandalari and Parker</span>36</a>)</sup>, who addressed both <em class="italic">in vitro</em> lipid digestion of muffins and free oil, support this conclusion. Gleize <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier</span>43</a>)</sup> also showed that, despite TG postprandial concentrations being different for the four tested products, plasma TG peaked at 3 h for all products. This suggests that, although the food matrix could impact the accessibility of lipids to enzymes, it neither delayed fatty acid absorption by enterocytes nor their secretion into chylomicrons.</p> <p class="p"> As mentioned above, it is widely accepted that the TG postprandial response is influenced not only by the type/amount of fat but also by droplet size distribution<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref28"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Acevedo-Fani and Singh</span>28</a>)</sup>, which is known to change during the digestion process<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref44"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Armand, Borel and Pasquier</span>44</a>)</sup> and impact lipid digestion, as reviewed elsewhere<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref30"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Golding and Wooster</span>30</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref45"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Singh, Ye and Horne</span>45</a>)</sup> . However, information regarding the specific effect of droplet size on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia is still scarce. Vors <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref46"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Vors, Pineau and Gabert</span>46</a>)</sup> evaluated the effect of droplet size of milk and reported higher postprandial chylomicrons, apolipoprotein B-48 and TG concentrations with smaller droplet sizes. However, emulsions were administered together with other food matrices, entangling the extrapolation of the results to droplet size effect only. Similar observations with the same limitations were reported by Tan <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref12"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Tan, Sun and Goh</span>12</a>)</sup>, Laugerette <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref47"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Laugerette, Vors and Géloën</span>47</a>)</sup> and Garaiova <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref48"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Garaiova, Guschina and Plummer</span>48</a>)</sup>. In a recent study, Howard <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref49"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Howard, Attenbourgh and O’Mahoney</span>49</a>)</sup> tried to overcome this gap by evaluating the effect of two standardised emulsified high-fat meals only differing in fat droplet size on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. No other food was given together with the emulsions. They reported a droplet-size-dependent increase of TG concentrations over time, with the increase being more important with fine emulsions than with coarse emulsions. This was in agreement with the observations of the above-mentioned studies that administered emulsions with other foods<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref12"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Tan, Sun and Goh</span>12</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref32"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Drouin-Chartier, Tremblay and Maltais-Giguère</span>32</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref46"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Vors, Pineau and Gabert</span>46</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref48"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Garaiova, Guschina and Plummer</span>48</a>)</sup> . Howard <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref49"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Howard, Attenbourgh and O’Mahoney</span>49</a>)</sup> showed that a high-fat meal with a smaller lipid droplet size induces a sustained pro-vascular inflammatory and pro-thrombotic milieu, whereas a large lipid droplet size attenuates the rise in vascular inflammatory and thrombotic parameters similarly to a meal with negligible fat content. As this is the first human study evaluating the isolated effect of fat droplet size on vascular inflammation, the results should be considered carefully. Another study showed that emulsion droplet size affected gastrointestinal hormone release and that evenly dispersed, stable, small-emulsion droplets within the stomach lead to prolonged gastric distension and accelerated fat sensing. This prolonged feelings of satiation, which can be seen as something beneficial<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref50"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Steingoetter, Buetikofer and Curcic</span>50</a>)</sup>.</p> <p class="p"> There may be situations where having a small lipid droplet size to provide a fast delivery of lipids/FSM to the body may be beneficial to health, in case of specific supplementations for subgroups of the population such as elderly. Based on the protective effect of FSM, and considering that emulsions with small droplet sizes enhance FSM bioaccessibility/bioavailability<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier</span>43</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Tan and McClements</span>51</a>)</sup> , FSM may help to tackle the potential negative effect of fine emulsions on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia (see below).</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s3-2" id="s3-2"> <h3 class="B"> Effects of emulsifiers</h3> <p class="p"> Polysorbates and carboxymethylcelluloses, two emulsifiers commonly used by the food industry and research community, were shown to have a detrimental effect on health<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref52"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bancil, Sandall and Rossi</span>52</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref54"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Viennois and Chassaing</span>54</a>)</sup>, although their effect on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia has not yet been deeply considered. In an <em class="italic">in vivo</em> study in rats, Nassara <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref55"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Nassra, Bourgeois and Subirade</span>55</a>)</sup> compared the effect of water-in-oil emulsions on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. The different emulsions presented similar droplet sizes (9–10 µm) but were stabilised either with synthetic emulsifiers (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, also known as Tween80, or sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate) or protein-based emulsifiers (sodium caseinate or β-lactoglobulin). The authors concluded that the use of proteins to emulsify lipids has the potential to decrease lipid postprandial response compared with synthetic emulsifiers. The effect of casein and whey proteins – two protein-based emulsifiers – on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia has also been evaluated by Mariotti <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref56"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mariotti, Valette and Lopez</span>56</a>)</sup>. The authors concluded that the type of milk protein did not affect postprandial plasma glucose, amino acids, insulin or NEFA, but reported that caseins markedly reduced postprandial TG and plasma chylomicrons. No significant differences between the meals regarding postprandial oxidative stress, endothelial function or low-grade inflammation were found. In a different study, Keogh <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref57"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Keogh, Wooster and Golding</span>57</a>)</sup> evaluated the effect of emulsions stabilised with egg lecithin, sodium sterol lactylate, sodium caseinate/monoglyceride and Tween80 on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. The interpretation of their results is difficult, as the authors did not report emulsion droplet size and, therefore, it is unclear if reported differences between emulsions are related to droplet size or to the used emulsifier. Authors reported <em class="italic">in vitro</em> fatty acid release rate, and emulsions with the highest digestibility rate were not always the emulsions with the greatest impact on TG postprandial concentrations<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref57"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Keogh, Wooster and Golding</span>57</a>)</sup>. This suggests that both droplet size and emulsifiers are important parameters to take into consideration when evaluating the impact of food emulsions on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sec other" data-magellan-destination="s4" id="s4"> <h2 class="A"> Effects of FSM on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</h2> <p class="p"> The specific effects of each FSM on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia are challenging to address, as FSM are generally not consumed individually. Moreover, the use of individual FSM is somehow controversial and not common in research, because it ignores the potential interactions between nutrients within the food matrix. This matrix effect is widely acknowledged for FSM bioavailability, something out of the scope of this review but reviewed elsewhere (e.g. Chungchunlam and Moughan<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref58"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Chungchunlam and Moughan</span>58</a>)</sup> and Dima <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref59"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dima, Assadpour and Dima</span>59</a>)</sup>). In this section, we cover the effects that different FSM can have on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation when ingested in food matrices or supplements, acknowledging that the food matrix itself and its effect on lipid digestion can affect postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. The available literature is focused on foods rich in FSM from plant-based sources. In the future, the research community should also address the impact of foods rich in FSM from animal sources on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.</p> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s4-1" id="s4-1"> <h3 class="B"> Effects of FSM-rich foods</h3> <p class="p"> A meta-analysis encompassing the effect of a wide range of foods/food components (sugars, fibre-rich foods, alcohol, fats, proteins, alcohol and more), some of them containing FSM, on postprandial TG response can be found in the literature<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref60"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lee, Low and Chen</span>60</a>)</sup>, although the specific effect of FSM was not assessed. Some studies indicate a relationship between FSM and TG postprandial response. Available information is summarised in Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl1">1</a>. For instance, Gomez-Marin <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref65"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Gomez-Marin, Gomez-Delgado and Lopez-Moreno</span>65</a>)</sup> showed that long-term consumption of a Mediterranean diet, known to be rich in FSM, improves to a greater extent the postprandial TG levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes than just following a low-fat diet. Here, we addressed the linkage between FSM-rich foods, notably tomato meals<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref66"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Arranz, Martínez-Huélamo and Vallverdu-Queralt</span>66</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref67"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Burton-Freeman, Talbot and Park</span>67</a>)</sup> , legumes<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref68"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bourdon, Olson and Backus</span>68</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref72"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Tan, Siow and Peh</span>72</a>)</sup>, nuts<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref73"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Berry, Tydeman and Lewis</span>73</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref79"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Salas-Salvadó, Guasch-Ferré and Bulló</span>79</a>)</sup>, orange juice<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref74"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Berryman, Grieger and West</span>74</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref80"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Cerletti, Gianfagna and Tamburrelli</span>80</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref83"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Sahar, Ur Rahman and Ishaq</span>83</a>)</sup> or certain diets<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref65"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Gomez-Marin, Gomez-Delgado and Lopez-Moreno</span>65</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref84"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Muñoz-Perez, Gonzalez-Correa and Astudillo-Muñoz</span>84</a>)</sup> (Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl2">2</a>) and postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.</p> <p class="p"> </p><div class="table-wrap" data-magellan-destination="tbl1" id="tbl1"> <div class="caption"> <p class="p"><span class="label">Table 1.</span> Summary of relevant studies regarding the effect of fat-soluble micronutrients from supplements on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</p> </div> <span> <div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab1.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1394" height="454" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab1.png" data-zoomable="true"></div> </span> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s4-1-1" id="s4-1-1"> <h4 class="C"> Effects of tomato products</h4> <p class="p"> Tomatoes are particularly rich in carotenoids (mainly lycopene, but also β-carotene and lutein) and contain a significant amount of vitamin E<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref85"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Abushita, Hebshi and Daood</span>85</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref86"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference García-Closas, Berenguer and Tormo</span>86</a>)</sup> .</p> <p class="p"> A study by Burton-Freeman <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref67"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Burton-Freeman, Talbot and Park</span>67</a>)</sup> reported that a high-fat meal containing tomato paste significantly attenuated LDL oxidation and interleukin 6 (IL-6), showing a decrease in inflammation, although total postprandial TG concentrations were increased compared with a high-fat meal with equivalent calories and macronutrient content. Arranz <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref66"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Arranz, Martínez-Huélamo and Vallverdu-Queralt</span>66</a>)</sup>, who assessed the effect of tomato juice on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, reported a beneficial effect of tomato on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. These authors showed that consumption of tomato juice together with olive oil increased the carotenoid levels in blood (mainly β-carotene and lycopene) and reduced the concentration of commonly used postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia biomarkers, such as TG, total cholesterol and LDL- or HDL-cholesterol concentrations. In fact, two meta-analyses<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref87"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Cheng, Koutsidis and Lodge</span>87</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref88"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Wang, Li and Zhao</span>88</a>)</sup> have reported that tomato supplementation has significant beneficial effects on IL-6, blood lipids, blood pressure, endothelial function and short-term changes in CRP levels, although it is not clear when the authors of these two meta-analyses refer to values at fasting or postprandial state.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s4-1-2" id="s4-1-2"> <h4 class="C"> Effects of legumes</h4> <p class="p"> The results of Nilsson <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref69"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Nilsson, Johansson and Ekström</span>69</a>)</sup> suggested that consumption of 101 g (weight before cooking) of legumes (beans) as a starter for dinner can regulate the inflammation response of the first meal during the following day in comparison with the consumption of 89 g of white bread. Indeed, they reported a significant decrease in IL-6 and interleukin 18 (IL-18), as well as in blood glucose and insulin at postprandial state (between 30 and 180 or 30 and 120 min for glucose and insulin, respectively). Although the FSM content of the legumes used in this study was not addressed, it is known that beans do contain FSM (e.g. α-, β- and γ-tocopherols: 4–17 mg/100 g<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref89"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Campos-Vega, Loarca-Piña and Oomah</span>89</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref90"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ryan, Galvin and O’Connor</span>90</a>)</sup> ). We hypothesise that not only fibre but also FSM could play a role in regulating this inflammation response. Other studies did not report a significant decrease in commonly used biomarkers, such as interleukins or TG<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref68"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bourdon, Olson and Backus</span>68</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref71"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Reverri, Randolph and Steinberg</span>71</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref72"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Tan, Siow and Peh</span>72</a>)</sup> , or reported a decrease only for certain bean varieties<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref70"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Olmedilla-Alonso, Pedrosa and Cuadrado</span>70</a>)</sup>. However, studies with a lack of decrease in hypertriglyceridaemia biomarkers did show a protective effect against postprandial metabolic stress (decrease of postprandial insulin/enhanced cholecystokinin response associated with reductions of plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in diabetic patients) (see Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl2">2</a> for detailed information)<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref68"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bourdon, Olson and Backus</span>68</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref70"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Olmedilla-Alonso, Pedrosa and Cuadrado</span>70</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref72"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Tan, Siow and Peh</span>72</a>)</sup> . As previously stated, legume effects can largely be attributed to their high content in fibre, and the beneficial effect of FSM from legumes is a hypothesis that should be validated. However, Reverri <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref71"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Reverri, Randolph and Steinberg</span>71</a>)</sup> showed that, compared with fibre-matched or micronutrient-matched meals, the bean meals were more efficient in modulating insulin response, likely highlighting a synergic effect between fibre and micronutrients, supporting our hypothesis.</p> <p class="p"> </p><div class="table-wrap" data-magellan-destination="tbl2" id="tbl2"> <div class="caption"> <p class="p"><span class="label">Table 2.</span> Summary of relevant studies regarding the effect of foods containing fat-soluble micronutrients on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</p> </div> <span> <div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab2.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1394" height="1747" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab2.png" data-zoomable="true"></div> </span> <div class="table-wrap-foot"> <div class="fn-group footnotes"> <div class="fn" data-magellan-destination="t2fn2" id="t2fn2"> <p class="p"><span class="label">*</span> Although FSM content was not reported, legumes are known to contain vitamin E (α-, β- and γ-tocopherols: 4–17 mg/100 g dry weight<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref89"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Campos-Vega, Loarca-Piña and Oomah</span>89</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref90"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ryan, Galvin and O’Connor</span>90</a>)</sup> ).</p> </div> <div class="fn" data-magellan-destination="t2fn3" id="t2fn3"> <p class="p"><span class="label">†</span> Although FSM content was not reported, walnuts are known to contain vitamin E and carotenoids (vitamin E: 43 mg/100 g dry weight, carotene: 0.03 mg/100 g dry weight<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref117"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ni, Zhang and Chen</span>117</a>)</sup>).</p> </div> <div class="fn" data-magellan-destination="t2fn4" id="t2fn4"> <p class="p"><span class="label">‡</span> Although FSM content was not reported, almonds are known to contain vitamin E (mainly α-tocopherol: 20–80 mg/100 g dry weight<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref92"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Barreca, Nabavi and Sureda</span>92</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref93"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yada, Lapsley and Huang</span>93</a>)</sup> ). All values are for orientation.</p> </div> </div> <p class="p"> It is important to note that observations of these studies cannot be attributed only to the effect of fat-soluble micronutrients, as these foods/meals contain other compounds with a potential beneficial effect on the measured biomarkers (e.g. fibre).</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s4-1-3" id="s4-1-3"> <h4 class="C"> Effects of nuts</h4> <p class="p"> Beneficial effects of walnuts at postprandial state have been reported by several authors<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref74"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Berryman, Grieger and West</span>74</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref75"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Cortés, Núñez and Cofán</span>75</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref77"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Haddad, Gaban-Chong and Oda</span>77</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref78"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ros, Núñez and Pérez-Heras</span>78</a>)</sup> . This may be partly due to the presence of vitamin E in nuts. Ros <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref78"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ros, Núñez and Pérez-Heras</span>78</a>)</sup> reported that replacing monounsaturated fat with walnuts in a Mediterranean diet improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in subjects with hypercholesterolaemia. In agreement with these results, Cortés <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref75"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Cortés, Núñez and Cofán</span>75</a>)</sup> showed that walnuts reversed the impairment of endothelial function associated with the consumption of a high-fat meal. In a later study, Berryman <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref74"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Berryman, Grieger and West</span>74</a>)</sup> evaluated the isolated effect of walnuts and walnuts components (meat, skin and oil) on postprandial lipaemia. They observed lower postprandial triglyceridaemia for walnut meat and skin than for whole walnut or oil. Since authors did not use a control (e.g. control oil), they could only conclude that certain parts of walnuts have a positive effect on postprandial lipaemia, but when comparing the results of Berryman <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref74"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Berryman, Grieger and West</span>74</a>)</sup> with those of other studies, it seems that, if they had included a control, they would have also observed an improvement with whole walnut and walnut oil. Haddad <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref77"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Haddad, Gaban-Chong and Oda</span>77</a>)</sup> reported a reduction of oxidised LDL at the postprandial state when comparing a walnut meal against a control meal that contained refined oil.</p> <p class="p"> Beneficial effects of other nuts on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia have also been reported. For example, Berry <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref73"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Berry, Tydeman and Lewis</span>73</a>)</sup> reported that the postprandial increase in plasma TG was significantly lower after a meal containing whole almond particles than after a meal containing defatted almond flour + almond oil or sunflower oil. The authors linked their observations to the different bioaccessibility of lipids in their almond samples (regulated by the structure and its digestion). In an <em class="italic">in vitro</em> study, the effect of almond structure on lipid digestion has been demonstrated: authors showed a higher lipid release for smaller particles than for larger particles of almonds, due to the greater proportion of disrupted cells<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref91"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Grundy, Wilde and Butterworth</span>91</a>)</sup>. The differences observed by Berry <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref73"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Berry, Tydeman and Lewis</span>73</a>)</sup> among samples may also be influenced by the vitamin E content of the almond meals. We hypothesise this because, although not significant, postprandial increase in plasma TG seems to be mitigated when comparing the meals containing defatted almond flour + almond oil with the one containing sunflower oil. This suggests a protective effect of vitamin E, as reported elsewhere<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref92"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Barreca, Nabavi and Sureda</span>92</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref93"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yada, Lapsley and Huang</span>93</a>)</sup> . The protective effect of hazelnuts in combination with a high-fat diet has also been reported by Di Renzo <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref76"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Di Renzo, Merra and Botta</span>76</a>)</sup>. These authors observed a decreased low-density lipoprotein oxidation after a high-fat meal when this meal included hazelnuts.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s4-1-4" id="s4-1-4"> <h4 class="C"> Effects of orange juice</h4> <p class="p"> The beneficial effects of orange juice on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia were first suggested by Cerletti <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref80"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Cerletti, Gianfagna and Tamburrelli</span>80</a>)</sup>. These authors observed a significant decrease in TG concentration after a test meal just by changing water from control meal for red orange juice, with TG decrease being not significant for blond orange juice. Another study suggested that the consumption of orange juice helps to reduce the increase of the inflammatory cytokine interleukin 17A (IL-17A) after a high-fat meal high in saturated fatty acids, but not for other tested cytokines<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref82"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Rocha, Lopes and Da Silva</span>82</a>)</sup>. A recent study compared orange juice with fermented orange juice and concluded that fermented orange juice has also a beneficial effect on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref81"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Escudero-López, Cerrillo and Ortega</span>81</a>)</sup>, although no control was included in the study, limiting the extrapolation of their results.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s4-6" id="s4-6"> <h3 class="B"> Effect of supplements</h3> <p class="p"> Extensive evidence has demonstrated that antioxidants such as vitamin E or carotenoids (but also vitamin C and polyphenols) have protective effects in preventing cardiovascular diseases<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref94"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Wang, Chun and Song</span>94</a>)</sup>. Some authors have reported specific beneficial effects of FSM (Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl1">1</a>) and foods/meals containing FSM (Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl2">2</a>) during the postprandial state. For example, a study by Deplanque <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref61"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Deplanque, Muscente-Paque and Chappuis</span>61</a>)</sup> in a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled study, with 146 healthy normal-weight subjects reported that consumption of a mix of phytonutrients for a period of 2 weeks (a mixture of lycopene and phytosterols: 15 mg of each), phytoene and phytofluene (4 mg total) and β-carotene (0·5 mg)) was enough to increase plasma levels of lycopene, phytofluene and phytoene after a high-fat meal (postprandial state, 8 h after food intake) and decreased oxidised LDL concentration in comparison with the control group. These authors did not observe significant differences in glucose, insulin and TG levels during the postprandial state (8 h after food intake, except for insulin that was measured 2 h after food intake), although values were lower for the supplemented group.</p> <p class="p"> Some information about the effect of vitamin E in postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia can also be found in the literature. Bae <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref62"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bae, Schwemmer and Lee</span>62</a>)</sup> reported that vitamin E supplementation of a high-fat meal did not reduce serum TG concentration, although they observed protective effects of vitamin E on endothelial function when measuring brachial artery vasodilation during the postprandial period (changed from 13·3% to 6·6% (<em class="italic">p</em> ≤ 0·05), 7·1% (<em class="italic">p</em> ≤ 0·05) or 13·2% at 2, 4 or 6 h after eating a high-fat meal). In later studies, Neri <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref63"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Neri, Calvagno and Mauceri</span>63</a>)</sup> and Hejazi <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref64"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hejazi, Dabbaghmanesh and Mazloom</span>64</a>)</sup> reported that serum TG profile at postprandial state was not significantly modified after vitamin E supplementation; even though Neri <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref63"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Neri, Calvagno and Mauceri</span>63</a>)</sup> supplementation also contained vitamin C. However, Hejazi <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref64"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hejazi, Dabbaghmanesh and Mazloom</span>64</a>)</sup> observed a decrease in malondialdehyde levels (a lipid peroxidation marker) in the postprandial state (2 h after food intake) in comparison with the placebo group. Neri <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref63"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Neri, Calvagno and Mauceri</span>63</a>)</sup> also reported that, even though no effect on lipid profile was found, vitamin E treatment in healthy subjects and subjects with impaired glucose tolerance induced a significant postprandial improvement in redox balance parameters, serum CRP and VCAM-1 levels. No other study focusing on the effect of single FSM is available.</p> <p class="p"> Overall, published data suggest that the presence of FSM in foods tends to decrease postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation. However, available studies are still limited and therefore should be considered carefully. More research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms underlying FSM effects in this context.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sec other" data-magellan-destination="s5" id="s5"> <h2 class="A"> Novel biomarkers to determine the effect of liposoluble vitamins on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation</h2> <p class="p"> Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation can be assessed by measuring different biomarkers, the most popular ones being TG and cholesterol levels, oxidised LDL, CRP and cytokines, as shown by the previous studies cited in this literature review. However, it is important to identify and study the potential of novel biomarkers, as the above-mentioned traditional biomarkers have shown limitations in identifying inflammation at early stages<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref95"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Toriola, Cheng and Neuhouser</span>95</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref96"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Sakurai and Saruta</span>96</a>)</sup> . In this part of the review, we focus on the potential of miRNAs and circulating microvesicles as emerging biomarkers for postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation.</p> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s5-1" id="s5-1"> <h3 class="B"> miRNAs</h3> <p class="p"> miRNAs are a class of gene expression regulators<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref97"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Catalanotto, Cogoni and Zardo</span>97</a>)</sup> that can potentially be interesting biomarkers to evaluate postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia after a high-fat meal. Indeed, monocytes can interact with postprandial TRL before they migrate to the endothelium<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref27"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Peng and Wu</span>27</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref98"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Varela, Ortega and Bermudez</span>98</a>)</sup> , affecting the transcription of genes involved in lipid homoeostasis and inflammation. Measurement of miRNAs can be used for early detection of asymptomatic and symptomatic diseases<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref99"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Navickas, Gal and Laucevičius</span>99</a> </sup> <sup class="sup"> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref100"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Karkeni, Bonnet and Marcotorchino</span>,100</a>)</sup>, including cardiovascular ones. Certain miRNAs likely modulate cholesterol efflux and reverse cholesterol transport in mammals, as reviewed by Dávalos and Fernández-Hernando<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref101"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dávalos and Fernández-Hernando</span>101</a>)</sup>. In a study in rainbow trout, Zhu <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref102"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Zhu, Corraze and Plagnes-Juan</span>102</a>)</sup> evaluated the different expression of miRNAs known to be involved in cholesterol metabolism when feeding the animals with either a vegetable- or marine-based diet, to address whether miRNAs can be used as biomarkers to determine postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. These authors reported that a plant-based diet significantly reduced the expression of miR-223, probably a consequence of the absence of dietary cholesterol, in agreement with data obtained in mice<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref103"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Vickers, Landstreet and Levin</span>103</a>)</sup> or in humans<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref104"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Talbot, Mensink and Smolders</span>104</a>)</sup>. However, authors also observed discrepancies for other miRNAs, suggesting that there is a limitation regarding the extrapolation of results between different species<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref102"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Zhu, Corraze and Plagnes-Juan</span>102</a>)</sup>.</p> <p class="p"> The potential use of miRNAs as a biomarker to determine hypertriglyceridaemia/inflammation has been suggested by several studies<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref105"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ortega, Cardona-Alvarado and Mercader</span>105</a>)</sup> , with different focuses on how to use miRNAs as biomarkers. miRNAs can potentially be used to evaluate differences between healthy and metabolically disturbed/intervened individuals at a fasting state (lipaemia)<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref105"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ortega, Cardona-Alvarado and Mercader</span>105</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref106"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ortega, Mercader and Catalán</span>106</a>)</sup> or to evaluate the differences in the same individuals but at a different state (fasting versus postprandial state)<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref9"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Quintanilha, Pinto Ferreira and Ferreira</span>9</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref107"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Daimiel, Micó and Valls</span>107</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref108"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mantilla-Escalante, de las Hazas and Gil-Zamorano</span>108</a>)</sup> . Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl3">3</a> summarises the main results of these studies. The circulating miRNA profile of adults with obesity performed by Ortega <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref106"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ortega, Mercader and Catalán</span>106</a>)</sup> suggested that the miRNA profile in plasma was different when comparing obese with non-obese subjects at fasting state. According to these results<sup class="sup"> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref106"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ortega, Mercader and Catalán</span></a> </sup>, patients with morbid obesity showed a significant increase in the levels of the miRNAs miR-140-5p, miR-142-3p and miR-222 and a significant decrease in the levels of miR-532-5p, miR-125b, miR-130b, miR-221, miR-15a, miR-423-5p and miR-520c-3p, compared with healthy individuals at fasting state. In a later study by the same research group<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref105"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ortega, Cardona-Alvarado and Mercader</span>105</a>)</sup>, a comparison of miRNA levels of sedentary individuals before and after 8 weeks of a normocaloric diet enriched with 30 g of nuts was performed. As in their previous study, <sup class="sup"> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref105"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ortega, Cardona-Alvarado and Mercader</span></a> </sup>authors observed differences between miRNA profiles before and after the diet intervention. Interestingly, they reported a decrease in mi-R221, which is somehow contradictory with the results of their previous study (mi-R221 concentration being lower in obese than in healthy individuals), which highlights the different regulation of this miRNA in plasma in healthy versus obese/metabolically compromised subjects.</p> <p class="p"> </p><div class="table-wrap" data-magellan-destination="tbl3" id="tbl3"> <div class="caption"> <p class="p"><span class="label">Table 3.</span> Relevant human studies regarding the expression of miRNAs related to postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia/inflammation</p> </div> <span> <div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab3.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1394" height="660" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab3.png" data-zoomable="true"></div> </span> </div> <p class="p"> Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup> also evaluated differential miRNA expression between fasting and postprandial states (2 h after food consumption) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of healthy humans. Compared with miRNA expression signature at fast (and when following the inclusion criteria of >1·2-fold under- or overexpression and statistical difference (<em class="italic">p</em> < 0·05)), the authors reported nine down-regulated and nine up-regulated miRNAs in the postprandial state (Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl3">3</a>). miRNAs hsa-miR-223-3p and hsa-miR-223-5p – the above-mentioned miRNAs involved in cholesterol metabolism in different animal models<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref102"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Zhu, Corraze and Plagnes-Juan</span>102</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref104"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Talbot, Mensink and Smolders</span>104</a>)</sup> – were also detected in this study (see Table <a class="uri" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422424000155">S1</a> of Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup>) but did not meet the criteria to be selected as overexpressed miRNAs. In a later study, Mantilla-Escalante <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref108"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mantilla-Escalante, de las Hazas and Gil-Zamorano</span>108</a>)</sup> evaluated the whole mouse miRNome and tried to establish a relationship between the expression of mouse and human miRNAs in the postprandial state. Not all the selected miRNAs from the mouse model (Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl3">3</a>) showed the same trend in human subjects, but some of these miRNAs (hsa-miR 206, hsa-miR 409-3p and hsa-miR 27b-5p) were up-regulated both in mice and in humans. Interestingly, Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup> also reported an increase of hsa-miR 206 and hsa-miR 27b-5p in the postprandial state, although the increase was not sufficient to meet their inclusion criteria. Contrary to the results of Mantilla-Escalante <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref108"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mantilla-Escalante, de las Hazas and Gil-Zamorano</span>108</a>)</sup>, Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup> found a lower expression of mRNAs hsa-miR 409-3p in the postprandial state. Regarding the other miRNAs selected by Mantilla-Escalante <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref108"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Mantilla-Escalante, de las Hazas and Gil-Zamorano</span>108</a>)</sup>, Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup> reported lower levels of hsa-miR-10a-3p and hsa-miR-340-3p, and higher levels of hsa-miR-543 and hsa-miR-125a-3p when comparing fasting with postprandial state, although, again, the difference remained insufficient to meet their inclusion criteria. More recently, Quintanilha <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref9"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Quintanilha, Pinto Ferreira and Ferreira</span>9</a>)</sup> studied the effect of high-fat high-saturated meal ingestion on plasma miRNA expression during the postprandial period in healthy women (Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl3">3</a>). When comparing their results with the results of Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup>, we observed a shared trend between results (only hsa-miR 200c-3p and hsa-miR 92b-3p showed different tendencies), although in the study of Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> (2018) none of the miRNAs identified by Quintanilha <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref9"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Quintanilha, Pinto Ferreira and Ferreira</span>9</a>)</sup> meet the inclusion criteria, which could be influenced by the sex difference between studies. Finally, Daimiel <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref107"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Daimiel, Micó and Valls</span>107</a>)</sup> evaluated the effect of olive oil consumption on miRNAs during postprandial state, focusing on fifty-three cardiovascular-related miRNAs. They found that, regardless the polyphenol level in the olive oil, has-let-7e-5p was down-regulated in the postprandial period (Table <a class="xref table" href="#tbl3">3</a>), in agreement with the trend presented by Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup>. Conversely, observations for miR-328a-3p were contradictory, as it was decreased in one study<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref107"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Daimiel, Micó and Valls</span>107</a>)</sup> and increased in another<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup>. Moreover, Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup> observed almost no differences between fasting and postprandial state for miR-20a-5p.</p> <p class="p"> These differences between studies highlight the need for more and larger human <em class="italic">in vivo</em> studies to be able to define a reliable range of miRNA biomarkers suitable to assess human postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. One of the limitations of the available studies is that they tend to focus (or only show the results) on certain miRNAs instead of reporting the whole miRNA human profile, which restricts the comparison with the results of other studies, unless compared studies evaluate the same miRNAs. Only Lopez <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz</span>7</a>)</sup> reported all miRNAs. Since the expression pattern of miRNAs regulates gene expression and, in some cases, can be associated with different human pathologies, the identification of problematic miRNAs can be of great use for the research community both to try to regulate their expression and to explore their use as relevant biomarkers.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="s5-2" id="s5-2"> <h3 class="B"> Circulating microvesicles</h3> <p class="p"> Endothelial microvesicles can be released into the blood stream from the endothelium as a response to activation, injury or apoptosis of endothelial cells<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref109"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dignat-George and Boulanger</span>109</a>)</sup>. Associations between high levels of these microvesicles, endothelial dysfunction and obesity have been reported<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref110"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Esposito, Ciotola and Schisano</span>110</a>–<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref112"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Helal, Defoort and Robert</span>112</a>)</sup>. Their potential use as biomarkers to determine the effect of fat consumption in the postprandial state, both in healthy and in non-healthy individuals, has been already evaluated by some studies<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Araujo, Silva and Guerra</span>8</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref113"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bulut, Jelich and Dacanay-Schwarz</span>113</a>)</sup> that reported a significant increase after fat consumption. However, the levels of microvesicles seem to be also affected by blood flow<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref114"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Jenkins, Padilla and Boyle</span>114</a>,<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref115"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Silva, Sales and Araujo</span>115</a>)</sup> . This could affect the interpretation of the results, although Araujo <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Araujo, Silva and Guerra</span>8</a>)</sup> showed that the circulation of endothelial microvesicles increases in a similar way in individuals with postprandial lipaemia and those with postprandial lipaemia plus disturbed blood flow. According to a recent study by Kumar <em class="italic">et al.</em> <sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref116"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Kumar, Sundaram and Mu</span>116</a>)</sup>, it is not only the blood concentration of endothelial microvesicles that changes after fat consumption, but also their fat composition. High-fat diet dramatically changes the lipid profile of intestinal epithelial exosomes from predominantly phosphatidylethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine, which results in the inhibition of the insulin response and therefore contributes to insulin resistance<sup class="sup">(<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref116"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Kumar, Sundaram and Mu</span>116</a>)</sup>. The use of microvesicles as biomarkers has not been fully validated yet, but the available results support their high potential.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sec other" data-magellan-destination="s6" id="s6"> <h2 class="A"> Future prospects</h2> <p class="p"> The role of FSM, food emulsions and food structure in postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia still needs to be better understood. Available studies regarding the impact of liposoluble vitamins on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia show promising results, although their interpretation can be complex, either because these studies (i) evaluated foods where other components may be playing a role (e.g. polyphenols or macronutrient profile), (ii) were underpowered, (iii) did not assess the effect of food structure or (iv) were constrained to the use of traditional biomarkers (such as interleukins, cholesterol or TG levels). In addition, little attention is given to the influence of digestion on food structure along the gastric tract, as well as lipid digestion and lipid release on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, which would certainly help in understanding the mechanism behind the observed <em class="italic">in vivo</em> postprandial responses. Studies with a global approach addressing both <em class="italic">in vitro</em> food destructuring and digestion and <em class="italic">in vivo</em> biomarkers are thus needed.</p> <p class="p"> From the available literature, it seems clear that dietary approaches that consider food nutrient profile in the postprandial state are needed to properly control postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. FSM presence in foods appears to have a positive effect in this context. The rise of novel biomarkers such as miRNAs or microvesicles is an opportunity that should also be further explored, as they may bring a better understanding of the metabolic pathways linking foods with hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation.</p> </div> </div> <div class="back"> <div class="sec funding-statement" data-magellan-destination="s8" id="s8"> <h2 class="A"> Financial support</h2> <p class="p"> Ángela Bravo-Núñez’s competitive postdoctoral contract ‘Margarita Salas’ is funded by the Government of Spain (Ministerio de Universidades) and by the European Union (NextGeneration-EU).</p> </div> <div class="sec coi-statement" data-magellan-destination="s9" id="s9"> <h2 class="A"> Competing interests</h2> <p class="p"> Declaration of interests: The authors declare none.</p> </div> <div class="sec other" data-magellan-destination="s10" id="s10"> <h2 class="A"> Authorship</h2> <p class="p"> The authors’ responsibilities were as follows. A.B.N., E.R.: conceptualisation; A.B.N., E.R.: investigation; A.B.N.: formal analysis, data curation; A.B.N., R.V.: original draft preparation; A.B.N., E.R.: had primary responsibility for final content, reviewing and editing; and all authors: read and approved the final manuscript.</p> </div> </div> </div></div>   <hr aria-hidden="true" class="list-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a> <div id="references-list" class="circle-list"><h2>References</h2> <div id="ref1" aria-flowto="reference-1-content reference-1-button" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"><AppButton icon="up-circle" aria-label="Return to the reference 1 in the content" id="reference-1-button" class="circle-list__item__indicator__up"></AppButton></div> <div aria-hidden="true" data-test-hidden="false" class="circle-list__item__number"> [1] </div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div id="reference-1-content" class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><span 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data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 0" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab1.png" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab1.png" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Table 1.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Summary of relevant studies regarding the effect of fat-soluble micronutrients from supplements on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 1" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20241106101633-11817-mediumThumb-png-S0954422424000155_tab2.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20241106101633-25671-optimisedImage-png-S0954422424000155_tab2.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Table 2.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Summary of relevant studies regarding the effect of foods containing fat-soluble micronutrients on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and/or inflammation</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 2" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab3.png" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab3.png" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Table 3.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Relevant human studies regarding the expression of miRNAs related to postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia/inflammation</span></span></p></div> </div></div> </div></div>         <div id="metrics-tab" publication-date="07 November 2024" class="metrics tab-pane" data-v-c41a0c86><div class="app-loader" data-v-c41a0c86></div></div></div></div> </div> <div role="complementary" aria-label="related contents" class="column__main__right" data-v-01274b1d><div class="access-block row access-status" data-v-5fad35b8 data-v-01274b1d><span class="has-access" data-v-5fad35b8><img 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{layout:"default",data:[{article:{id:"CA99D06BCF715ED3071D8CDD4AD87F9D",metadata:{title:_,htmlTitle:_,subtitle:a,authorsGroup:{authors:{contributors:[{givenNames:"Ángela",surname:"Bravo-Núñez",nameStyle:g,affiliations:[{text:$},{text:"University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain"}],isCorresponding:c,notes:a,isAnonymous:c,fullName:"Ángela Bravo-Núñez",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=%C3%81ngela%20Bravo-N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0001-5983-5334"},{givenNames:"René",surname:"Valéro",nameStyle:g,affiliations:[{text:$},{text:"APHM, Department of Nutrition, Metabolic Diseases and Endocrinology, University Hospital La Conception, Marseille, France"}],isCorresponding:c,notes:a,isAnonymous:c,fullName:"René Valéro",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Ren%C3%A9%20Val%C3%A9ro&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0002-2176-3280"},{givenNames:"Emmanuelle",surname:"Reboul",nameStyle:g,affiliations:[{text:$}],isCorresponding:b,notes:"\u003Cdiv class=\"corresp\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E*\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"bold\"\u003ECorresponding author:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Emmanuelle Reboul, email: \u003Ca href=\"mailto:Emmanuelle.Reboul@univ-amu.fr\"\u003EEmmanuelle.Reboul@univ-amu.fr\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",isAnonymous:c,fullName:"Emmanuelle Reboul",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Emmanuelle%20Reboul&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0002-4576-1992"}]},translators:{contributors:[],label:"Translated by"}},collections:[],publishedDate:"07 November 2024",keywords:[{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=carotenoids",name:"carotenoids"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=emulsions",name:"emulsions"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=fat-soluble vitamins",name:"fat-soluble vitamins"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=inflammation",name:"inflammation"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia",name:"postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia"}],openPracticeBadges:[],doi:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1017\u002FS0954422424000155",value:"10.1017\u002FS0954422424000155"},copyright:{statement:["© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Nutrition Society"],holder:["The Author(s)"],year:[2024]},creativeCommons:{descriptions:["This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F4.0\u002F\" target=\"_blank\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F4.0\u002F\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited."],oaLicenseType:"CC-BY",licenses:["CC","BY"]},acceptedManuscript:c,type:"review-article",pageRange:{range:"1 - 14",firstPage:i,lastPage:aa},typeDescription:"Review Article",commentsCount:ab,topicsAndSubtopics:g},journal:{id:aq,title:I,titleSlug:ar,mnemonic:"NRR",titleHistory:[],isFirstView:b,journalSlug:ar,isCompanion:c,parentCompanionJournalName:I,associatedParentCollection:g,paymentInfo:{prices:{"£":{price:26,sku:J,skuNew:G,currency:"£"},"€":{price:31,sku:J,skuNew:G,currency:"€"},US$:{price:36,sku:J,skuNew:G,currency:"US$"},AU$:{price:51,sku:J,skuNew:G,currency:"AU$"}}},url:as,firstViewUrl:at,coverUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fcovers\u002FNRR_0_0_0\u002Fnutrition-research-reviews.jpg",submitMaterialsUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fnutrition-research-reviews\u002Finformation\u002Fauthor-instructions\u002Fsubmitting-your-materials",hasHistory:c,latestTitle:I,latestId:aq,hasPastTitle:c},abstract:{textAbstracts:[{title:"Abstract",content:"\u003Cdiv class=\"abstract\" data-abstract-type=\"normal\"\u003E\u003Cp\u003ELipids play an important role in human nutrition. Although adequate lipid consumption is necessary for an optimal functioning of the human body, overconsumption of saturated fatty acids can lead to postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, which triggers the development of atherosclerosis. Important parameters that impact postprandial lipaemia and inflammation are related to the matrix structure and the fat-soluble micronutrient profile of ingested foods\u002Flipids, but the specific effect of these parameters should be further studied, as most of the available studies evaluate their effect at fasting state. This review specifically explores the effects of food structure and fat-soluble micronutrients, from either micronutrient-rich foods or supplements, on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation. The review also highlights the potential of emerging biomarkers such as miRNAs or circulating microvesicles, as an alternative to the widely use biomarkers (e.g. low-density lipoproteins or blood concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines), to identify inflammation associated with postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia at early stages.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",lang:au}]},content:{html:"\u003Cdiv class=\"article review-article NLM\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"body\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec intro\" data-magellan-destination=\"s1\" id=\"s1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Lipids play an important role in human nutrition. They not only represent a high percentage of our caloric intake but are also a source of essential fatty acids and carriers of fat-soluble micronutrients (FSM) such as liposoluble vitamins and carotenoids. Although adequate lipid consumption is necessary for an optimal functioning of the human body, an overconsumption of saturated fatty acids can lead to postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia (overaccumulation of triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins (TRL) in blood), which triggers the development of atherosclerosis. Indeed, a high TRL level in blood is the major pattern of lipid abnormality in many patients who are treated for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref1\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Libby\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref2\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Nordestgaard\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia has been associated with increases in different biomarkers of metabolic health associated with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, such as oxidation rate of low-density lipoproteins (LDL)\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref3\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Borén, John Chapman and Krauss\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref5\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Matsuura, Hughes and Khamashta\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E or blood concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref6\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Burdge and Calder\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, two groups of biomarkers widely used by the research community. However, emerging biomarkers such as microRNAs (miRNA)\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, circulating microvesicles\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Araujo, Silva and Guerra\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E or changes in gene expression in blood cells associated with miRNA expression\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref9\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Quintanilha, Pinto Ferreira and Ferreira\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E have shown promising results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The food matrices in which lipids are embedded are very diverse and are responsible for the modulation of fatty acid release during digestion, bioavailability and metabolic fate once absorbed\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Michalski, Genot and Gayet\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. However, very little information is available regarding the specific effect of food structure on postprandial lipaemia. The available studies focused mainly on emulsion-based dairy products and have highlighted the impact of lipid emulsion structure on lipid absorption rate and lipid postprandial response\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref11\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dias, Zhu and Thompson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref12\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Tan, Sun and Goh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . Food compounds can also modulate postprandial lipaemia. Hydrosoluble micronutrients such as niacin (vitamin B\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E), minerals (zinc, copper, magnesium, calcium) and phytochemicals such as polyphenols have a positive effect on postprandial lipaemia, as previously reviewed by our research group\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref13\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Desmarchelier, Borel and Lairon\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Other reviews have also highlighted the effect of macro- and micronutrients on postprandial lipaemia\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref14\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Botelho Dias, Moughan and Wood\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref16\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lairon and Defoort\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, but none of them addressed the effect of fat-soluble vitamins and carotenoids. This may be related to the fact that fat-soluble vitamin- and carotenoid-specific effects on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and associated inflammation are still not well understood. The link between nutritional supplementation and fasting hypertriglyceridaemia has been reviewed elsewhere\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref17\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Schiano, Annunziata and Ciampaglia\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, but, to date, no review linking FSM supplementation and postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia is available.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E This review aims to cover this gap and brings up to date the state of the art regarding the effects of: (i) food structure and (ii) FSM, from either micronutrient-rich foods or supplements, on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. We will also discuss the potential of emerging biomarkers (miRNAs, circulating microvesicles) to determine the inflammatory state associated with postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec other\" data-magellan-destination=\"s2\" id=\"s2\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation: where are we now?\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the dominant cause of death in the world\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref18\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Residual cardiovascular risk, which is defined as the risk of cardiovascular events that persists despite achievement of treatment goals for low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), blood pressure and glycaemia is largely associated with atherogenic dyslipidaemia (AD). AD is mainly characterised by fasting and postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia (postprandial hyperlipidaemia), low high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) and increase of small and dense LDL. AD is often present in individuals at high cardiovascular risk such as persons with overweight or obesity, individuals suffering from type 2 diabetes and subjects suffering from metabolic syndrome who frequently share the same insulin-resistant state\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref19\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Aguiar, Alegria and Bonadonna\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref20\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ferrari, Aguiar and Alegria\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . The pathophysiology of AD is widely explained by the blood accumulation of TRL synthesised by the liver (very low-density lipoproteins, VLDL) and the intestine (chylomicrons). This accumulation has been attributed to the overproduction of both VLDL\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref21\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Adiels, Olofsson and Taskinen\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and chylomicrons\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref22\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Duez, Lamarche and Uffelman\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and a defective TRL removal process because of several associated mechanisms: reduction of lipoprotein lipase activity, changes in the apolipoprotein composition of TRL impairing particle clearance, and defect in the hepatic uptake of TRL and their remnants\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref23\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Vergès\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Elevated fasting and postprandial blood TRL concentrations, which are mainly related to the increase in chylomicron and VLDL production, are now considered a causal risk factor for low-grade inflammation, atherosclerotic CVD and all-cause mortality. Indeed, there are extensive epidemiological, genetic and biological data showing that the increase of TRL reflected by the fasting and postprandial blood triacylglycerol (TG) level and\u002For the measurement of remnant cholesterol (remnant cholesterol = total cholesterol − LDL-C − HDL-C) is a causal risk factor for atherosclerosis through direct and indirect mechanisms\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref24\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Nordestgaard\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. TRL and its remnants can promote atherosclerosis via modulating inflammation, oxidative stress and formation of foam cells\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref25\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Zhang, Yin and Qiao\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. In a multi-directional Mendelian randomisation human study, it has been shown that elevated non-fasting remnant cholesterol was causally associated with low-grade inflammation. Indeed, a 1-mmol\u002FL-higher level of non-fasting remnant cholesterol was associated observationally with a 37% higher C-reactive protein (CRP) level and causally with a 28% higher level of ischaemic heart disease\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref26\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Varbo, Benn and Tybjærg-Hansen\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. The potential inflammatory mechanisms for atherogenesis in hypertriglyceridaemia have been described in a recent review\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref27\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Peng and Wu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. In summary, circulating monocytes can take up TRL and their remnants and possibly non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) to become foamy monocytes with an inflammatory phenotype (high level expression of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and type I transmembrane protein CD11c). Foamy monocytes adhere firmly to vascular cell adhesion molecule 1(VCAM-1)\u002Fintercellular adhesion molecule 1(ICAM-1) expressed on activated endothelial cells and infiltrate into plaques, where foamy monocytes differentiate into foam macrophages, thereby contributing to atherosclerosis. Foamy monocytes can also possibly infiltrate other tissues and may therefore play a pivotal role in the development of inflammation in other tissues. TRL remnants and NEFA can also enter arterial walls directly, be engulfed by lesional macrophages and increase macrophage lipid accumulation, promoting foam macrophage formation and contributing to atherogenesis. Macrophages including foam macrophages secrete cytokines, which, along with those derived from foamy monocytes, can further increase inflammation in macrophages and other cells in plaques and promote atherosclerosis progression. TRL, their remnants and NEFA can interact with endothelial cells and induce endothelial cell inflammation and activation, with up-regulation of cytokines and adhesion molecules such as ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, which mediate monocyte adhesion and recruitment into atherosclerotic plaques. Finally, TRL remnants and NEFA also impair the balance of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in endothelial cells, leading to endothelial dysfunction.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Given the damaging consequences of postprandial hyperlipaemia, mitigating nutritional strategies should be implemented in patients in addition to their usual medical treatment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec other\" data-magellan-destination=\"s3\" id=\"s3\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Effect of food structure and composition on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia can be modulated by many factors, such as structure and composition of the meal\u002Ffood consumed, lifestyle factors or biological factors\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref14\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Botelho Dias, Moughan and Wood\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. The effect of food matrix on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, which can be defined as the nutrient and non-nutrient components of foods and their molecular relationships, is still not very well characterised\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref13\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Desmarchelier, Borel and Lairon\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref28\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Acevedo-Fani and Singh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . More particularly, food structure, that is, the organisation of food constituents, can be innate or built during food manufacturing. Food matrix\u002Fstructure can impact food destructuring during digestion and, therefore, the release and transformation of macro- and micronutrients\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref29\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Shahidi and Pan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref30\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Golding and Wooster\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E , which affects their \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E absorption\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref31\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Margier, Antoine and Siriaco\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. This part of the review thus summarises the latest insights on the relationships between food structure built during food manufacturing and postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s3-1\" id=\"s3-1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Effect of food structure with a focus on fat distribution\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The first study that assessed the impact of food structure on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia was that of Drouin-Chartier \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref32\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Drouin-Chartier, Tremblay and Maltais-Giguère\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. The authors showed that dairy fat from a soft cream cheese induced a higher TG response in the early postprandial phase compared with butter or with firm cheddar cheese. However, the measured absolute TG response for the intervention period (6 h) was similar for all products. Although the authors did not measure fat droplet size in their products, they suggested that TG could increase faster with the soft cream owing to the smaller fat droplet size of this product compared with butter or cheddar. However, this may not be the only reason, as discussed later. Hansson \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref33\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hansson, Holven and Øyri\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E then reported different TG responses of four different dairy meals (butter, cheese, whipped cream and sour cream) containing the same fat content. The authors reported that the intake of sour cream induced a significantly higher serum TG response than all the other dairy meals. Like Drouin-Chartier \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E,\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref32\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Drouin-Chartier, Tremblay and Maltais-Giguère\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, the authors attributed these differences to fat droplet sizes without reporting the related values. A limiting factor in this second study was that the different products were given with toast, which probably influenced the TG postprandial response. In both studies, the results could partially be influenced by food consistency (liquid, semi-liquid or solid), as it seems that liquid foods trigger higher TG response of foods with similar composition\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref11\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dias, Zhu and Thompson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Food structure, which also encompasses food consistency, affects gastric emptying\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref34\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Goyal, Guo and Mashimo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and kinetics of lipid digestion, as proven by several \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fem\u003E studies\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref35\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mulet-Cabero, Rigby and Brodkorb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref36\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Salt, Mandalari and Parker\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . However, these \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fem\u003E data sometimes conflict with the conclusion of \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E studies. For example, Mulet-Cabero \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref35\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mulet-Cabero, Rigby and Brodkorb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E suggested that lipid digestion occurs faster for semi-solid foods than for liquid foods, because of a predicted faster gastric emptying of lipids. These data disagree with the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E TG responses to solid and liquid dairy matrices reported by Drouin-Chartier\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref32\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Drouin-Chartier, Tremblay and Maltais-Giguère\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, Hansson \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref33\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hansson, Holven and Øyri\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and Diaz \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref11\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dias, Zhu and Thompson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. The comparison and validation of gastric behaviour of such \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E studies is difficult because the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E studies scarcely address the structural changes of food in the stomach and the composition of each gastric emptying. However, Kjølbæk \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref37\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Kjølbæk, Schmidt and Rouy\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E showed a higher TG response for a gel-based casein product than for a casein drink, supporting the hypothesis of Mulet-Cabero\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref35\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mulet-Cabero, Rigby and Brodkorb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Kjølbæk \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref37\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Kjølbæk, Schmidt and Rouy\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E suggested that these results could be due to the structure of each product, as the only difference between the two products was that the gel-based product was the result of the acid gelation of the drink. Differences in TG response could also be linked to the fact that casein loses its micellar structure at acid pH, which could affect the lipid digestion rate. However, in the same study, Kjølbæk \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref37\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Kjølbæk, Schmidt and Rouy\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported a similar TG response of two cheddar cheeses with the same nutritional profile but different structures (one solid, one semi-solid), in disagreement with the hypothesis of Mulet-Cabero\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref35\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mulet-Cabero, Rigby and Brodkorb\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. It seems that not only macrostructure of foods but also the fine structure of ingredients can affect the postprandial triglyceridaemia response via different digestion rates of lipids. This was illustrated recently in a study that showed a strong influence of the amylose content of starches on lipid digestion of starch-based gels: the higher the amylose content, the higher the lipid digestion per gram of oil\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref38\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Qazi, Ye and Acevedo-Fani\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Other \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fem\u003E studies have suggested that food processing can also affect lipid digestion\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref39\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Cauty and Guyomarc’h\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref41\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Qazi, Ye and Acevedo-Fani\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E via structural modification of macro- and micronutrients and, therefore, potential TG response, although validation with \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E models is needed before health\u002Fnutrition-related conclusions can be made, as results may differ\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref42\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Berton-Carabin and Schroën\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. More recently, Gleize \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E conducted a study on twelve healthy subjects who received four starchy foods with similar compositions but different structures (custard, pudding, sponge cake and biscuit)\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Results showed that custard TG response was significantly higher than pudding and biscuit TG responses. This could be linked to the lipid droplet size\u002Fstructure of the products: biscuits displayed big fat “flakes” (18 000 μm) while custard was composed of very small droplets (30 μm)\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Overall, the available studies suggest that solid food structure limits the TG response, perhaps because solid food structure may modify the accessibility of the lipid droplets to enzymes. Results of Salt \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref36\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Salt, Mandalari and Parker\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, who addressed both \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fem\u003E lipid digestion of muffins and free oil, support this conclusion. Gleize \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E also showed that, despite TG postprandial concentrations being different for the four tested products, plasma TG peaked at 3 h for all products. This suggests that, although the food matrix could impact the accessibility of lipids to enzymes, it neither delayed fatty acid absorption by enterocytes nor their secretion into chylomicrons.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E As mentioned above, it is widely accepted that the TG postprandial response is influenced not only by the type\u002Famount of fat but also by droplet size distribution\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref28\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Acevedo-Fani and Singh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, which is known to change during the digestion process\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref44\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Armand, Borel and Pasquier\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and impact lipid digestion, as reviewed elsewhere\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref30\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Golding and Wooster\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref45\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Singh, Ye and Horne\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . However, information regarding the specific effect of droplet size on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia is still scarce. Vors \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref46\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Vors, Pineau and Gabert\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E evaluated the effect of droplet size of milk and reported higher postprandial chylomicrons, apolipoprotein B-48 and TG concentrations with smaller droplet sizes. However, emulsions were administered together with other food matrices, entangling the extrapolation of the results to droplet size effect only. Similar observations with the same limitations were reported by Tan \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref12\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Tan, Sun and Goh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, Laugerette \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref47\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Laugerette, Vors and Géloën\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and Garaiova \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref48\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Garaiova, Guschina and Plummer\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. In a recent study, Howard \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref49\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Howard, Attenbourgh and O’Mahoney\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E tried to overcome this gap by evaluating the effect of two standardised emulsified high-fat meals only differing in fat droplet size on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. No other food was given together with the emulsions. They reported a droplet-size-dependent increase of TG concentrations over time, with the increase being more important with fine emulsions than with coarse emulsions. This was in agreement with the observations of the above-mentioned studies that administered emulsions with other foods\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref12\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Tan, Sun and Goh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref32\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Drouin-Chartier, Tremblay and Maltais-Giguère\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref46\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Vors, Pineau and Gabert\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref48\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Garaiova, Guschina and Plummer\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . Howard \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref49\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Howard, Attenbourgh and O’Mahoney\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E showed that a high-fat meal with a smaller lipid droplet size induces a sustained pro-vascular inflammatory and pro-thrombotic milieu, whereas a large lipid droplet size attenuates the rise in vascular inflammatory and thrombotic parameters similarly to a meal with negligible fat content. As this is the first human study evaluating the isolated effect of fat droplet size on vascular inflammation, the results should be considered carefully. Another study showed that emulsion droplet size affected gastrointestinal hormone release and that evenly dispersed, stable, small-emulsion droplets within the stomach lead to prolonged gastric distension and accelerated fat sensing. This prolonged feelings of satiation, which can be seen as something beneficial\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref50\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Steingoetter, Buetikofer and Curcic\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E There may be situations where having a small lipid droplet size to provide a fast delivery of lipids\u002FFSM to the body may be beneficial to health, in case of specific supplementations for subgroups of the population such as elderly. Based on the protective effect of FSM, and considering that emulsions with small droplet sizes enhance FSM bioaccessibility\u002Fbioavailability\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Gleize, Hiolle and Meunier\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Tan and McClements\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E , FSM may help to tackle the potential negative effect of fine emulsions on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia (see below).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s3-2\" id=\"s3-2\"\u003E\n\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Effects of emulsifiers\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Polysorbates and carboxymethylcelluloses, two emulsifiers commonly used by the food industry and research community, were shown to have a detrimental effect on health\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref52\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bancil, Sandall and Rossi\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref54\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Viennois and Chassaing\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, although their effect on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia has not yet been deeply considered. In an \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E study in rats, Nassara \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref55\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Nassra, Bourgeois and Subirade\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E compared the effect of water-in-oil emulsions on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. The different emulsions presented similar droplet sizes (9–10 µm) but were stabilised either with synthetic emulsifiers (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, also known as Tween80, or sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate) or protein-based emulsifiers (sodium caseinate or β-lactoglobulin). The authors concluded that the use of proteins to emulsify lipids has the potential to decrease lipid postprandial response compared with synthetic emulsifiers. The effect of casein and whey proteins – two protein-based emulsifiers – on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia has also been evaluated by Mariotti \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref56\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mariotti, Valette and Lopez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. The authors concluded that the type of milk protein did not affect postprandial plasma glucose, amino acids, insulin or NEFA, but reported that caseins markedly reduced postprandial TG and plasma chylomicrons. No significant differences between the meals regarding postprandial oxidative stress, endothelial function or low-grade inflammation were found. In a different study, Keogh \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref57\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Keogh, Wooster and Golding\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E evaluated the effect of emulsions stabilised with egg lecithin, sodium sterol lactylate, sodium caseinate\u002Fmonoglyceride and Tween80 on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. The interpretation of their results is difficult, as the authors did not report emulsion droplet size and, therefore, it is unclear if reported differences between emulsions are related to droplet size or to the used emulsifier. Authors reported \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fem\u003E fatty acid release rate, and emulsions with the highest digestibility rate were not always the emulsions with the greatest impact on TG postprandial concentrations\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref57\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Keogh, Wooster and Golding\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. This suggests that both droplet size and emulsifiers are important parameters to take into consideration when evaluating the impact of food emulsions on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec other\" data-magellan-destination=\"s4\" id=\"s4\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Effects of FSM on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The specific effects of each FSM on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia are challenging to address, as FSM are generally not consumed individually. Moreover, the use of individual FSM is somehow controversial and not common in research, because it ignores the potential interactions between nutrients within the food matrix. This matrix effect is widely acknowledged for FSM bioavailability, something out of the scope of this review but reviewed elsewhere (e.g. Chungchunlam and Moughan\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref58\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Chungchunlam and Moughan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and Dima \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref59\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dima, Assadpour and Dima\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E). In this section, we cover the effects that different FSM can have on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation when ingested in food matrices or supplements, acknowledging that the food matrix itself and its effect on lipid digestion can affect postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. The available literature is focused on foods rich in FSM from plant-based sources. In the future, the research community should also address the impact of foods rich in FSM from animal sources on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s4-1\" id=\"s4-1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Effects of FSM-rich foods\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E A meta-analysis encompassing the effect of a wide range of foods\u002Ffood components (sugars, fibre-rich foods, alcohol, fats, proteins, alcohol and more), some of them containing FSM, on postprandial TG response can be found in the literature\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref60\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lee, Low and Chen\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, although the specific effect of FSM was not assessed. Some studies indicate a relationship between FSM and TG postprandial response. Available information is summarised in Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl1\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. For instance, Gomez-Marin \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref65\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Gomez-Marin, Gomez-Delgado and Lopez-Moreno\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E showed that long-term consumption of a Mediterranean diet, known to be rich in FSM, improves to a greater extent the postprandial TG levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes than just following a low-fat diet. Here, we addressed the linkage between FSM-rich foods, notably tomato meals\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref66\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Arranz, Martínez-Huélamo and Vallverdu-Queralt\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref67\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Burton-Freeman, Talbot and Park\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E , legumes\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref68\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bourdon, Olson and Backus\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref72\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Tan, Siow and Peh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, nuts\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref73\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Berry, Tydeman and Lewis\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E73\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref79\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Salas-Salvadó, Guasch-Ferré and Bulló\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, orange juice\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref74\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Berryman, Grieger and West\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref80\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Cerletti, Gianfagna and Tamburrelli\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E80\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref83\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Sahar, Ur Rahman and Ishaq\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E or certain diets\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref65\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Gomez-Marin, Gomez-Delgado and Lopez-Moreno\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref84\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Muñoz-Perez, Gonzalez-Correa and Astudillo-Muñoz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E (Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl2\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" data-magellan-destination=\"tbl1\" id=\"tbl1\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Summary of relevant studies regarding the effect of fat-soluble micronutrients from supplements on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cspan\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab1.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1394\" height=\"454\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab1.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s4-1-1\" id=\"s4-1-1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Effects of tomato products\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Tomatoes are particularly rich in carotenoids (mainly lycopene, but also β-carotene and lutein) and contain a significant amount of vitamin E\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref85\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Abushita, Hebshi and Daood\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E85\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref86\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference García-Closas, Berenguer and Tormo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E86\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E .\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E A study by Burton-Freeman \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref67\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Burton-Freeman, Talbot and Park\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported that a high-fat meal containing tomato paste significantly attenuated LDL oxidation and interleukin 6 (IL-6), showing a decrease in inflammation, although total postprandial TG concentrations were increased compared with a high-fat meal with equivalent calories and macronutrient content. Arranz \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref66\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Arranz, Martínez-Huélamo and Vallverdu-Queralt\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, who assessed the effect of tomato juice on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, reported a beneficial effect of tomato on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. These authors showed that consumption of tomato juice together with olive oil increased the carotenoid levels in blood (mainly β-carotene and lycopene) and reduced the concentration of commonly used postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia biomarkers, such as TG, total cholesterol and LDL- or HDL-cholesterol concentrations. In fact, two meta-analyses\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref87\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Cheng, Koutsidis and Lodge\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E87\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref88\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Wang, Li and Zhao\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E have reported that tomato supplementation has significant beneficial effects on IL-6, blood lipids, blood pressure, endothelial function and short-term changes in CRP levels, although it is not clear when the authors of these two meta-analyses refer to values at fasting or postprandial state.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s4-1-2\" id=\"s4-1-2\"\u003E\n\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Effects of legumes\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The results of Nilsson \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref69\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Nilsson, Johansson and Ekström\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E suggested that consumption of 101 g (weight before cooking) of legumes (beans) as a starter for dinner can regulate the inflammation response of the first meal during the following day in comparison with the consumption of 89 g of white bread. Indeed, they reported a significant decrease in IL-6 and interleukin 18 (IL-18), as well as in blood glucose and insulin at postprandial state (between 30 and 180 or 30 and 120 min for glucose and insulin, respectively). Although the FSM content of the legumes used in this study was not addressed, it is known that beans do contain FSM (e.g. α-, β- and γ-tocopherols: 4–17 mg\u002F100 g\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref89\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Campos-Vega, Loarca-Piña and Oomah\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E89\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref90\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ryan, Galvin and O’Connor\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E ). We hypothesise that not only fibre but also FSM could play a role in regulating this inflammation response. Other studies did not report a significant decrease in commonly used biomarkers, such as interleukins or TG\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref68\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bourdon, Olson and Backus\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref71\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Reverri, Randolph and Steinberg\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E71\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref72\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Tan, Siow and Peh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E , or reported a decrease only for certain bean varieties\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref70\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Olmedilla-Alonso, Pedrosa and Cuadrado\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E70\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. However, studies with a lack of decrease in hypertriglyceridaemia biomarkers did show a protective effect against postprandial metabolic stress (decrease of postprandial insulin\u002Fenhanced cholecystokinin response associated with reductions of plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in diabetic patients) (see Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl2\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for detailed information)\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref68\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bourdon, Olson and Backus\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref70\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Olmedilla-Alonso, Pedrosa and Cuadrado\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E70\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref72\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Tan, Siow and Peh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . As previously stated, legume effects can largely be attributed to their high content in fibre, and the beneficial effect of FSM from legumes is a hypothesis that should be validated. However, Reverri \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref71\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Reverri, Randolph and Steinberg\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E71\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E showed that, compared with fibre-matched or micronutrient-matched meals, the bean meals were more efficient in modulating insulin response, likely highlighting a synergic effect between fibre and micronutrients, supporting our hypothesis.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" data-magellan-destination=\"tbl2\" id=\"tbl2\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003ETable 2.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Summary of relevant studies regarding the effect of foods containing fat-soluble micronutrients on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cspan\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab2.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1394\" height=\"1747\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab2.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap-foot\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"fn-group footnotes\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"fn\" data-magellan-destination=\"t2fn2\" id=\"t2fn2\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E*\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Although FSM content was not reported, legumes are known to contain vitamin E (α-, β- and γ-tocopherols: 4–17 mg\u002F100 g dry weight\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref89\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Campos-Vega, Loarca-Piña and Oomah\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E89\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref90\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ryan, Galvin and O’Connor\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E ).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"fn\" data-magellan-destination=\"t2fn3\" id=\"t2fn3\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E†\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Although FSM content was not reported, walnuts are known to contain vitamin E and carotenoids (vitamin E: 43 mg\u002F100 g dry weight, carotene: 0.03 mg\u002F100 g dry weight\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref117\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ni, Zhang and Chen\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E117\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"fn\" data-magellan-destination=\"t2fn4\" id=\"t2fn4\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003E‡\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Although FSM content was not reported, almonds are known to contain vitamin E (mainly α-tocopherol: 20–80 mg\u002F100 g dry weight\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref92\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Barreca, Nabavi and Sureda\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref93\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yada, Lapsley and Huang\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E93\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E ). All values are for orientation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E It is important to note that observations of these studies cannot be attributed only to the effect of fat-soluble micronutrients, as these foods\u002Fmeals contain other compounds with a potential beneficial effect on the measured biomarkers (e.g. fibre).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s4-1-3\" id=\"s4-1-3\"\u003E\n\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Effects of nuts\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Beneficial effects of walnuts at postprandial state have been reported by several authors\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref74\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Berryman, Grieger and West\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref75\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Cortés, Núñez and Cofán\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E75\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref77\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Haddad, Gaban-Chong and Oda\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref78\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ros, Núñez and Pérez-Heras\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E78\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . This may be partly due to the presence of vitamin E in nuts. Ros \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref78\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ros, Núñez and Pérez-Heras\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E78\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported that replacing monounsaturated fat with walnuts in a Mediterranean diet improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in subjects with hypercholesterolaemia. In agreement with these results, Cortés \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref75\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Cortés, Núñez and Cofán\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E75\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E showed that walnuts reversed the impairment of endothelial function associated with the consumption of a high-fat meal. In a later study, Berryman \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref74\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Berryman, Grieger and West\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E evaluated the isolated effect of walnuts and walnuts components (meat, skin and oil) on postprandial lipaemia. They observed lower postprandial triglyceridaemia for walnut meat and skin than for whole walnut or oil. Since authors did not use a control (e.g. control oil), they could only conclude that certain parts of walnuts have a positive effect on postprandial lipaemia, but when comparing the results of Berryman \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref74\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Berryman, Grieger and West\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E with those of other studies, it seems that, if they had included a control, they would have also observed an improvement with whole walnut and walnut oil. Haddad \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref77\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Haddad, Gaban-Chong and Oda\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported a reduction of oxidised LDL at the postprandial state when comparing a walnut meal against a control meal that contained refined oil.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Beneficial effects of other nuts on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia have also been reported. For example, Berry \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref73\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Berry, Tydeman and Lewis\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E73\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported that the postprandial increase in plasma TG was significantly lower after a meal containing whole almond particles than after a meal containing defatted almond flour + almond oil or sunflower oil. The authors linked their observations to the different bioaccessibility of lipids in their almond samples (regulated by the structure and its digestion). In an \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fem\u003E study, the effect of almond structure on lipid digestion has been demonstrated: authors showed a higher lipid release for smaller particles than for larger particles of almonds, due to the greater proportion of disrupted cells\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref91\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Grundy, Wilde and Butterworth\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E91\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. The differences observed by Berry \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref73\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Berry, Tydeman and Lewis\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E73\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E among samples may also be influenced by the vitamin E content of the almond meals. We hypothesise this because, although not significant, postprandial increase in plasma TG seems to be mitigated when comparing the meals containing defatted almond flour + almond oil with the one containing sunflower oil. This suggests a protective effect of vitamin E, as reported elsewhere\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref92\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Barreca, Nabavi and Sureda\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref93\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yada, Lapsley and Huang\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E93\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . The protective effect of hazelnuts in combination with a high-fat diet has also been reported by Di Renzo \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref76\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Di Renzo, Merra and Botta\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. These authors observed a decreased low-density lipoprotein oxidation after a high-fat meal when this meal included hazelnuts.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s4-1-4\" id=\"s4-1-4\"\u003E\n\u003Ch4 class=\"C\"\u003E Effects of orange juice\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The beneficial effects of orange juice on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia were first suggested by Cerletti \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref80\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Cerletti, Gianfagna and Tamburrelli\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E80\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. These authors observed a significant decrease in TG concentration after a test meal just by changing water from control meal for red orange juice, with TG decrease being not significant for blond orange juice. Another study suggested that the consumption of orange juice helps to reduce the increase of the inflammatory cytokine interleukin 17A (IL-17A) after a high-fat meal high in saturated fatty acids, but not for other tested cytokines\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref82\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Rocha, Lopes and Da Silva\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E82\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. A recent study compared orange juice with fermented orange juice and concluded that fermented orange juice has also a beneficial effect on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref81\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Escudero-López, Cerrillo and Ortega\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, although no control was included in the study, limiting the extrapolation of their results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s4-6\" id=\"s4-6\"\u003E\n\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Effect of supplements\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Extensive evidence has demonstrated that antioxidants such as vitamin E or carotenoids (but also vitamin C and polyphenols) have protective effects in preventing cardiovascular diseases\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref94\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Wang, Chun and Song\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E94\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Some authors have reported specific beneficial effects of FSM (Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl1\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and foods\u002Fmeals containing FSM (Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl2\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) during the postprandial state. For example, a study by Deplanque \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref61\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Deplanque, Muscente-Paque and Chappuis\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E in a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled study, with 146 healthy normal-weight subjects reported that consumption of a mix of phytonutrients for a period of 2 weeks (a mixture of lycopene and phytosterols: 15 mg of each), phytoene and phytofluene (4 mg total) and β-carotene (0·5 mg)) was enough to increase plasma levels of lycopene, phytofluene and phytoene after a high-fat meal (postprandial state, 8 h after food intake) and decreased oxidised LDL concentration in comparison with the control group. These authors did not observe significant differences in glucose, insulin and TG levels during the postprandial state (8 h after food intake, except for insulin that was measured 2 h after food intake), although values were lower for the supplemented group.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Some information about the effect of vitamin E in postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia can also be found in the literature. Bae \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref62\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bae, Schwemmer and Lee\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported that vitamin E supplementation of a high-fat meal did not reduce serum TG concentration, although they observed protective effects of vitamin E on endothelial function when measuring brachial artery vasodilation during the postprandial period (changed from 13·3% to 6·6% (\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fem\u003E ≤ 0·05), 7·1% (\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fem\u003E ≤ 0·05) or 13·2% at 2, 4 or 6 h after eating a high-fat meal). In later studies, Neri \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref63\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Neri, Calvagno and Mauceri\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and Hejazi \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref64\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hejazi, Dabbaghmanesh and Mazloom\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported that serum TG profile at postprandial state was not significantly modified after vitamin E supplementation; even though Neri \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref63\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Neri, Calvagno and Mauceri\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E supplementation also contained vitamin C. However, Hejazi \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref64\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hejazi, Dabbaghmanesh and Mazloom\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E observed a decrease in malondialdehyde levels (a lipid peroxidation marker) in the postprandial state (2 h after food intake) in comparison with the placebo group. Neri \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref63\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Neri, Calvagno and Mauceri\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E also reported that, even though no effect on lipid profile was found, vitamin E treatment in healthy subjects and subjects with impaired glucose tolerance induced a significant postprandial improvement in redox balance parameters, serum CRP and VCAM-1 levels. No other study focusing on the effect of single FSM is available.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Overall, published data suggest that the presence of FSM in foods tends to decrease postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation. However, available studies are still limited and therefore should be considered carefully. More research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms underlying FSM effects in this context.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec other\" data-magellan-destination=\"s5\" id=\"s5\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Novel biomarkers to determine the effect of liposoluble vitamins on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation can be assessed by measuring different biomarkers, the most popular ones being TG and cholesterol levels, oxidised LDL, CRP and cytokines, as shown by the previous studies cited in this literature review. However, it is important to identify and study the potential of novel biomarkers, as the above-mentioned traditional biomarkers have shown limitations in identifying inflammation at early stages\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref95\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Toriola, Cheng and Neuhouser\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E95\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref96\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Sakurai and Saruta\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E96\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . In this part of the review, we focus on the potential of miRNAs and circulating microvesicles as emerging biomarkers for postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s5-1\" id=\"s5-1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E miRNAs\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E miRNAs are a class of gene expression regulators\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref97\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Catalanotto, Cogoni and Zardo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E97\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E that can potentially be interesting biomarkers to evaluate postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia after a high-fat meal. Indeed, monocytes can interact with postprandial TRL before they migrate to the endothelium\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref27\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Peng and Wu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref98\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Varela, Ortega and Bermudez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E98\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E , affecting the transcription of genes involved in lipid homoeostasis and inflammation. Measurement of miRNAs can be used for early detection of asymptomatic and symptomatic diseases\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref99\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Navickas, Gal and Laucevičius\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E99\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E\n\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref100\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Karkeni, Bonnet and Marcotorchino\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E,100\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, including cardiovascular ones. Certain miRNAs likely modulate cholesterol efflux and reverse cholesterol transport in mammals, as reviewed by Dávalos and Fernández-Hernando\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref101\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dávalos and Fernández-Hernando\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E101\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. In a study in rainbow trout, Zhu \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref102\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Zhu, Corraze and Plagnes-Juan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E evaluated the different expression of miRNAs known to be involved in cholesterol metabolism when feeding the animals with either a vegetable- or marine-based diet, to address whether miRNAs can be used as biomarkers to determine postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. These authors reported that a plant-based diet significantly reduced the expression of miR-223, probably a consequence of the absence of dietary cholesterol, in agreement with data obtained in mice\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref103\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Vickers, Landstreet and Levin\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E103\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E or in humans\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref104\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Talbot, Mensink and Smolders\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E104\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. However, authors also observed discrepancies for other miRNAs, suggesting that there is a limitation regarding the extrapolation of results between different species\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref102\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Zhu, Corraze and Plagnes-Juan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The potential use of miRNAs as a biomarker to determine hypertriglyceridaemia\u002Finflammation has been suggested by several studies\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref105\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ortega, Cardona-Alvarado and Mercader\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E , with different focuses on how to use miRNAs as biomarkers. miRNAs can potentially be used to evaluate differences between healthy and metabolically disturbed\u002Fintervened individuals at a fasting state (lipaemia)\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref105\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ortega, Cardona-Alvarado and Mercader\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref106\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ortega, Mercader and Catalán\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E106\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E or to evaluate the differences in the same individuals but at a different state (fasting versus postprandial state)\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref9\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Quintanilha, Pinto Ferreira and Ferreira\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref107\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Daimiel, Micó and Valls\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref108\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mantilla-Escalante, de las Hazas and Gil-Zamorano\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl3\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E summarises the main results of these studies. The circulating miRNA profile of adults with obesity performed by Ortega \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref106\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ortega, Mercader and Catalán\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E106\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E suggested that the miRNA profile in plasma was different when comparing obese with non-obese subjects at fasting state. According to these results\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E\n\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref106\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ortega, Mercader and Catalán\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, patients with morbid obesity showed a significant increase in the levels of the miRNAs miR-140-5p, miR-142-3p and miR-222 and a significant decrease in the levels of miR-532-5p, miR-125b, miR-130b, miR-221, miR-15a, miR-423-5p and miR-520c-3p, compared with healthy individuals at fasting state. In a later study by the same research group\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref105\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ortega, Cardona-Alvarado and Mercader\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, a comparison of miRNA levels of sedentary individuals before and after 8 weeks of a normocaloric diet enriched with 30 g of nuts was performed. As in their previous study, \u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E\n\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref105\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ortega, Cardona-Alvarado and Mercader\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fsup\u003Eauthors observed differences between miRNA profiles before and after the diet intervention. Interestingly, they reported a decrease in mi-R221, which is somehow contradictory with the results of their previous study (mi-R221 concentration being lower in obese than in healthy individuals), which highlights the different regulation of this miRNA in plasma in healthy versus obese\u002Fmetabolically compromised subjects.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" data-magellan-destination=\"tbl3\" id=\"tbl3\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003ETable 3.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Relevant human studies regarding the expression of miRNAs related to postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia\u002Finflammation\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cspan\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab3.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1394\" height=\"660\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab3.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E also evaluated differential miRNA expression between fasting and postprandial states (2 h after food consumption) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of healthy humans. Compared with miRNA expression signature at fast (and when following the inclusion criteria of >1·2-fold under- or overexpression and statistical difference (\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fem\u003E < 0·05)), the authors reported nine down-regulated and nine up-regulated miRNAs in the postprandial state (Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl3\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). miRNAs hsa-miR-223-3p and hsa-miR-223-5p – the above-mentioned miRNAs involved in cholesterol metabolism in different animal models\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref102\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Zhu, Corraze and Plagnes-Juan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref104\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Talbot, Mensink and Smolders\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E104\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E – were also detected in this study (see Table \u003Ca class=\"uri\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1017\u002FS0954422424000155\"\u003ES1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E of Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) but did not meet the criteria to be selected as overexpressed miRNAs. In a later study, Mantilla-Escalante \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref108\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mantilla-Escalante, de las Hazas and Gil-Zamorano\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E evaluated the whole mouse miRNome and tried to establish a relationship between the expression of mouse and human miRNAs in the postprandial state. Not all the selected miRNAs from the mouse model (Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl3\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) showed the same trend in human subjects, but some of these miRNAs (hsa-miR 206, hsa-miR 409-3p and hsa-miR 27b-5p) were up-regulated both in mice and in humans. Interestingly, Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E also reported an increase of hsa-miR 206 and hsa-miR 27b-5p in the postprandial state, although the increase was not sufficient to meet their inclusion criteria. Contrary to the results of Mantilla-Escalante \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref108\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mantilla-Escalante, de las Hazas and Gil-Zamorano\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E found a lower expression of mRNAs hsa-miR 409-3p in the postprandial state. Regarding the other miRNAs selected by Mantilla-Escalante \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref108\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Mantilla-Escalante, de las Hazas and Gil-Zamorano\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported lower levels of hsa-miR-10a-3p and hsa-miR-340-3p, and higher levels of hsa-miR-543 and hsa-miR-125a-3p when comparing fasting with postprandial state, although, again, the difference remained insufficient to meet their inclusion criteria. More recently, Quintanilha \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref9\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Quintanilha, Pinto Ferreira and Ferreira\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E studied the effect of high-fat high-saturated meal ingestion on plasma miRNA expression during the postprandial period in healthy women (Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl3\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). When comparing their results with the results of Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, we observed a shared trend between results (only hsa-miR 200c-3p and hsa-miR 92b-3p showed different tendencies), although in the study of Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (2018) none of the miRNAs identified by Quintanilha \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref9\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Quintanilha, Pinto Ferreira and Ferreira\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E meet the inclusion criteria, which could be influenced by the sex difference between studies. Finally, Daimiel \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref107\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Daimiel, Micó and Valls\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E evaluated the effect of olive oil consumption on miRNAs during postprandial state, focusing on fifty-three cardiovascular-related miRNAs. They found that, regardless the polyphenol level in the olive oil, has-let-7e-5p was down-regulated in the postprandial period (Table \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tbl3\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), in agreement with the trend presented by Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Conversely, observations for miR-328a-3p were contradictory, as it was decreased in one study\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref107\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Daimiel, Micó and Valls\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E and increased in another\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Moreover, Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E observed almost no differences between fasting and postprandial state for miR-20a-5p.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E These differences between studies highlight the need for more and larger human \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E studies to be able to define a reliable range of miRNA biomarkers suitable to assess human postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. One of the limitations of the available studies is that they tend to focus (or only show the results) on certain miRNAs instead of reporting the whole miRNA human profile, which restricts the comparison with the results of other studies, unless compared studies evaluate the same miRNAs. Only Lopez \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lopez, Bermudez and Montserrat-de la Paz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported all miRNAs. Since the expression pattern of miRNAs regulates gene expression and, in some cases, can be associated with different human pathologies, the identification of problematic miRNAs can be of great use for the research community both to try to regulate their expression and to explore their use as relevant biomarkers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"s5-2\" id=\"s5-2\"\u003E\n\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Circulating microvesicles\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Endothelial microvesicles can be released into the blood stream from the endothelium as a response to activation, injury or apoptosis of endothelial cells\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref109\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dignat-George and Boulanger\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E109\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Associations between high levels of these microvesicles, endothelial dysfunction and obesity have been reported\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref110\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Esposito, Ciotola and Schisano\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E110\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref112\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Helal, Defoort and Robert\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E112\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. Their potential use as biomarkers to determine the effect of fat consumption in the postprandial state, both in healthy and in non-healthy individuals, has been already evaluated by some studies\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Araujo, Silva and Guerra\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref113\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bulut, Jelich and Dacanay-Schwarz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E113\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E that reported a significant increase after fat consumption. However, the levels of microvesicles seem to be also affected by blood flow\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref114\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Jenkins, Padilla and Boyle\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E114\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref115\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Silva, Sales and Araujo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E115\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E . This could affect the interpretation of the results, although Araujo \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Araujo, Silva and Guerra\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E showed that the circulation of endothelial microvesicles increases in a similar way in individuals with postprandial lipaemia and those with postprandial lipaemia plus disturbed blood flow. According to a recent study by Kumar \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\n\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref116\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Kumar, Sundaram and Mu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E116\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, it is not only the blood concentration of endothelial microvesicles that changes after fat consumption, but also their fat composition. High-fat diet dramatically changes the lipid profile of intestinal epithelial exosomes from predominantly phosphatidylethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine, which results in the inhibition of the insulin response and therefore contributes to insulin resistance\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E(\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref116\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Kumar, Sundaram and Mu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E116\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. The use of microvesicles as biomarkers has not been fully validated yet, but the available results support their high potential.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec other\" data-magellan-destination=\"s6\" id=\"s6\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Future prospects\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The role of FSM, food emulsions and food structure in postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia still needs to be better understood. Available studies regarding the impact of liposoluble vitamins on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia show promising results, although their interpretation can be complex, either because these studies (i) evaluated foods where other components may be playing a role (e.g. polyphenols or macronutrient profile), (ii) were underpowered, (iii) did not assess the effect of food structure or (iv) were constrained to the use of traditional biomarkers (such as interleukins, cholesterol or TG levels). In addition, little attention is given to the influence of digestion on food structure along the gastric tract, as well as lipid digestion and lipid release on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia, which would certainly help in understanding the mechanism behind the observed \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E postprandial responses. Studies with a global approach addressing both \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fem\u003E food destructuring and digestion and \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fem\u003E biomarkers are thus needed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E From the available literature, it seems clear that dietary approaches that consider food nutrient profile in the postprandial state are needed to properly control postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia. FSM presence in foods appears to have a positive effect in this context. The rise of novel biomarkers such as miRNAs or microvesicles is an opportunity that should also be further explored, as they may bring a better understanding of the metabolic pathways linking foods with hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"back\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec funding-statement\" data-magellan-destination=\"s8\" id=\"s8\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Financial support\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Ángela Bravo-Núñez’s competitive postdoctoral contract ‘Margarita Salas’ is funded by the Government of Spain (Ministerio de Universidades) and by the European Union (NextGeneration-EU).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec coi-statement\" data-magellan-destination=\"s9\" id=\"s9\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Competing interests\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Declaration of interests: The authors declare none.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec other\" data-magellan-destination=\"s10\" id=\"s10\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Authorship\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The authors’ responsibilities were as follows. A.B.N., E.R.: conceptualisation; A.B.N., E.R.: investigation; A.B.N.: formal analysis, data curation; A.B.N., R.V.: original draft preparation; A.B.N., E.R.: had primary responsibility for final content, reviewing and editing; and all authors: read and approved the final manuscript.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",tableOfContent:[{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EIntroduction\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s1"},{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EPostprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation: where are we now?\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s2"},{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EEffect of food structure and composition on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s3"},{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EEffects of FSM on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s4"},{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003ENovel biomarkers to determine the effect of liposoluble vitamins on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s5"},{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EFuture prospects\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s6"},{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EFinancial support\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s8"},{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003ECompeting interests\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s9"},{level:r,current:c,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EAuthorship\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"s10"}],footnotes:[],fulltextNotes:[],references:[{id:"ref1",displayNumber:"[1]",existInContent:b,content:"\u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003ELibby\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E (\u003Cspan 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postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:f$,enlargedSrc:f$,attrib:[]},{contentId:"tbl2",label:"Table 2.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003ESummary of relevant studies regarding the effect of foods containing fat-soluble micronutrients on postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and\u002For inflammation\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20241106101633-11817-mediumThumb-png-S0954422424000155_tab2.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20241106101633-25671-optimisedImage-png-S0954422424000155_tab2.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"tbl3",label:"Table 3.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003ERelevant human studies regarding the expression of miRNAs related to postprandial 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J Clin Nutr","1","2013","Nutrients","J Nutr","2020","2015","2021","Food Funct","Mol Nutr Food Res",1,"2019","9","2018","2022","Food Chem","2016","11","2017","2011","Br J Nutr","J Nutr Biochem","13","Prog Lipid Res","Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr","S0954422424000155","2023","Nutrition Research Reviews","article_nrr_ind_pur","Triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: new insights from epidemiology, genetics, and biology","Circ Res","10.1161\u002FCIRCRESAHA.115.306249","Curr Atheroscler Rep","7","Front Physiol","Front Nutr","12","Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol","Circulation","62","Food Hydrocoll","Nutr J","Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis","8","Eur J Nutr","Evaluating the roles of food matrix, lipid micronutrients and bioactives in controlling postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation","Aix-Marseille University, INRAE, INSERM, C2VN, Marseille, France","14",0,"15","2008","93","Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)","19","2006","2010","31","74","100","60","2014","Sports Energy Drinks","91","83A36942CB5E029980E32DC6A8BF3C92","nutrition-research-reviews","\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fnutrition-research-reviews","\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fnutrition-research-reviews\u002Ffirstview","en","The changing landscape of atherosclerosis","Nat","10.1038\u002Fs41586-021-03392-8","\u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003ENordestgaard\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EBG\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\"year\"\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\"article-title\"\u003ETriglyceride-rich lipoproteins and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: new insights from epidemiology, genetics, and biology\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\"source\"\u003ECirc Res\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E \u003Cspan class=\"volume\"\u003E118\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"fpage\"\u003E547\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E–\u003Cspan class=\"lpage\"\u003E563\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E.\u003Ca 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diabetes","10.1007\u002Fs00394-010-0099-6","Effects of vitamin e on fasting and postprandial oxidative stress, inflammatory markers, glucose status, insulin resistance, blood pressure and pulse rate in type-2 diabetic patients: a randomized clinical trial","Galen Med J","Long-term consumption of a Mediterranean diet improves postprandial lipemia in patients with type 2 diabetes: the Cordioprev randomized trial","108","10.1093\u002Fajcn\u002Fnqy144","Influence of olive oil on carotenoid absorption from tomato juice and effects on postprandial lipemia","10.1016\u002Fj.foodchem.2014.07.053","Protective activity of processed tomato products on postprandial oxidation and inflammation: a clinical trial in healthy weight men and women","10.1002\u002Fmnfr.201100649","Beans, as a source of dietary fiber, increase cholecystokinin and apolipoprotein B48 response to test meals in men","10.1093\u002Fjn\u002F131.5.1485","Effects of a brown beans evening meal on metabolic risk markers and appetite regulating hormones at a subsequent standardized breakfast: a randomized cross-over study","PLoS ONE","10.1371\u002Fjournal.pone.0059985","Composition of two Spanish common dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), “Almonga” and “Curruquilla”, and their postprandial effect in type 2 diabetics","J Sci Food Agric","10.1002\u002Fjsfa.5852","Black beans, fiber, and antioxidant capacity pilot study: Examination of whole foods vs. functional components on postprandial metabolic, oxidative stress, and inflammation in adults with metabolic syndrome","10.3390\u002Fnu7085273","Influence of rice, pea and oat proteins in attenuating glycemic response of sugar-sweetened beverages","10.1007\u002Fs00394-017-1547-3","Manipulation of lipid bioaccessibility of almond seeds influences postprandial lipemia in healthy human subjects","10.1093\u002Fajcn\u002F88.4.922","Acute consumption of walnuts and walnut components differentially affect postprandial lipemia, endothelial function, oxidative stress, and cholesterol 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Res","10.1016\u002Fj.thromres.2014.11.038","Effect of acute intake of fermented orange juice on fasting and postprandial glucose metabolism, plasma lipids and antioxidant status in healthy human","Foods","10.3390\u002Ffoods11091256","Orange juice modulates proinflammatory cytokines after high-fat saturated meal consumption","10.1039\u002FC7FO01139C","Alternative foods in cardio-healthy dietary models that improve postprandial lipemia and insulinemia in obese people","10.3390\u002Fnu13072225","Determination of antioxidant vitamins in tomatoes","10.1016\u002FS0308-8146(96)00321-4","Dietary sources of vitamin C, vitamin E and specific carotenoids in Spain","10.1079\u002FBJN20041130","Tomato and lycopene supplementation and cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis","Atherosclerosis","10.1016\u002Fj.atherosclerosis.2017.01.009","The effect of tomato on weight, body mass index, blood pressure and inflammatory factors: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","J King Saud Univ Sci","10.1016\u002Fj.jksus.2019.12.020","Minor components of pulses and their potential impact on human health","Food Res Int","10.1016\u002Fj.foodres.2009.09.004","Phytosterol, squalene, tocopherol content and fatty acid profile of selected seeds, grains, and legumes","Plant Foods Hum Nutr","10.1007\u002Fs11130-007-0046-8","Impact of cell wall encapsulation of almonds on in vitro duodenal lipolysis","10.1016\u002Fj.foodchem.2015.04.013","Health research institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), and CIBEROBN (physiopathology of obesity and nutrition nutrients 2020, 12, 672","10.3390\u002Fnu12030672","A review of composition studies of cultivated almonds: macronutrients and micronutrients","J Food Compos Anal","10.1016\u002Fj.jfca.2011.01.007","Plasma and dietary antioxidant status as cardiovascular disease risk factors: a review of human studies","10.3390\u002Fnu5082969","Biomarkers of inflammation are associated with 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dietary fat challenge","10.3390\u002Fnu11061326","The many faces of endothelial microparticles. arterioscler","Thromb Vasc Biol","10.1161\u002FATVBAHA.110.218123","Endothelial microparticles correlate with endothelial dysfunction in obese women","J Clin Endocrinol Metab","10.1210\u002Fjc.2006-0851","Long-term high fat feeding of rats results in increased numbers of circulating microvesicles with pro-inflammatory effects on endothelial cells","10.1017\u002FS0007114515001117","Increased levels of microparticles originating from endothelial cells, platelets and erythrocytes in subjects with metabolic syndrome: relationship with oxidative stress","10.1016\u002Fj.numecd.2010.01.004","Red wine ingestion prevents microparticle formation after a single high-fat meal – a crossover study in healthy humans","J Cardiovasc Pharmacol","61","10.1097\u002FFJC.0b013e31828ac882","Disturbed blood flow acutely induces activation and apoptosis of the human vascular endothelium","Hypertens","10.1161\u002FHYPERTENSIONAHA.111.00561","Disturbed blood flow acutely increases endothelial microparticles and decreases flow mediated dilation in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction","10.3389\u002Ffphys.2021.629674","High-fat diet-induced upregulation of exosomal phosphatidylcholine contributes to insulin resistance","Nat Commun","10.1038\u002Fs41467-020-20500-w","Exploration of walnut components and their association with health effects","10.1080\u002F10408398.2021.1881439","https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab1.png","https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20241106101615889-0011:S0954422424000155:S0954422424000155_tab3.png"));</script><script src="/core/page-component/06cd607.js" defer></script><script src="/core/page-component/20147ec.js" 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