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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_in_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Development in France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_in_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chappe_system_technical_operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chappe_system_technical_operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Chappe system technical operation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chappe_system_technical_operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_in_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_in_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>History in France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_in_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sweden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Development_in_Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_in_Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Development in Sweden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_in_Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edelcrantz_system_technical_operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edelcrantz_system_technical_operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Edelcrantz system technical operation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edelcrantz_system_technical_operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_network:_1795–1809" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_network:_1795–1809"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>First network: 1795–1809</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_network:_1795–1809-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebuilding_the_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebuilding_the_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Rebuilding the network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebuilding_the_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>British empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1.1</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1.2</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1.3</span> <span>Malta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1.4</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Van_Diemen's_Land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Van_Diemen's_Land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1.5</span> <span>Van Diemen's Land</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Van_Diemen's_Land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Iberia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Other regions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_first_data_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_first_data_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>As first data networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_first_data_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Optical telegraph</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="خط الإشارة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خط الإشارة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegrafia_%C3%B2ptica" title="Telegrafia òptica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Telegrafia òptica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optisk_telegraf" title="Optisk telegraf – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Optisk telegraf" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optische_Telegrafie" title="Optische Telegrafie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Optische Telegrafie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel%C3%A9grafo_%C3%B3ptico" title="Telégrafo óptico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Telégrafo óptico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optika_telegrafio" title="Optika telegrafio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Optika telegrafio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegrafia_optiko" title="Telegrafia optiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Telegrafia optiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9maphore_(communication)" title="Sémaphore (communication) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sémaphore (communication)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraf%C3%ADa_%C3%B3ptica" title="Telegrafía óptica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Telegrafía óptica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EA%B0%81%EC%A0%84%EC%8B%A0" title="시각전신 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시각전신" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB" title="इंगक टेलीग्राफ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इंगक टेलीग्राफ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegrafi_optis" title="Telegrafi optis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Telegrafi optis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegrafo_di_Chappe" title="Telegrafo di Chappe – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Telegrafo di Chappe" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8_(%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%AA)" title="סמפור (איתות) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סמפור (איתות)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optiskais_telegr%C4%81fs" title="Optiskais telegrāfs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Optiskais telegrāfs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semafoor_(communicatie)" title="Semafoor (communicatie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Semafoor (communicatie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%95%E6%9C%A8%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1" title="腕木通信 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="腕木通信" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optisk_telegraf" title="Optisk telegraf – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Optisk telegraf" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optisk_telegraf" title="Optisk telegraf – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Optisk telegraf" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraf_optyczny" title="Telegraf optyczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Telegraf optyczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegrafia_visual" title="Telegrafia visual – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Telegrafia visual" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84" title="Оптический телеграф – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Оптический телеграф" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphore_line" title="Semaphore line – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Semaphore line" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semafor" title="Semafor – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Semafor" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optinen_lenn%C3%A4tin" title="Optinen lennätin – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Optinen lennätin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optisk_telegraf" title="Optisk telegraf – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Optisk telegraf" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Tower-based signaling network</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Semaphore telegraph" redirects here. For signalling by hand-held flags, see <a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Semaphore_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Semaphore (disambiguation)">Semaphore (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OptischerTelegraf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/170px-OptischerTelegraf.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/255px-OptischerTelegraf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/OptischerTelegraf.jpg/340px-OptischerTelegraf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>A replica of one of <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Chappe's</a> semaphore towers in <a href="/wiki/Nalbach" title="Nalbach">Nalbach</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signaling_by_Napoleonic_semaphore_line.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Signaling_by_Napoleonic_semaphore_line.jpg/220px-Signaling_by_Napoleonic_semaphore_line.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Signaling_by_Napoleonic_semaphore_line.jpg/330px-Signaling_by_Napoleonic_semaphore_line.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Signaling_by_Napoleonic_semaphore_line.jpg/440px-Signaling_by_Napoleonic_semaphore_line.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1075" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of signalling by semaphore in 18th-century France. The operators would move the semaphore arms to successive positions to spell out text messages in semaphore code, and the people in the next tower would read them.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>optical telegraph</b> is a line of stations, typically towers, for the purpose of conveying textual information by means of visual signals (a form of <a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">optical communication</a>). There are two main types of such systems; the <b>semaphore telegraph</b> which uses pivoted indicator arms and conveys information according to the direction the indicators point, and the <b>shutter telegraph</b> which uses panels that can be rotated to block or pass the light from the sky behind to convey information. </p><p>The most widely used system was the <a href="/wiki/Chappe_telegraph" title="Chappe telegraph">Chappe telegraph</a>, which was invented in France in 1792 by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a>. It was popular in the late eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Burns2004_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EncyBrit1824_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncyBrit1824-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EdEnc1832_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EdEnc1832-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chappe used the term "télégraphe" to describe the mechanism he had invented – that is the origin of the English word "<a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Axon1880_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Axon1880-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lines of relay towers with a semaphore rig at the top were built within line of sight of each other, at separations of 5–20 miles (8–32 km). Operators at each tower would watch the neighboring tower through a <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, and when the semaphore arms began to move spelling out a message, they would pass the message on to the next tower. This system was much faster than <a href="/wiki/Post_riders" title="Post riders">post riders</a> for conveying a message over long distances, and also had cheaper long-term operating costs, once constructed. Half a century later, semaphore lines were replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a>, which was cheaper, faster, and more private. The line-of-sight distance between relay stations was limited by <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> and weather, and prevented the optical telegraph from crossing wide expanses of water, unless a convenient island could be used for a relay station. A modern derivative of the semaphore system is <a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">flag semaphore</a>, signalling with hand-held flags. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_terminology">Etymology and terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>semaphore</i> was coined in 1801 by the French inventor of the semaphore line itself, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He composed it from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> elements σῆμα (sêma, "sign"); and from φορός (phorós, "carrying"),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or φορά (phorá, "a carrying") from φέρειν (phérein, "to bear").<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chappe also coined the word <i>tachygraph</i>, meaning "fast writer".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the French Army preferred to call Chappe's semaphore system the <i>telegraph</i>, meaning "far writer", which was coined by French statesman <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fran%C3%A7ois_Miot_de_M%C3%A9lito" title="André François Miot de Mélito">André François Miot de Mélito</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Melito_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Melito-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Axon1880_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Axon1880-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>semaphoric</i> was first printed in English in 1808: "The newly constructed Semaphoric telegraphs (...) have been blown up", in a news report in <a href="/wiki/The_Naval_Chronicle" class="mw-redirect" title="The Naval Chronicle">The Naval Chronicle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first use of the word <i>semaphore</i> in reference to English use was in 1816: "The improved Semaphore has been erected on the top of <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_House,_London" title="Admiralty House, London">the Admiralty</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referring to the installation of a simpler telegraph invented by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Home_Popham" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Home Popham">Sir Home Popham</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Semaphore telegraphs are also called, "Chappe telegraphs" or "Napoleonic semaphore".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_designs">Early designs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early designs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Hooke%27s_optical_telegraph.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Hooke%27s_optical_telegraph.png/220px-Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Hooke%27s_optical_telegraph.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Hooke%27s_optical_telegraph.png/330px-Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Hooke%27s_optical_telegraph.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Hooke%27s_optical_telegraph.png/440px-Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Hooke%27s_optical_telegraph.png 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>Illustration showing Robert Hooke's proposed system. At top are various symbols that might be used; ABCE indicates the frame, and D the screen behind which each of the symbols are hidden when not in use.</figcaption></figure> <p>Optical telegraphy dates from ancient times, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph" title="Hydraulic telegraph">hydraulic telegraphs</a>, torches (as used by ancient cultures since the discovery of fire) and <a href="/wiki/Smoke_signals" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoke signals">smoke signals</a>. Modern designs of semaphores developed via several paths, often simultaneously. </p><p>Possibly the earliest was by the British <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>, who gave a vivid and comprehensive outline of visual telegraphy to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in a 1684 submission in which he outlined many practical details. The system (which was motivated by military concerns, following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a> in 1683) was never put into practice.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth%27s_optical_telegraph.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth%27s_optical_telegraph.png/220px-Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth%27s_optical_telegraph.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth%27s_optical_telegraph.png/330px-Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth%27s_optical_telegraph.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth%27s_optical_telegraph.png/440px-Rees%27s_Cyclopaedia_-_Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth%27s_optical_telegraph.png 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="323" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth" title="Richard Lovell Edgeworth">Richard Lovell Edgeworth</a>'s proposed optical telegraph for use in Ireland. The rotational position of each one of the four indicators represented a number 1-7 (0 being "rest"), forming a four-digit number. The number stood for a particular word in a codebook.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the first experiments of optical signalling was carried out by the Anglo-Irish landowner and inventor, Sir <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth" title="Richard Lovell Edgeworth">Richard Lovell Edgeworth</a> in 1767.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He placed a bet with his friend, the <a href="/wiki/Horse_racing" title="Horse racing">horse racing</a> gambler <a href="/wiki/William_Douglas,_4th_Duke_of_Queensberry" title="William Douglas, 4th Duke of Queensberry">Lord March</a>, that he could transmit knowledge of the outcome of the race in just one hour. Using a network of signalling sections erected on high ground, the signal would be observed from one station to the next by means of a <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns2004_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns2004-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The signal itself consisted of a large pointer that could be placed into eight possible positions in 45 degree increments. A series of two such signals gave a total 64 code elements and a third signal took it up to 512. He returned to his idea in 1795, after hearing of Chappe's system. </p><p>While Edgeworth was developing his design, <a href="/wiki/William_Playfair" title="William Playfair">William Playfair</a>, a Scottish political economist traveling in Europe in 1794, surreptitiously obtained the design and alphabet of the French system from a fleeing royalist. Playfair, who had numerous connections to British officials, provided a model of the system to the Duke of York, commander of British forces, then based in Flanders, and, according to the <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, "hence the alphabet and plan of the machine came to England."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevalence">Prevalence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Prevalence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chappe_semaphore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Chappe_semaphore.jpg/170px-Chappe_semaphore.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Chappe_semaphore.jpg/255px-Chappe_semaphore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Chappe_semaphore.jpg/340px-Chappe_semaphore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="1046" /></a><figcaption>19th-century demonstration of the semaphore</figcaption></figure> <p>Credit for the first successful optical telegraph goes to the French engineer <a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a> and his brothers in 1792, who succeeded in covering France with a network of 556 stations stretching a total distance of 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi). <i>Le système Chappe</i> was used for military and national communications until the 1850s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development_in_France">Development in France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development in France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During 1790–1795, at the height of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, France needed a swift and reliable <a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">military communications</a> system to thwart the war efforts of its enemies. France was surrounded by the forces of Britain, the Netherlands, <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, Austria, and Spain, the cities of <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a> were in revolt, and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy#Wars_with_France,_1690–1815" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Royal Navy">British Fleet</a> held <a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>. The only advantage France held was the lack of cooperation between the allied forces due to their inadequate lines of communication. </p><p>In mid-1790, the Chappe brothers set about devising a system of communication that would allow the central government to receive intelligence and to transmit orders in the shortest possible time. Chappe considered many possible methods including audio and smoke. He even considered using electricity, but could not find insulation for the conductors that would withstand the high-voltage <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" title="Electrostatic generator">electrostatic sources</a> available at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chappe settled on an optical system and the first public demonstration occurred on 2 March 1791 between <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%BBlon" title="Brûlon">Brûlon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parc%C3%A9-sur-Sarthe" title="Parcé-sur-Sarthe">Parcé</a>, a distance of 16 kilometres (9.9 mi). The system consisted of a modified pendulum clock at each end with dials marked with ten numerals. The hands of the clocks almost certainly moved much faster than a normal clock. The hands of both clocks were set in motion at the same time with a synchronisation signal. Further signals indicated the time at which the dial should be read. The numbers sent were then looked up in a <a href="/wiki/Codebook" title="Codebook">codebook</a>. In their preliminary experiments over a shorter distance, the Chappes had banged a pan for synchronisation. In the demonstration, they used black and white panels observed with a telescope. The message to be sent was chosen by town officials at Brûlon and sent by René Chappe to Claude Chappe at Parcé who had no pre-knowledge of the message. The message read "si vous réussissez, vous serez bientôt couverts de gloire" (If you succeed, you will soon bask in glory). It was only later that Chappe realised that he could dispense with the clocks and the synchronisation system itself could be used to pass messages.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chappes carried out experiments during the next two years, and on two occasions their apparatus at <a href="/wiki/Place_de_l%27%C3%89toile" class="mw-redirect" title="Place de l'Étoile">Place de l'Étoile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> was destroyed by mobs who thought they were communicating with <a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">royalist</a> forces. Their cause was assisted by Ignace Chappe being elected to the <a href="/wiki/National_Legislative_Assembly_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Legislative Assembly (France)">Legislative Assembly</a>. In the summer of 1792 Claude was appointed <i>Ingénieur-Télégraphiste</i> and charged with establishing a line of stations between Paris and <a href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</a>, a distance of 230 kilometres (about 143 miles). It was used to carry dispatches for the war between France and Austria. In 1794, it brought news of a French capture of <a href="/wiki/Cond%C3%A9-sur-l%27Escaut" title="Condé-sur-l'Escaut">Condé-sur-l'Escaut</a> from the Austrians less than an hour after it occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first symbol of a message to Lille would pass through 15 stations in only nine minutes. The speed of the line varied with the weather, but the line to Lille typically transferred 36 symbols, a complete message, in about 32 minutes. Another line of 50 stations was completed in 1798, covering 488 km between Paris and <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1803 on, the French also used the 3-arm Depillon semaphore at coastal locations to provide warning of British incursions.<sup id="cite_ref-Burns2004_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>English military engineer <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Congreve,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir William Congreve, 1st Baronet">William Congreve</a> observed that at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Menin_(1793)" title="Battle of Menin (1793)">Battle of Vervik</a> of 1793 French commanders directed their forces by using the sails of a prominent local windmill as an improvised signal station. Two of the four sails of the mill had been removed to resemble the arm of the new telegraph.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chappe_system_technical_operation">Chappe system technical operation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chappe system technical operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Chappe brothers determined by experiment that it was easier to see the angle of a rod than to see the presence or absence of a panel. Their semaphore was composed of two black movable wooden arms, connected by a cross bar; the positions of all three of these components together indicated an alphabetic letter. With counterweights (named <i>forks</i>) on the arms, the Chappe system was controlled by only two handles and was mechanically simple and reasonably robust. Each of the two 2-metre-long arms could display seven positions, and the 4.6-metre-long cross bar connecting the two arms could display four different angles, for a total of 196 symbols (7×7×4). Night operation with lamps on the arms was unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To speed up transmission and to provide some semblance of security, a <a href="/wiki/Code" title="Code">code</a> book was developed for use with semaphore lines. The Chappes' corporation used a code that took 92 of the basic symbols two at a time to yield 8,464 coded words and phrases. </p><p>The revised Chappe system of 1795 provided not only a set of codes but also an operational protocol intended to maximize line <a href="/wiki/Throughput" class="mw-redirect" title="Throughput">throughput</a>. Symbols were transmitted in cycles of "2 steps and 3 movements." </p> <ul><li><b>Step 1, movement 1 (setup)</b>: The operator turned the indicator arms to align with the cross bar, forming a non-symbol, and then turned the cross bar into position for the next symbol.</li> <li><b>Step 1, movement 2 (transmission)</b>: The operator positioned the indicator arms for current symbol and waited for the downline station to copy it.</li> <li><b>Step 2, movement 3 (completion)</b>: The operator turned the cross bar to a vertical or horizontal position, indicating the end of a cycle.</li></ul> <p>In this manner, each symbol could propagate down the line as quickly as operators could successfully copy it, with <a href="/wiki/Acknowledgement_(data_networks)" title="Acknowledgement (data networks)">acknowledgement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flow_control_(data)" title="Flow control (data)">flow control</a> built into the protocol. A symbol sent from Paris took 2 minutes to reach Lille through 22 stations and 9 minutes to reach Lyon through 50 stations. A rate of 2–3 symbols per minute was typical, with the higher figure being prone to errors. This corresponds to only 0.4–0.6 <a href="/wiki/Wpm" class="mw-redirect" title="Wpm">wpm</a>, but with messages limited to those contained in the code book, this could be dramatically increased.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An additional benefit is that, if the code is kept secret, the content of transmitted messages can be concealed from both onlookers and system operators, even if they are aware that a message is being transmitted. This has remained an important feature of encrypted communications even as the technology for transmitting data has evolved.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History_in_France">History in France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History in France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reseau_chappe77.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Reseau_chappe77.png/220px-Reseau_chappe77.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Reseau_chappe77.png/330px-Reseau_chappe77.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Reseau_chappe77.png/440px-Reseau_chappe77.png 2x" data-file-width="2430" data-file-height="3437" /></a><figcaption>The Chappe Network in France</figcaption></figure> <p>After Chappe's initial line (between Paris and Lille), the Paris to <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a> with 50 stations followed soon after (1798). <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> made full use of the telegraph by obtaining speedy information on enemy movements. In 1801 he had Abraham Chappe build an extra-large station to transmit across the English Channel in preparation for an invasion of Britain. A pair of such stations were built on a test line over a comparable distance. The line to <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a> was extended to <a href="/wiki/Boulogne" class="mw-redirect" title="Boulogne">Boulogne</a> in anticipation and a new design station was briefly in operation at Boulogne, but the invasion never happened. In 1812, Napoleon took up another design of Abraham Chappe for a mobile telegraph that could be taken with him on campaign. This was still in use in 1853 during the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invention of the telegraph was followed by an enthusiasm concerning its potential to support <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a>. For instance, based on <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>'s argument that direct democracy was improbable in large constituencies, the French Intellectual <a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Th%C3%A9ophile_Vandermonde" title="Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde">Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde</a> commented: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Something has been said about the telegraph which appears perfectly right to me and gives the right measure of its importance. Such invention might be enough to render democracy possible in its largest scale. Many respectable men, among them Jean-Jacques Rousseau, have thought that democracy was impossible within large constituencies.… The invention of the telegraph is a novelty that Rousseau did not expect to happen. It enables long-distance communication at the same pace and clarity than that of conversation in a living room. This solution may address by itself the objections to large [direct] democratic republics. It may even be done in the absence of representative constitutions.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The operational costs of the telegraph in the year 1799/1800 were 434,000 <a href="/wiki/Franc" title="Franc">francs</a> ($1.2 million in 2015 in silver costs<sup id="cite_ref-Edvinsson_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edvinsson-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). In December 1800, Napoleon cut the budget of the telegraph system by 150,000 francs ($400,000 in 2015)<sup id="cite_ref-Edvinsson_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edvinsson-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to the Paris-Lyons line being temporarily closed. Chappe sought commercial uses of the system to make up the deficit, including use by industry, the financial sector, and newspapers. Only one proposal was immediately approved—the transmission of results from the state-run lottery. No non-government uses were approved. The lottery had been abused for years by fraudsters who knew the results, selling tickets in provincial towns after the announcement in Paris, but before the news had reached those towns.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tour_du_telegraphe_Chappe_Saverne_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Tour_du_telegraphe_Chappe_Saverne_02.JPG/220px-Tour_du_telegraphe_Chappe_Saverne_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Tour_du_telegraphe_Chappe_Saverne_02.JPG/330px-Tour_du_telegraphe_Chappe_Saverne_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Tour_du_telegraphe_Chappe_Saverne_02.JPG/440px-Tour_du_telegraphe_Chappe_Saverne_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A Chappe semaphore tower near <a href="/wiki/Saverne" title="Saverne">Saverne</a>, France</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1819 <a href="/wiki/Norwich_Duff" title="Norwich Duff">Norwich Duff</a>, a young British Naval officer, visiting <a href="/wiki/Clermont-en-Argonne" title="Clermont-en-Argonne">Clermont-en-Argonne</a>, walked up to the telegraph station there and engaged the signalman in conversation. Here is his note of the man's information:<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The pay is twenty five <i><a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)#France" title="Solidus (coin)">sous</a></i> per day and he [the signalman] is obliged to be there from day light till dark, at present from half past three till half past eight; there are only two of them and for every minute a signal is left without being answered they pay five <i>sous</i>: this is a part of the branch which communicates with Strasburg and a message arrives there from Paris in six minutes it is here in four.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Norwich Duff</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The network was reserved for government use, but an early case of <a href="/wiki/Wire_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Wire fraud">wire fraud</a> occurred in 1834 when two bankers, François and Joseph Blanc, bribed the operators at a station near <a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a> on the line between Paris and <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a> to pass Paris stock exchange information to an accomplice in Bordeaux. It took three days for the information to travel the 300 mile distance, giving the schemers plenty of time to play the market. An accomplice at Paris would know whether the market was going up or down days before the information arrived in Bordeaux via the newspapers, after which Bordeaux was sure to follow. The message could not be inserted in the telegraph directly because it would have been detected. Instead, pre-arranged deliberate errors were introduced into existing messages which were visible to an observer at Bordeaux. Tours was chosen because it was a division station where messages were purged of errors by an inspector who was privy to the secret code used and unknown to the ordinary operators. The scheme would not work if the errors were inserted prior to Tours. The operators were told whether the market was going up or down by the colour of packages (either white or grey paper wrapping) sent by <a href="/wiki/Mail_coach" title="Mail coach">mail coach</a>, or, according to another anecdote, if the wife of the Tours operator received a package of socks (down) or gloves (up) thus avoiding any evidence of misdeed being put in writing.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scheme operated for two years until it was discovered in 1836.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French optical system remained in use for many years after other countries had switched to the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a>. Partly, this was due to inertia; France had the most extensive optical system and hence the most difficult to replace. But there were also arguments put forward for the superiority of the optical system. One of these was that the optical system is not so vulnerable to saboteurs as an electrical system with many miles of unguarded wire. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a> failed to sell the electrical telegraph to the French government. Eventually the advantages of the electrical telegraph of improved privacy, and all-weather and nighttime operation won out.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A decision was made in 1846 to replace the optical telegraph with the <a href="/wiki/Foy%E2%80%93Breguet_telegraph" title="Foy–Breguet telegraph">Foy–Breguet electrical telegraph</a> after a successful trial on the <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a> line. This system had a display which mimicked the look of the Chappe telegraph indicators to make it familiar to telegraph operators. <a href="/wiki/Jules_Guyot" title="Jules Guyot">Jules Guyot</a> issued a dire warning of the consequences of what he considered to be a serious mistake. It took almost a decade before the optical telegraph was completely decommissioned. One of the last messages sent over the French semaphore was the report of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1854%E2%80%931855)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)">fall of Sebastopol</a> in 1855.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweden">Sweden</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sweden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Optical_telegraph01_4484.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Optical_telegraph01_4484.jpg/220px-Optical_telegraph01_4484.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Optical_telegraph01_4484.jpg/330px-Optical_telegraph01_4484.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Optical_telegraph01_4484.jpg/440px-Optical_telegraph01_4484.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A replica of an optical telegraph in Stockholm, Sweden</figcaption></figure> <p>Sweden was the second country in the world, after France, to introduce an optical telegraph network.<sup id="cite_ref-Greene2016_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greene2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its network became the second most extensive after France.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central station of the network was at the <a href="/wiki/Katarina_Church" title="Katarina Church">Katarina Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system was faster than the French system, partly due to the Swedish control panel<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_pp._104–105_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_pp._104–105-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and partly to the ease of transcribing the octal code (the French system was recorded as <a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">pictograms</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._180_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._180-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system was used primarily for reporting the arrival of ships, but was also useful in wartime for observing enemy movements and attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last stationary semaphore link in regular service was in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, connecting an island with a mainland telegraph line. It went out of service in 1880. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development_in_Sweden">Development in Sweden</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Development in Sweden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inspired by news of the Chappe telegraph, the Swedish inventor <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Niclas_Edelcrantz" title="Abraham Niclas Edelcrantz">Abraham Niclas Edelcrantz</a> experimented with the optical telegraph in Sweden. He constructed a three-station experimental line in 1794 running from the royal castle in Stockholm, via <a href="/wiki/Traneberg" title="Traneberg">Traneberg</a>, to the grounds of <a href="/wiki/Drottningholm_Palace" title="Drottningholm Palace">Drottningholm Castle</a>, a distance of 12 kilometres (7.5 mi). The first demonstration was on 1 November, when Edelcrantz sent a poem dedicated to the king, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_IV_Adolf" title="Gustav IV Adolf">Gustav IV Adolf</a>, on his fourteenth birthday. On 7 November the king brought Edelcrantz into his Council of Advisers with a view to building a telegraph throughout Sweden, Denmark, and Finland.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Edelcrantz_system_technical_operation">Edelcrantz system technical operation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Edelcrantz system technical operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After some initial experiments with Chappe-style indicator arms, Edelcrantz settled on a design with ten iron shutters. Nine of these represented a 3-digit octal number and the tenth, when closed, meant the code number should be preceded by "A". This gave 1,024 codepoints which were decoded to letters, words or phrases via a codebook.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The telegraph had a sophisticated control panel which allowed the next symbol to be prepared while waiting for the previous symbol to be repeated on the next station down the line. The control panel was connected by strings to the shutters. When ready to transmit, all the shutters were set at the same time with the press of a footpedal.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_pp._104–105_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_pp._104–105-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The shutters were painted matte black to avoid reflection from sunlight and the frame and arms supporting the shutters were painted white or red for best contrast.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 1809 Edelcrantz introduced an updated design. The frame around the shutters was dispensed with leaving a simpler, more visible, structure of just the arms with the indicator panels on the end of them. The "A" shutter was reduced to the same size as the other shutters and offset to one side to indicate which side was the <a href="/wiki/Most_significant_digit" class="mw-redirect" title="Most significant digit">most significant digit</a> (whether the codepoint is read left-to-right or right-to-left is different for the two adjacent stations depending on which side they are on).<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was previously indicated with a stationary indicator fixed to the side of the frame, but without a frame this was no longer possible.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The distance that a station could transmit depended on the size of the shutters and the power of the telescope being used to observe them. The smallest object visible to the human eye is one that subtends an angle of 40 <a href="/wiki/Seconds_of_arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Seconds of arc">seconds of arc</a>, but Edelcrantz used a figure of 4 <a href="/wiki/Minutes_of_arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Minutes of arc">minutes of arc</a> to account for atmospheric disturbances and imperfections of the telescope. On that basis, and with a 32× telescope, Edelcrantz specified shutter sizes ranging from 9 inches (<span class="nowrap">22 cm</span>) for a distance of half a <a href="/wiki/Swedish_mile" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish mile">Swedish mile</a> (<span class="nowrap">5.3 km</span>) to 54 inches (<span class="nowrap">134 cm</span>) for 3 Swedish miles (<span class="nowrap">32 km</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These figures were for the original design with square shutters. The open design of 1809 had long oblong shutters which Edelcrantz thought was more visible.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distances much further than these would require impractically high towers to overcome the curvature of the Earth as well as large shutters. Edelcrantz kept the distance between stations under 2 Swedish miles (<span class="nowrap">21 km</span>) except where large bodies of water made it unavoidable.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Swedish telegraph was capable of being used at night with lamps. On smaller stations lamps were placed behind the shutters so that they became visible when the shutter was opened. For larger stations, this was impractical. Instead, a separate tin box matrix with glass windows was installed below the daytime shutters. The lamps inside the tin box could be uncovered by pulling strings in the same way the daytime shutters were operated. Windows on both sides of the box allowed the lamps to be seen by both the upstream and downstream adjacent stations. The codepoints used at night were the <a href="/wiki/Diminished_radix_complement" class="mw-redirect" title="Diminished radix complement">complements</a> of the codepoints used during the day. This made the pattern of lamps in open shutters at night the same as the pattern of closed shutters in daytime.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_network:_1795–1809"><span id="First_network:_1795.E2.80.931809"></span>First network: 1795–1809</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: First network: 1795–1809"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first operational line, Stockholm to <a href="/wiki/Vaxholm" title="Vaxholm">Vaxholm</a>, went into service in January 1795. By 1797 there were also lines from Stockholm to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fredriksborg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fredriksborg (page does not exist)">Fredriksborg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grisslehamn" title="Grisslehamn">Grisslehamn</a> via <a href="/wiki/Signilssk%C3%A4r" class="mw-redirect" title="Signilsskär">Signilsskär</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ecker%C3%B6" title="Eckerö">Eckerö</a> in <a href="/wiki/%C3%85land" title="Åland">Åland</a>. A short line near <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6teborg" class="mw-redirect" title="Göteborg">Göteborg</a> to <a href="/wiki/Marstrand" title="Marstrand">Marstrand</a> on the west coast was installed in 1799. During the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a>, Britain tried to enforce a blockade against France. Concerned at the effect on their own trade, Sweden joined the <a href="/wiki/Second_League_of_Armed_Neutrality" title="Second League of Armed Neutrality">Second League of Armed Neutrality</a> in 1800. Britain was expected to respond with an attack on one of the Nordic countries in the league. To help guard against such an attack, the king ordered a telegraph link joining the systems of Sweden and Denmark. This was the first international telegraph connection in the world. Edelcrantz made this link between <a href="/wiki/Helsingborg" title="Helsingborg">Helsingborg</a> in Sweden and <a href="/wiki/Helsing%C3%B8r" title="Helsingør">Helsingør</a> in Denmark, across the <a href="/wiki/%C3%96resund" class="mw-redirect" title="Öresund">Öresund</a>, the narrow strait separating the two countries. A new line along the coast from <a href="/wiki/Kullaberg" title="Kullaberg">Kullaberg</a> to <a href="/wiki/Malm%C3%B6" title="Malmö">Malmö</a>, incorporating the Helsingborg link, was planned in support and to provide signalling points to the Swedish fleet. <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Copenhagen_(1801)" title="Battle of Copenhagen (1801)">Nelson's attack</a> on the Danish fleet at <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> in 1801 was reported over this link, but after Sweden failed to come to Denmark's aid it was not used again and only one station on the supporting line was ever built.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1808 the Royal Telegraph Institution was created and Edelcrantz was made director.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Telegraph Institution was put under the jurisdiction of the military, initially as part of the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Engineer_Troops" title="Swedish Engineer Troops">Royal Engineering Corps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new code was introduced to replace the 1796 codebook with 5,120 possible codepoints with many new messages. The new codes included punishments for delinquent operators. These included an order to the operator to stand on one of the telegraph arms (code 001-721), and a message asking an adjacent station to confirm that they could see him do it (code 001-723).<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1809, the network had 50 stations over <span class="nowrap">200 km</span> of line employing 172 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparison, the French system in 1823 had <span class="nowrap">650 km</span> of line and employed over three thousand people.<sup id="cite_ref-Greene2016_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greene2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1808, the <a href="/wiki/Finnish_War" title="Finnish War">Finnish War</a> broke out when Russia seized Finland, then part of Sweden. Åland was attacked by Russia and the telegraph stations destroyed. The Russians were expelled in a revolt, but attacked again in 1809. The station at Signilsskär found itself behind enemy lines, but continued to signal the position of Russian troops to the retreating Swedes. After Sweden ceded Finland in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fredrikshamn" title="Treaty of Fredrikshamn">Treaty of Fredrikshamn</a>, the east coast telegraph stations were considered superfluous and put into storage. In 1810, the plans for a south coast line were revived but were scrapped in 1811 due to financial considerations. Also in 1811, a new line from Stockholm via <a href="/wiki/Arholma" title="Arholma">Arholma</a> to <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6derarm" title="Söderarm">Söderarm</a> lighthouse was proposed, but also never materialised.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a while, the telegraph network in Sweden was almost non-existent, with only four <a href="/wiki/Telegraphist" title="Telegraphist">telegraphists</a> employed by 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rebuilding_the_network">Rebuilding the network</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rebuilding the network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The post of Telegraph Inspector was created as early as 1811, but the telegraph in Sweden remained dormant until 1827 when new proposals were put forward. In 1834, the Telegraph Institution was moved to the Topographical Corps. The Corps head, Carl Fredrik Akrell, conducted comparisons of the Swedish shutter telegraph with more recent systems from other countries. Of particular interest was the semaphore system of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pasley" title="Charles Pasley">Charles Pasley</a> in England which had been on trial in Karlskrona. Tests were performed between Karlskrona and <a href="/wiki/Drottningsk%C3%A4r" title="Drottningskär">Drottningskär</a>, and, in 1835, nighttime tests between Stockholm and Fredriksborg. Akrell concluded that the shutter telegraph was faster and easier to use, and was again adopted for fixed stations. However, Pasley's semaphore was cheaper and easier to construct, so was adopted for mobile stations. By 1836 the Swedish telegraph network had been fully restored.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The network continued to expand. In 1837, the line to Vaxholm was extended to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Furusund&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Furusund (page does not exist)">Furusund</a>. In 1838 the Stockholm-<a href="/wiki/Dalar%C3%B6" title="Dalarö">Dalarö</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sandhamn" title="Sandhamn">Sandhamn</a> line was extended to <a href="/wiki/Landsort" title="Landsort">Landsort</a>. The last addition came in 1854 when the Furusund line was extended to <a href="/wiki/Arholma" title="Arholma">Arholma</a> and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6derarm" title="Söderarm">Söderarm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conversion to electrical telegraphy was slower and more difficult than in other countries. The many stretches of open ocean needing to be crossed on the Swedish archipelagos was a major obstacle. Akrell also raised similar concerns to those in France concerning potential sabotage and vandalism of electrical lines. Akrell first proposed an experimental electrical telegraph line in 1852. For many years the network consisted of a mix of optical and electrical lines. The last optical stations were not taken out of service until 1881, the last in operation in Europe. In some places, the <a href="/wiki/Heliograph" title="Heliograph">heliograph</a> replaced the optical telegraph rather than the electrical telegraph.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>} </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Murray_Shutter_Telegraph_1795.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Murray_Shutter_Telegraph_1795.png/220px-Murray_Shutter_Telegraph_1795.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Murray_Shutter_Telegraph_1795.png/330px-Murray_Shutter_Telegraph_1795.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Murray_Shutter_Telegraph_1795.png/440px-Murray_Shutter_Telegraph_1795.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of UK Murray six-shutter system, with shutter 6 in the horizontal position, and shutters 1–5 vertical</figcaption></figure> <p>In Ireland, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lovell_Edgeworth" title="Richard Lovell Edgeworth">Richard Lovell Edgeworth</a> returned to his earlier work in 1794, and proposed a telegraph there to warn against an anticipated French invasion; however, the proposal was not implemented. <a href="/wiki/Lord_George_Murray_(bishop)" title="Lord George Murray (bishop)">Lord George Murray</a>, stimulated by reports of the Chappe semaphore, proposed a system of visual telegraphy to the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">British Admiralty</a> in 1795.<sup id="cite_ref-EdEnc1832_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EdEnc1832-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He employed rectangular framework towers with six five-foot-high octagonal shutters on horizontal axes that flipped between horizontal and vertical positions to signal.<sup id="cite_ref-Mech1828_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mech1828-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Rev. Mr Gamble also proposed two distinct five-element systems in 1795: one using five shutters, and one using five ten-foot poles.<sup id="cite_ref-EdEnc1832_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EdEnc1832-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British Admiralty accepted Murray's system in September 1795, and the first system was the 15 site chain from London to <a href="/wiki/Deal,_Kent" title="Deal, Kent">Deal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wrixon2005_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wrixon2005-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Messages passed from London to Deal in about sixty seconds, and sixty-five sites were in use by 1808.<sup id="cite_ref-Wrixon2005_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wrixon2005-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalbanshighstreet1807_cropped640.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Stalbanshighstreet1807_cropped640.jpg/220px-Stalbanshighstreet1807_cropped640.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Stalbanshighstreet1807_cropped640.jpg/330px-Stalbanshighstreet1807_cropped640.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Stalbanshighstreet1807_cropped640.jpg/440px-Stalbanshighstreet1807_cropped640.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Albans" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Albans">St. Albans</a> High Street in 1807, showing the shutter telegraph on top of the city's Clock Tower. It was on the London to Great Yarmouth line.<sup id="cite_ref-OT_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OT-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Chains of Murray's shutter telegraph stations were built along the following routes: <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>–<a href="/wiki/Deal,_Kent" title="Deal, Kent">Deal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sheerness" title="Sheerness">Sheerness</a>, London–<a href="/wiki/Great_Yarmouth" title="Great Yarmouth">Great Yarmouth</a>, and London–<a href="/wiki/Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plymouth" title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OT_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OT-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The line to Plymouth was not completed until 4 July 1806, and so could not be used to relay the news of Trafalgar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns200449_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns200449-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shutter stations were temporary wooden huts, and at the conclusion of the Napoleonic wars they were no longer necessary, and were closed down by the Admiralty in March 1816.<sup id="cite_ref-MSSC_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MSSC-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the Battle of Trafalgar, the news was transmitted to London by frigate to Falmouth, from where the captain took the dispatches to London by coach along what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Trafalgar_Way" class="mw-redirect" title="Trafalgar Way">Trafalgar Way</a>; the journey took 38 hours. This delay prompted the Admiralty to investigate further. </p><p>A replacement telegraph system was sought, and of the many ideas and devices put forward the Admiralty chose the simpler semaphore system invented by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Home_Popham" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Home Popham">Sir Home Popham</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EncyBrit1824_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncyBrit1824-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EdEnc1832_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EdEnc1832-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Popham semaphore was a single fixed vertical 30 foot pole, with two movable 8 foot arms attached to the pole by horizontal pivots at their ends, one arm at the top of the pole, and the other arm at the middle of the pole.<sup id="cite_ref-Burns2004_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EncyBrit1824_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncyBrit1824-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The signals of the Popham semaphore were found to be much more visible than those of the Murray shutter telegraph.<sup id="cite_ref-Burns2004_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popham's 2-arm semaphore was modelled after the 3-arm Depillon French semaphore.<sup id="cite_ref-Burns2004_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An experimental semaphore line between the Admiralty and Chatham was installed in July 1816, and its success helped to confirm the choice.<sup id="cite_ref-MSSC_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MSSC-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subsequently, the Admiralty decided to establish a permanent link to Portsmouth and built a chain of semaphore stations. Work started in December 1820<sup id="cite_ref-MSSC_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MSSC-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Popham's equipment replaced with another two-arm system invented by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pasley" title="Charles Pasley">Charles Pasley</a>. Each of the arms of Pasley's system could take on one of eight positions and it thus had more <a href="/wiki/Codepoint" class="mw-redirect" title="Codepoint">codepoints</a> than Popham's.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In good conditions messages were sent from London to Portsmouth in less than eight minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The line was operational from 1822 until 1847, when the railway and electric telegraph provided a better means of communication. The semaphore line did not use the same locations as the shutter chain, but followed almost the same route with 15 stations: Admiralty (London), <a href="/wiki/Chelsea_Royal_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelsea Royal Hospital">Chelsea Royal Hospital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Putney_Heath" class="mw-redirect" title="Putney Heath">Putney Heath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coombe,_Kingston_upon_Thames" title="Coombe, Kingston upon Thames">Coombe Warren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claygate" title="Claygate">Coopers Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chatley_Heath" title="Chatley Heath">Chatley Heath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pewley_Hill" title="Pewley Hill">Pewley Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witley" title="Witley">Bannicle Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haste_Hill" title="Haste Hill">Haste Hill</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haslemere" title="Haslemere">Haslemere</a>), <a href="/wiki/Woolbeding" title="Woolbeding">Holder Hill, (Midhurst)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harting" title="Harting">Beacon Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compton_Down,_Compton" title="Compton Down, Compton">Compton Down</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camp_Down,_Portsdown_Hill" title="Camp Down, Portsdown Hill">Camp Down</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lumps_Fort" title="Lumps Fort">Lumps Fort</a> (Southsea), and <a href="/wiki/HMNB_Portsmouth" title="HMNB Portsmouth">Portsmouth Dockyard</a>. The semaphore tower at <a href="/wiki/Chatley_Heath" title="Chatley Heath">Chatley Heath</a>, which replaced the Netley Heath station of the shutter telegraph, is currently being restored by the <a href="/wiki/Landmark_Trust" title="Landmark Trust">Landmark Trust</a> as self-catering holiday accommodation.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There will be public access on certain days when the restoration is complete.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Board of the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Liverpool" title="Port of Liverpool">Port of Liverpool</a> obtained a <a href="/wiki/Private_Act_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Private Act of Parliament">Private Act of Parliament</a> to construct a chain of Popham optical semaphore stations from <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> to <a href="/wiki/Holyhead" title="Holyhead">Holyhead</a> in 1825.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system was designed and part-owned by Barnard L. Watson, a reserve marine officer, and came into service in 1827. The line is possibly the only example of an optical telegraph built entirely for commercial purposes. It was used so that observers at <a href="/wiki/Holyhead" title="Holyhead">Holyhead</a> could report incoming ships to the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Liverpool" title="Port of Liverpool">Port of Liverpool</a> and trading could begin in the cargo being carried before the ship docked. The line was kept in operation until 1860 when a railway line and associated electrical telegraph made it redundant.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 181–183">: 181–183 </span></sup> Many of the prominences on which the towers were built ('<a href="/wiki/Telegraph_hill" title="Telegraph hill">telegraph hills</a>') are known as <a href="/wiki/Telegraph_Hill_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Telegraph Hill (disambiguation)">Telegraph Hill</a> to this day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_empire">British empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: British empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ireland">Ireland</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Ireland R.L. Edgeworth was to develop an optical telegraph based on a triangle pointer, measuring up to 16 feet in height. Following several years promoting his system, he was to get admiralty approval and engaged in its construction during 1803–1804. The completed system ran from Dublin to Galway and was to act as a rapid warning system in case of French invasion of the west coast of Ireland. Despite its success in operation, the receding threat of French invasion was to see the system disestablished in 1804.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Canada">Canada</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Canada, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward,_Duke_of_Kent_and_Strathearn" title="Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn">Prince Edward, Duke of Kent</a> established the first semaphore line in North America. In operation by 1800, it ran between the city of <a href="/wiki/City_of_Halifax" class="mw-redirect" title="City of Halifax">Halifax</a> and the town of <a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Royal" title="Annapolis Royal">Annapolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, and across the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy" title="Bay of Fundy">Bay of Fundy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Saint_John,_New_Brunswick" title="Saint John, New Brunswick">Saint John</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fredericton" title="Fredericton">Fredericton</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a>. In addition to providing information on approaching ships, the Duke used the system to relay military commands, especially as they related to troop discipline. The Duke had envisioned the line reaching as far as the British garrison at <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec City</a>, but the many hills and coastal fog meant the towers needed to be placed relatively close together to ensure visibility. The labour needed to build and continually man so many stations taxed the already stretched-thin British military and there is doubt the New Brunswick line was ever in operation. With the exception of the towers around Halifax harbour, the system was abandoned shortly after the Duke's departure in August 1800.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Malta">Malta</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Malta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sudika_Nadur_Ta%27_Kenuna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sudika_Nadur_Ta%27_Kenuna.jpg/220px-Sudika_Nadur_Ta%27_Kenuna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sudika_Nadur_Ta%27_Kenuna.jpg/330px-Sudika_Nadur_Ta%27_Kenuna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sudika_Nadur_Ta%27_Kenuna.jpg/440px-Sudika_Nadur_Ta%27_Kenuna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ta%27_Kenuna_Tower" title="Ta' Kenuna Tower">Ta' Kenuna Tower</a>, a semaphore tower in <a href="/wiki/Nadur" title="Nadur">Nadur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gozo" title="Gozo">Gozo</a>, Malta, built by the British in 1848</figcaption></figure> <p>The British military authorities began to consider installing a semaphore line in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> in the early 1840s. Initially, it was planned that semaphore stations be established on the bell towers and domes of the island's churches, but the religious authorities rejected the proposal. Due to this, in 1848 new semaphore towers were constructed at <a href="/wiki/G%C4%A7arg%C4%A7ur_Semaphore_Tower" title="Għargħur Semaphore Tower">Għargħur</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%C4%A7axaq_Semaphore_Tower" title="Għaxaq Semaphore Tower">Għaxaq</a> on the main island, and another was built at <a href="/wiki/Ta%27_Kenuna_Tower" title="Ta' Kenuna Tower">Ta' Kenuna</a> on Gozo. Further stations were established at the <a href="/wiki/Grandmaster%27s_Palace_(Valletta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grandmaster's Palace (Valletta)">Governor's Palace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selmun_Palace" title="Selmun Palace">Selmun Palace</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Giordan_Lighthouse" title="Giordan Lighthouse">Giordan Lighthouse</a>. Each station was staffed by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Engineers" title="Royal Engineers">Royal Engineers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="India">India</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semaphore_Tower_at_Khatirbazar,_Andul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Semaphore_Tower_at_Khatirbazar%2C_Andul.jpg/170px-Semaphore_Tower_at_Khatirbazar%2C_Andul.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Semaphore_Tower_at_Khatirbazar%2C_Andul.jpg/255px-Semaphore_Tower_at_Khatirbazar%2C_Andul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Semaphore_Tower_at_Khatirbazar%2C_Andul.jpg/340px-Semaphore_Tower_at_Khatirbazar%2C_Andul.jpg 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="1086" /></a><figcaption>The Semaphore Tower at Khatirbazar, Andul in Howrah district of West Bengal</figcaption></figure> <p>In India, semaphore towers were introduced in 1810. A series of towers were built between <a href="/wiki/Fort_William,_India" title="Fort William, India">Fort William</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chunar_Fort" title="Chunar Fort">Chunar Fort</a> near <a href="/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Varanasi</a>.The towers in the plains were 75–80 ft (23–24 m) tall and those in the hills were 40–50 ft (12–15 m) tall, and were built at an interval of about 13 km (8.1 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Van_Diemen's_Land"><span id="Van_Diemen.27s_Land"></span>Van Diemen's Land</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Van Diemen's Land"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In southern <a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land" title="Van Diemen's Land">Van Diemens Land</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>) a signalling system to announce the arrival of ships was suggested by Governor-In-Chief <a href="/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie" title="Lachlan Macquarie">Lachlan Macquarie</a> when he made his first visit in 1811 <sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially a simple flag system in 1818 between Mt.Nelson and <a href="/wiki/Hobart" title="Hobart">Hobart</a>, it developed into a system with two revolving arms by 1829, the system was quite crude and the arms were difficult to operate. In 1833 <a href="/wiki/Charles_O%27Hara_Booth" title="Charles O'Hara Booth">Charles O'Hara Booth</a> took over command of the <a href="/wiki/Port_Arthur,_Tasmania" title="Port Arthur, Tasmania">Port Arthur</a> penal settlement, as an "enthusiast in the art of signalling" <sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he saw the value of better communications with the headquarters in Hobart. During his command the semaphore system was extended to include 19 stations on the various mountains and islands between Port Arthur and Hobart. Until 1837 three single rotating arm semaphores were used. Subsequently the network was upgraded to use signal posts with six arms - a pair top, middle and bottom. This enabled the semaphore to send 999 signal codes. Captain George King of the Port Office and Booth together contributed to the code book for the system.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King drew up shipping related codes and Booth added Government, Military and penal station matters. In 1877 Port Arthur was closed and the semaphore was operated for shipping signals only, it was finally replaced with a simple flagstaff after the introduction of the telephone in 1880. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LowHeadSemaphore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A restored two-arm semaphore post at Low Head in Tasmania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/LowHeadSemaphore.jpg/220px-LowHeadSemaphore.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/LowHeadSemaphore.jpg/330px-LowHeadSemaphore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/LowHeadSemaphore.jpg/440px-LowHeadSemaphore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A restored two-arm semaphore post at Low Head in Tasmania</figcaption></figure><p> In the north of the state there was a requirement to report on shipping arrivals as they entered the Tamar Estuary, some 55 kilometers from the main port at this time in <a href="/wiki/Launceston,_Tasmania" title="Launceston, Tasmania">Launceston</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tamar_Valley,_Tasmania" title="Tamar Valley, Tasmania">Tamar Valley</a> Semaphore System was based on a design by Peter Archer Mulgrave.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This design used two arms, one with a cross piece at the end. The arms were rotated by ropes, and later chains. The barred arm positions indicated numbers 1 to 6 clockwise from the bottom left and the unbarred arm 7,8,9, STOP and REPEAT.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FanPositions2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Fan positions for the Mulgrave design used in the Tamar Valley Semaphore System" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/FanPositions2.png/220px-FanPositions2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/FanPositions2.png/330px-FanPositions2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/FanPositions2.png/440px-FanPositions2.png 2x" data-file-width="1311" data-file-height="903" /></a><figcaption>The vane positions indicate code numbers.</figcaption></figure><p> A message was sent by sending numbers sequentially to make up a code. As with other systems the code was decoded via a code book. On 1 October 1835 it was announced in the Launceston Advertiser - "...that the signal stations are now complete from Launceston to George Town, and communication may he made, as well as received, from the Windmill Hill to George Town, in a very few minutes, on a clear day".<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system comprised six stations - Launceston Port Office, Windmill Hill, Mt. Direction, Mt.George, George Town Port Office, Low Head lighthouse. The Tamar Valley semaphore telegraph operated for twenty-two and a half years closing on 31 March 1858 after the introduction of the electric telegraph.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1990s the Tamar Valley Signal Station Committee Inc. was formed to restore the system. The works were carried out over several years and the semaphore telegraph was declared complete once more on Sunday 30 September 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iberia">Iberia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Iberia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tel%C3%A9grafo_%C3%B3ptico,_%C3%81vila.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tel%C3%A9grafo_%C3%B3ptico%2C_%C3%81vila.jpg/150px-Tel%C3%A9grafo_%C3%B3ptico%2C_%C3%81vila.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tel%C3%A9grafo_%C3%B3ptico%2C_%C3%81vila.jpg/225px-Tel%C3%A9grafo_%C3%B3ptico%2C_%C3%81vila.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tel%C3%A9grafo_%C3%B3ptico%2C_%C3%81vila.jpg/300px-Tel%C3%A9grafo_%C3%B3ptico%2C_%C3%81vila.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Restored semaphore in <a href="/wiki/Adanero" title="Adanero">Adanero</a>, Spain</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain">Spain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Spain, the engineer <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Betancourt" title="Agustín de Betancourt">Agustín de Betancourt</a> developed his own system which was adopted by that state; in 1798 he received a Royal Appointment,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first stretch of line connecting <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aranjuez" title="Aranjuez">Aranjuez</a> was in operation as of August 1800.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spain was spanned by an extensive semaphore telegraph network in the 1840s and 1850s.<sup id="cite_ref-Roig_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roig-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three main semaphore lines radiated from <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roig_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roig-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Telegrafos2014_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telegrafos2014-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first ran north to <a href="/wiki/Irun" title="Irun">Irun</a> on the Atlantic coast at the French border. The second ran east to the Mediterranean, then north along the coast through <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> to the French border. The third ran south to <a href="/wiki/Cadiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadiz">Cadiz</a> on the Atlantic coast. These lines served many other Spanish cities, including: <a href="/wiki/Aranjuez" title="Aranjuez">Aranjuez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Badajoz" title="Badajoz">Badajoz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgos" title="Burgos">Burgos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castell%C3%B3n_de_la_Plana" title="Castellón de la Plana">Castellon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ciudad_Real" title="Ciudad Real">Ciudad Real</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuenca,_Spain" title="Cuenca, Spain">Cuenca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerona,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerona, Spain">Gerona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pamplona" title="Pamplona">Pamplona</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Sebastian" class="mw-redirect" title="San Sebastian">San Sebastian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarancon" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarancon">Tarancon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taragona" class="mw-redirect" title="Taragona">Taragona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valladolid" title="Valladolid">Valladolid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valencia" title="Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitoria-Gasteiz" title="Vitoria-Gasteiz">Vitoria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zaragoza" title="Zaragoza">Zaragoza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Telegrafos2014_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telegrafos2014-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rugged topography of the Iberian peninsula that facilitated the design of semaphore lines conveying information from hilltop to hilltop, made it difficult to implement wire telegraph lines when that technology was introduced in the mid 19th century. The Madrid-Cadiz line was the first to be dismantled in 1855, but other segments of the optical system continued to function until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a> in 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Portugal">Portugal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Portugal, the British forces fighting <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleon in Portugal</a> soon found that the Portuguese Army had already a very capable semaphore terrestrial system working since 1808, giving the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Wellington" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Wellington">Duke of Wellington</a> a decisive advantage in intelligence. The innovative Portuguese telegraphs, designed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francisco_Ant%C3%B3nio_Ciera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francisco António Ciera (page does not exist)">Francisco António Ciera</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Ant%C3%B3nio_Ciera" class="extiw" title="pt:Francisco António Ciera">pt</a>]</span>, a mathematician, were of 3 types: 3 shutters, 3 balls and 1 pointer/moveable arm.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also wrote the code book "Táboas Telegráphicas", the same for the 3 telegraph types. Since early 1810 the network was operated by "Corpo Telegráfico", the first Portuguese military Signal Corps.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_regions">Other regions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other regions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BremerhavenSemaphore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/BremerhavenSemaphore.jpg/220px-BremerhavenSemaphore.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/BremerhavenSemaphore.jpg/330px-BremerhavenSemaphore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/BremerhavenSemaphore.jpg/440px-BremerhavenSemaphore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption>Optical telegraph in the harbour of <a href="/wiki/Bremerhaven" title="Bremerhaven">Bremerhaven</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>Once it had proved its success in France, the optical telegraph was imitated in many other countries, especially after it was used by Napoleon to coordinate his empire and army. In most of these countries, the <a href="/wiki/Post_office" title="Post office">postal authorities</a> operated the semaphore lines. Many national services adopted signalling systems different from the Chappe system. For example, the UK and Sweden adopted systems of shuttered panels (in contradiction to the Chappe brothers' contention that angled rods are more visible). In some cases, new systems were adopted because they were thought to be improvements. But many countries pursued their own, often inferior, designs for reasons of national pride or not wanting to copy from rivals and enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1801, the Danish post office installed a semaphore line across the <a href="/wiki/Great_Belt" title="Great Belt">Great Belt</a> strait, <i>Storebæltstelegrafen</i>, between islands <a href="/wiki/Funen" title="Funen">Funen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zealand" title="Zealand">Zealand</a> with stations at <a href="/wiki/Nyborg" title="Nyborg">Nyborg</a> on Funen, on the small island <a href="/wiki/Sprog%C3%B8" title="Sprogø">Sprogø</a> in the middle of the strait, and at <a href="/wiki/Kors%C3%B8r" title="Korsør">Korsør</a> on Zealand. It was in use until 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prussian_semaphore_system" title="Prussian semaphore system">Prussian semaphore system</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semaphore_Line_Tower_on_Winter_Palace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Semaphore_Line_Tower_on_Winter_Palace.jpg/220px-Semaphore_Line_Tower_on_Winter_Palace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Semaphore_Line_Tower_on_Winter_Palace.jpg/330px-Semaphore_Line_Tower_on_Winter_Palace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Semaphore_Line_Tower_on_Winter_Palace.jpg/440px-Semaphore_Line_Tower_on_Winter_Palace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="3073" /></a><figcaption>Former optical telegraph tower on the <a href="/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, Russia</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William III of Prussia">Frederick William III</a> ordered the construction of an experimental line in 1819, but due to opposition from the defence minister <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Hake" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl von Hake">Karl von Hake</a>, nothing happened until 1830 when a short three-station line between Berlin and <a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a> was built. The design was based on the Swedish telegraph with the number of shutters increased to twelve.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Postrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Postrat">Postrat</a></i> Carl Pistor proposed instead a semaphore system based on Watson's design in England. An operational line of this design running Berlin-<a href="/wiki/Magdeburg" title="Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a>-<a href="/wiki/Dortmund" title="Dortmund">Dortmund</a>-<a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ln" class="mw-redirect" title="Köln">Köln</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a>-<a href="/wiki/Koblenz" title="Koblenz">Koblenz</a> was completed in 1833. The line employed about 200 people, comparable to Sweden, but no network ever developed and no more official lines were built. The line was decommissioned in 1849 in favour of an electrical line.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there were no more government sponsored official lines, there was some private enterprise. Johann Ludwig Schmidt opened a commercial line from <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> to <a href="/wiki/Cuxhaven" title="Cuxhaven">Cuxhaven</a> in 1837. In 1847, Schmidt opened a second line from <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bremerhaven" title="Bremerhaven">Bremerhaven</a>. These lines were used for reporting the arrival of commercial ships. The two lines were later linked with three additional stations to create possibly the only private telegraph network in the optical telegraph era.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The telegraph inspector for this network was <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Clemens_Gerke" title="Friedrich Clemens Gerke">Friedrich Clemens Gerke</a>, who would later move to the Hamburg-Cuxhaven electrical telegraph line and develop what became the <a href="/wiki/International_Morse_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="International Morse Code">International Morse Code</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hamburg line went out of use in 1850, and the Bremen line in 1852.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Tsar Nicolas I</a> inaugurated a line between <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> of 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) length in 1833; it needed 220 stations staffed by 1,320 operators. The stations were noted to be unused and decaying in 1859, so the line was probably abandoned long before this.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._180_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._180-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the first optical telegraph was built by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Grout" title="Jonathan Grout">Jonathan Grout</a> in 1804 but ceased operation in 1807. This 104-kilometre (65 mi) line between <a href="/wiki/Martha%27s_Vineyard" title="Martha's Vineyard">Martha's Vineyard</a> with <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> transmitted shipping news. An optical telegraph system linking <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Delaware_Bay" title="Delaware Bay">Delaware Bay</a> was in place by 1809 and had a similar purpose; a second line to <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> was operational by 1834, when its Philadelphia terminus was moved to the tower of the <a href="/wiki/Merchants%27_Exchange_Building_(Philadelphia)" title="Merchants' Exchange Building (Philadelphia)">Merchants Exchange</a>. One of the principal hills in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> is also named "<a href="/wiki/Telegraph_Hill,_San_Francisco" title="Telegraph Hill, San Francisco">Telegraph Hill</a>", after the semaphore telegraph which was established there in 1849 to signal the arrival of ships into <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay" title="San Francisco Bay">San Francisco Bay</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_first_data_networks">As first data networks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: As first data networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The optical telegraphs put in place at the turn of the 18th/19th centuries were the first examples of data networks.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chappe and Edelcrantz independently invented many features that are now commonplace in modern networks, but were then revolutionary and essential to the smooth running of the systems. These features included <a href="/wiki/Control_character" title="Control character">control characters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Error_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Error control">error control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flow_control_(data)" title="Flow control (data)">flow control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Message_precedence" title="Message precedence">message priority</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symbol_rate" title="Symbol rate">symbol rate control</a>. Edelcrantz documented the meaning and usage of all his control codes from the start in 1794. The details of the early Chappe system are not known precisely; the first operating instructions to survive date to 1809 and the French system is not as fully explained as the Swedish.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the features of these systems are considered advanced in modern practice and have been recently reinvented. An example of this is the error control codepoint 707 in the Edelcrantz code. This was used to request the repeat of a specified recent symbol. The 707 was followed by two symbols identifying the row and column in the current page of the logbook that it was required to repeat. This is an example of a <a href="/wiki/Selective_repeat" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective repeat">selective repeat</a> and is more efficient than the simple <a href="/wiki/Go_back_n" class="mw-redirect" title="Go back n">go back n</a> strategy used on many modern networks.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a later addition; both Edelcrantz (codepoint 272), and Chappe (codepoint 2H6)<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> initially used only a simple "erase last character" for error control, taken directly from Hooke's 1684 proposal.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Routing in the French system was almost permanently fixed; only Paris and the station at the remote end of a line were allowed to initiate a message. The early Swedish system was more flexible, having the ability to set up message connections between arbitrary stations. Similar to modern networks, the initialisation request contained the identification of the requesting and target station. The request was acknowledged by the target station by sending the complement of the code received. This protocol is unique with no modern equivalent.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This facility was removed from the codebook in the revision of 1808. After this, only Stockholm would normally initiate messages with other stations waiting to be <a href="/wiki/Polling_(computer_science)" title="Polling (computer science)">polled</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Prussian system required the Coblenz station (at the end of the line) to send a "no news" message (or a real message if there was one pending) back to Berlin on the hour, every hour. Intermediate stations could only pass messages by replacing the "no news" message with their traffic. On arrival in Berlin, the "no news" message was returned to Coblenz with the same procedure. This can be considered an early example of a <a href="/wiki/Token_passing" title="Token passing">token passing</a> system. This arrangement required accurate clock synchronisation at all the stations. A synchronisation signal was sent out from Berlin for this purpose every three days.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another feature that would be considered advanced in a modern electronic system is the dynamic changing of transmission rates. Edelcrantz had codepoints for faster (770) and slower (077). Chappe also had this feature.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:T%C3%A9l%C3%A9graphe_Chappe_par_T%C3%B6pffer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9graphe_Chappe_par_T%C3%B6pffer.jpg/220px-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9graphe_Chappe_par_T%C3%B6pffer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9graphe_Chappe_par_T%C3%B6pffer.jpg/330px-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9graphe_Chappe_par_T%C3%B6pffer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9graphe_Chappe_par_T%C3%B6pffer.jpg/440px-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9graphe_Chappe_par_T%C3%B6pffer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="895" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>A cartoon strip of "Monsieur Pencil" (1831) by <a href="/wiki/Rodolphe_T%C3%B6pffer" title="Rodolphe Töpffer">Rodolphe Töpffer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By the mid-19th century, the optical telegraph was well known enough to be referenced in popular works without special explanation. The Chappe telegraph appeared in contemporary fiction and comic strips. In "Mister Pencil" (1831), a comic strip by <a href="/wiki/Rodolphe_T%C3%B6pffer" title="Rodolphe Töpffer">Rodolphe Töpffer</a>, a dog fallen on a Chappe telegraph's arm—and its master attempting to help get it down—provoke an international crisis by inadvertently transmitting disturbing messages. In <i><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Leuwen" title="Lucien Leuwen">Lucien Leuwen</a></i> (1834), <a href="/wiki/Stendhal" title="Stendhal">Stendhal</a> pictures a power struggle between Lucien Leuwen and the prefect M. de Séranville with the telegraph's director M. Lamorte. In Chapter 60 ("The Telegraph") of <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Alexandre Dumas</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo" title="The Count of Monte Cristo">The Count of Monte Cristo</a></i> (1844), the title character describes with fascination the semaphore line's moving arms: "I had at times seen rise at the end of a road, on a hillock and in the bright light of the sun, these black folding arms looking like the legs of an immense beetle."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later bribes a semaphore operator to relay a false message in order to manipulate the French financial market. Dumas also describes in detail the functioning of a Chappe telegraph line. In <a href="/wiki/Hector_Malot" title="Hector Malot">Hector Malot</a>'s novel <i>Romain Kalbris</i> (1869), one of the characters, a girl named Dielette, describes her home in Paris as "...next to a church near which there was a clock tower. On top of the tower there were two large black arms, moving all day this way and that. [I was told later] that this was <a href="/wiki/Saint-Eustache,_Paris" title="Saint-Eustache, Paris">Saint-Eustache</a> church and that these large black arms were a telegraph."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 21st century, the optical telegraph concept is mainly kept alive in popular culture through fiction such as the novel <a href="/wiki/Pavane_(novel)" title="Pavane (novel)"><i>Pavane</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Terry_Pratchett" title="Terry Pratchett">Terry Pratchett</a>'s "Clacks" in his <a href="/wiki/Discworld" title="Discworld">Discworld</a> novels,<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most notably the 2004 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Going_Postal" title="Going Postal">Going Postal</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a>, for more information on many of the codes used</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius_square" title="Polybius square">Polybius square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_signalling" title="Railway signalling">Railway signalling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adobe_World_Headquarters#San_Jose_Semaphore" title="Adobe World Headquarters">San Jose Semaphore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore_Flag_Signaling_System" title="Semaphore Flag Signaling System">Semaphore Flag Signaling System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_lamp" title="Signal lamp">Signal lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_Hill_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Telegraph Hill (disambiguation)">Telegraph Hill</a>, for a list of telegraph hills</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wigwag" class="mw-disambig" title="Wigwag">Wigwag</a>, a flag signaling system that also used telescopes and towers</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The notation here follows that given in Holzmann & Pehrson (p. 211). The two digits represent, respectively the angle of the left and right indicators. Vertical pointing up is "1" and each successive 45° from this position increments this number. "H" means the regulator is in the horizontal position and "V" the vertical.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Citations</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Burns2004-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burns2004_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burns2004_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burns2004_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burns2004_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burns2004_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns2004">Burns 2004</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7eUUy8-VvwoC&pg=PA29">Chapter 2: Semaphore Signalling</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EncyBrit1824-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EncyBrit1824_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EncyBrit1824_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EncyBrit1824_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MsYnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA645">"Telegraph"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Vol. 10 (6th ed.). 1824. pp. 645–651.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Telegraph&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=645-651&rft.edition=6th&rft.date=1824&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMsYnAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA645&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EdEnc1832-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EdEnc1832_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EdEnc1832_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EdEnc1832_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EdEnc1832_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Brewster1832" class="citation book cs1">David Brewster, ed. (1832). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VhEbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA657">"Telegraph"</a>. <i>The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia</i>. Vol. 17. pp. 664–667.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Telegraph&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+Encyclopaedia&rft.pages=664-667&rft.date=1832&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVhEbAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA657&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Axon1880-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Axon1880_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Axon1880_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxon1880" class="citation journal cs1">Axon, William (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h_0NAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA183">"On the History of the word Telegraph"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester</i>. <b>19</b>: 183<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Literary+and+Philosophical+Society+of+Manchester&rft.atitle=On+the+History+of+the+word+Telegraph&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=183&rft.date=1880&rft.aulast=Axon&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh_0NAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DRA3-PA183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries of the 18th Century</i>, Jonathan Shectman, p. 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beyer, Rick, <i>The Greatest Stories Never Told</i>, A&E Television Networks / The History Channel, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-001401-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-001401-6">0-06-001401-6</a>, p. 60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Le Robert historique de la langue française, 1992, 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Melito-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Melito_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiot_de_Mélito1858" class="citation book cs1">Miot de Mélito, André (1858). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nXLWfRpf_FsC&dq=tachygraphe+chappe&pg=PA38"><i>Mémoires du Comte Miot de Melito V.2</i></a>. Lévy. p. 38<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9moires+du+Comte+Miot+de+Melito+V.2&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=L%C3%A9vy&rft.date=1858&rft.aulast=Miot+de+M%C3%A9lito&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnXLWfRpf_FsC%26dq%3Dtachygraphe%2Bchappe%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherk2004" class="citation book cs1">Sherk, Bill (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28929229"><i>500 Years of New Words</i></a>. Toronto: The Dundurn Group. p. 210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55002-525-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-55002-525-2"><bdi>1-55002-525-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=500+Years+of+New+Words&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=210&rft.pub=The+Dundurn+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-55002-525-2&rft.aulast=Sherk&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28929229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherk2004" class="citation book cs1">Sherk, Bill (1 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E8t3hZgrVxkC&dq=%2522The+improved+Semaphore+has+been+erected+on+the+top+of+the+Admiralty%2522&pg=PA210"><i>500 Years of New Words: the fascinating story of how, when, and why these words first entered the English language</i></a>. Dundurn. p. 320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4597-1822-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4597-1822-7"><bdi>978-1-4597-1822-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=500+Years+of+New+Words%3A+the+fascinating+story+of+how%2C+when%2C+and+why+these+words+first+entered+the+English+language&rft.pages=320&rft.pub=Dundurn&rft.date=2004-09-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4597-1822-7&rft.aulast=Sherk&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE8t3hZgrVxkC%26dq%3D%252522The%2Bimproved%2BSemaphore%2Bhas%2Bbeen%2Berected%2Bon%2Bthe%2Btop%2Bof%2Bthe%2BAdmiralty%252522%26pg%3DPA210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaterWheeler1935" class="citation book cs1">Gater, G. H.; Wheeler, E. P., eds. (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-london/vol16/pt1/pp45-70">"The Admiralty"</a>. <i>Survey of London</i>. Vol. 16. 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(1802–1820). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cyclopaediaorun35rees">"Telegraph"</a>. <i>Cyclopædia</i>. Vol. 35. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown. 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(15 September 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inc.com/magazine/19990915/13554.html">"Taking stock"</a>. Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Taking+stock&rft.pub=Inc&rft.date=1999-09-15&rft.aulast=Holzmann&rft.aufirst=Gerard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inc.com%2Fmagazine%2F19990915%2F13554.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolzmann" class="citation web cs1">Holzmann, Gerard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spinroot.com/gerard/pdf/hamburg94b.pdf">"Data Communications: The First 2,500 Years"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Communications%3A+The+First+2%2C500+Years&rft.aulast=Holzmann&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspinroot.com%2Fgerard%2Fpdf%2Fhamburg94b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 92–94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greene2016-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Greene2016_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greene2016_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David Greene, <i>Light and Dark: An Exploration in Science, Nature, Art and Technology</i>, p. 159, CRC Press, 2016 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1420034030" title="Special:BookSources/1420034030">1420034030</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. x</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelcrantz, p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_pp._104–105-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_pp._104–105_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_pp._104–105_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 104–105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._180-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._180_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._180_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._117_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 101–103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelcrantz, p. 164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelcrantz, pp. 144, 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelcrantz, pp. 166–167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelcrantz, p. 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelcrantz, p. 169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edelcrantz, pp. 170–171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 105–109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._120_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 117–118</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 118, 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 120–126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mech1828-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mech1828_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rNZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA298">Lieutenant Watson's Telegraph</a> Mechanics' magazine, Volume 8 No. 222, Knight and Lacey, 1828, pages 294-299</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wrixon2005-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wrixon2005_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wrixon2005_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">F.B. Wrixon (2005), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-485-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-485-4">978-1-57912-485-4</a> Codes, Ciphers, Secrets and Cryptic Communication pp. 444-445 cover Murray's shutter telegraph in the U.K., with codes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OT-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OT_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OT_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vauxhallandkennington.org.uk/telegraph.shtml">"Optical Telegraph"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Optical+Telegraph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vauxhallandkennington.org.uk%2Ftelegraph.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns200449-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns200449_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns2004">Burns 2004</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MSSC-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MSSC_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSSC_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSSC_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Military Signals from the South Coast, John Goodwin, 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 196</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. I. Hamilton, <i>The Making of the Modern Admiralty: British Naval Policy-Making, 1805–1927</i>, p. 92, Cambridge University Press, 2011 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139496544" title="Special:BookSources/9781139496544">9781139496544</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/news-and-events/Current-Restoration-Projects/semaphore-tower-appeal/our-plans/">"Our plans for Semaphore Tower"</a>. <i>Landmark Trust</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Landmark+Trust&rft.atitle=Our+plans+for+Semaphore+Tower&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.landmarktrust.org.uk%2Fnews-and-events%2FCurrent-Restoration-Projects%2Fsemaphore-tower-appeal%2Four-plans%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurley2020" class="citation web cs1">Curley, Rebecca (20 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/18249227.chatley-tower-restoration-make-landmark-rentable/">"Chatley Tower restoration to make landmark rentable"</a>. <i>Sutton & Croydon Guardian</i>. Newsquest Media Group Ltd<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sutton+%26+Croydon+Guardian&rft.atitle=Chatley+Tower+restoration+to+make+landmark+rentable&rft.date=2020-02-20&rft.aulast=Curley&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yourlocalguardian.co.uk%2Fnews%2F18249227.chatley-tower-restoration-make-landmark-rentable%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Faster Than The Wind, The Liverpool to Holyhead Telegraph</i>, Frank Large, an avid publication <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9521020-9-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9521020-9-9">0-9521020-9-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 197</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seija-Riitta Laakso, <i>Across the Oceans: Development of Overseas Business Information Transmission 1815-1875</i>, BoD - Books on Demand, 2018 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9517469047" title="Special:BookSources/9517469047">9517469047</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adrian James Kirwan, 'R.L. 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ISSN 1138-9788.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, Mark S. (1 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.napoleon-series.org/military-info/organization/Britain/Miscellaneous/Telegraphs.pdf">"Allied Use of Telegraphs during the Peninsular War"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Royal Engineers Journal</i> – via The Napoleon Series.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Royal+Engineers+Journal&rft.atitle=Allied+Use+of+Telegraphs+during+the+Peninsular+War&rft.date=2016-12-01&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Mark+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.napoleon-series.org%2Fmilitary-info%2Forganization%2FBritain%2FMiscellaneous%2FTelegraphs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLunaSousaLeal2008" class="citation journal cs1">Luna, Isabel de; Sousa, Ana Catarina; Leal, Rui Sá (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositorio.ul.pt/handle/10451/40114">"Telegrafia visual na Guerra Peninsular. 1807-1814"</a>. <i>Boletim Cultural da Câmara Municipal de Mafra</i>: 67–136.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boletim+Cultural+da+C%C3%A2mara+Municipal+de+Mafra&rft.atitle=Telegrafia+visual+na+Guerra+Peninsular.+1807-1814&rft.pages=67-136&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Luna&rft.aufirst=Isabel+de&rft.au=Sousa%2C+Ana+Catarina&rft.au=Leal%2C+Rui+S%C3%A1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositorio.ul.pt%2Fhandle%2F10451%2F40114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 179–180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ptt-museum.dk/en/exhibitions/the_permanent_exhibition/the_age_of_invention/">The Age of Invention 1849–1920</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719130848/http://www.ptt-museum.dk/en/exhibitions/the_permanent_exhibition/the_age_of_invention/">Archived</a> 2011-07-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Post & Tele Museum Danmark, website visited on 8 May 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 184–185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 185–187</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huurdeman, p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 187</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 214</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 210–216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holzmann_&_Pehrson,_p._216_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 214–215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, p. 188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holzmann & Pehrson, pp. 215–216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebooksgratuits.com/pdf/dumas_monte_cristo_3.pdf">Page 84 in LE COMTE DE MONTE-CRISTO Tome III</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inlibroveritas.net/lire/oeuvre23495.html#page_163">See second paragraph in</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebb2019" class="citation book cs1">Webb, Simon (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ak8IEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT49"><i>The Real World of Victorian Steampunk: Steam Planes & Radiophones</i></a>. Pen and Sword. pp. 49–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1526732866" title="Special:BookSources/978-1526732866"><bdi>978-1526732866</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Real+World+of+Victorian+Steampunk%3A+Steam+Planes+%26+Radiophones&rft.pages=49-51&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1526732866&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAk8IEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHague" class="citation web cs1">Hague, Jim. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://accu.org/video/spring-2018-day-3/hague/">"The Clacks in Discworld and Roundworld"</a>. <i>ACCU.org</i>. ACCU<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ACCU.org&rft.atitle=The+Clacks+in+Discworld+and+Roundworld&rft.aulast=Hague&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faccu.org%2Fvideo%2Fspring-2018-day-3%2Fhague%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Bibliography</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2004" class="citation book cs1">Burns, R. W. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7eUUy8-VvwoC"><i>Communications: an international history of the formative years</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-327-8"><bdi>978-0-86341-327-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communications%3A+an+international+history+of+the+formative+years&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-86341-327-8&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7eUUy8-VvwoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Crowley, David and Heyer, Paul (ed) (2003) 'Chapter 17: The optical telegraph' <i>Communication in History: Technology, Culture and Society</i> (Fourth Edition) Allyn and Bacon, Boston pp. 123–125</li> <li>Edelcrantz, Abraham Niclas, <i>Afhandling om Telegrapher</i> ("A Treatise on Telegraphs"), 1796, as translated in ch. 4 of Holzmann & Pehrson.</li> <li>Holzmann, Gerard J.; Pehrson, Bjorn, <i>The Early History of Data Networks</i>, John Wiley & Sons, 1995 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0818667826" title="Special:BookSources/0818667826">0818667826</a>.</li> <li>Huurdeman, Anton A., <i>The Worldwide History of Telecommunications</i>, John Wiley & Sons, 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471205052" title="Special:BookSources/0471205052">0471205052</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Victorian Internet</i>, Tom Standage, Walker & Company, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8027-1342-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8027-1342-4">0-8027-1342-4</a></li> <li><i>The Old Telegraphs</i>, Geoffrey Wilson, Phillimore & Co Ltd 1976 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-900592-79-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-900592-79-6">0-900592-79-6</a></li> <li><i>Faster Than The Wind, The Liverpool to Holyhead Telegraph</i>, Frank Large, an avid publication <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9521020-9-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9521020-9-9">0-9521020-9-9</a></li> <li><i>The early history of data networks</i>, Gerard Holzmann and Bjorn Pehrson, Wiley Publ., 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8186-6782-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8186-6782-6">0-8186-6782-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Burns, R.W. (2004). "Semaphore Signaling, Chapter 2". <i>Communications: an international history of the formative years</i>. Institution of Electrical Engineers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-327-8"><bdi>978-0-86341-327-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semaphore+Signaling%2C+Chapter+2&rft.btitle=Communications%3A+an+international+history+of+the+formative+years&rft.pub=Institution+of+Electrical+Engineers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-86341-327-8&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=R.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOptical+telegraph" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_telegraph&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030212061645/http://people.deas.harvard.edu/~jones/cscie129/images/history/chappe.html">Chappe's semaphore</a> (an illustrated history of optical telegraphy)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vauxhallandkennington.org.uk/telegraph.shtml">Webpage including a map of England's telegraph chains</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.portsdown-tunnels.org.uk/ancient_sites/telegraph_p1.html">Diagrams and maps of Murray's U.K. semaphore stations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.qrz.com/t/gb2hst/SHUTTER_CHART.jpg">Chart of Murray's shutter-semaphore code</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.portsdown-tunnels.org.uk/ancient_sites/telegraph_p2.html">Photo and diagrams of Popham's U.K. semaphore stations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.morsekey.net/duesicilie.html">Map of visual telegraph (semaphore) and electrical telegraph lines in Italy, 1860</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Italian)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inc.com/magazine/19990915/13554.html">Details on the history of the Blanc brothers fraudulant use of the Semophore line</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rfmoz.github.io/telop/index.html">Live recreation of the Spanish optical telegraph code</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Beacon" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Ships' flags</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Optical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph" title="Heliograph">Heliograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_lamp" title="Signal lamp">Signal lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advanced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_cable" title="Fiber-optic cable">Cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber_connector" title="Optical fiber connector">Connectors</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_wireless_communications" title="Optical wireless communications">Optical wireless</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_light_communication" title="Visible light communication">Visible light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li-Fi" title="Li-Fi">Li-Fi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_communication_in_space" title="Laser communication in space">In space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_IR" title="Consumer IR">Consumer IR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_Transport_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical Transport Network">Optical Transport Network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_Carrier_transmission_rates" title="Optical Carrier transmission rates">OC Rates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensity_modulation" title="Intensity modulation">Intensity modulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulating_retro-reflector" title="Modulating retro-reflector">Modulating retro-reflector</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Optical_communications" title="Category:Optical communications">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template talk:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a> of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_constructed_scripts" title="List of constructed scripts">constructed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">by first written accounts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abjads" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerals</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatran alphabet">Hatran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elifba_alphabet" title="Elifba alphabet">Elifba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elymaic" title="Elymaic">Elymaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_script" title="Manichaean script">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book Pahlavi">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Parthian" title="Inscriptional Parthian">Inscriptional Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalter_Pahlavi" title="Psalter Pahlavi">Psalter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitman_shorthand" title="Pitman shorthand">Pitman shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic alphabet">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">South Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Zabur_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Zabur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Musnad" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Musnad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">ʾEsṭrangēlā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#West_Syriac_Serṭā" title="Syriac alphabet">Serṭā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#East_Syriac_Maḏnḥāyā" title="Syriac alphabet">Maḏnḥāyā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teeline_Shorthand" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeline Shorthand">Teeline Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abugidas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Laṇḍā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modi_script" title="Modi script">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Nepalese scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golmol script (page does not exist)">Golmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Himmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Himmol script (page does not exist)">Himmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kummol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kummol script (page does not exist)">Kummol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kvemmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kvemmol script (page does not exist)">Kvemmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pachumol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pachumol script (page does not exist)">Pachumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyig_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyig script">Tamyig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Litumol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karani_script" title="Karani script">Karani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uchen_script" title="Uchen script">Uchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Um%C3%AA_script" title="Umê script">Umê</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_script" title="Ahom script">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buda_script" title="Buda script">Buda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_script" title="Cham script">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">Khom Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulitan" title="Kulitan">Kulitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdi" title="Langdi">Langdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_script" title="Lao script">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leke_script" title="Leke script">Leke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Old Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eveyla_Akuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Eveyla Akuru">Eveyla Akuru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_script" title="Pyu script">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_alphabet" title="Shan alphabet">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Le_script" title="Tai Le script">Tai Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Tai_Lue_alphabet" title="New Tai Lue alphabet">New Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Noi_script" title="Tai Noi script">Tai Noi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Viet_script" title="Tai Viet script">Tai Viet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Tay_script" title="Lai Tay script">Lai Tay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Incung_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Incung script (page does not exist)">Incung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampung_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lembak_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lembak script (page does not exist)">Lembak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogan_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ogan script (page does not exist)">Ogan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasemah_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasemah script (page does not exist)">Pasemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Rejang script">Rejang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serawai_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serawai script (page does not exist)">Serawai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharati_script" title="Bharati script">Bharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyd%27s_syllabic_shorthand" title="Boyd's syllabic shorthand">Boyd's syllabic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language#Writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_syllabics" title="Carrier syllabics">Déné syllabics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dham_script" title="Dham script">Dham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunjala_Gondi_script" title="Gunjala Gondi script">Gunjala Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarati" title="Sarati">Sarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandombe_script" title="Mandombe script">Mandombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_writing" title="Gondi writing">Masaram Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollard_script" title="Pollard script">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Natural_Shorthand" title="Thomas Natural Shorthand">Thomas Natural Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_language" title="Qiang language">Rma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Alphabets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avoiuli" title="Avoiuli">Avoiuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassa_Vah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassa Vah script">Bassa Vah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirth" title="Cirth">Cirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coorgi%E2%80%93Cox_alphabet" title="Coorgi–Cox alphabet">Coorgi–Cox alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Cyrillic" title="Bosnian Cyrillic">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand" title="Duployan shorthand">Duployan shorthand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand#Chinook_writing" title="Duployan shorthand">Chinook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclectic_shorthand" title="Eclectic shorthand">Eclectic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbasan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbasan script">Elbasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enochian" title="Enochian">Enochian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Psalmanazar#Pseudo-lexicographer" title="George Psalmanazar">Formosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabelsberger_shorthand" title="Gabelsberger shorthand">Gabelsberger shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadabuursi_Somali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadabuursi Somali script">Gadabuursi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garay_alphabet" title="Garay alphabet">Garay alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">Asomtavruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuskhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuskhuri">Nuskhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkhedruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkhedruli">Mkhedruli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veso_Bey_alphabet" title="Veso Bey alphabet">Veso Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregg_shorthand" title="Gregg shorthand">Gregg shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Iberian_alphabet" title="Greco-Iberian alphabet">Greco-Iberian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanifi_Rohingya_script" title="Hanifi Rohingya script">Hanifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddare_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaddare script">Kaddare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayah_Li_alphabet" title="Kayah Li alphabet">Kayah Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_scripts" title="Klingon scripts">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneventan_script" title="Beneventan script">Beneventan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Blackletter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlac" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlac">Interlac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Sigla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_script" title="Luo script">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medefaidrin" title="Medefaidrin">Medefaidrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molodtsov_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Molodtsov alphabet">Molodtsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language#Script" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_Bani" title="Mundari Bani">Mundari Bani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%27Ko_script" title="N'Ko script">N'Ko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Chiki_script" title="Ol Chiki script">Ol Chiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Permic_script" title="Old Permic script">Old Permic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Orkhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenki alphabet">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galik_alphabet" title="Galik alphabet">Galik alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_Script" title="Clear Script">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagindra_script" title="Vagindra script">Vagindra</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Onal" title="Ol Onal">Ol Onal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmanya_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pau_Cin_Hau_script" title="Pau Cin Hau script">Pau Cin Hau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">Cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_runes" title="Dalecarlian runes">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcomannic runes">Marcomannic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staveless_runes" title="Staveless runes">Staveless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavian_alphabet" title="Shavian alphabet">Shavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todhri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Todhri script">Todhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language#Writing_systems" title="Kurukh language">Tolong Siki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellara_alphabet" title="Vellara alphabet">Vellara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vithkuqi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Vithkuqi script">Vithkuqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language#Orthography" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets#Yezidi" title="Kurdish alphabets">Yezidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaghawa script">Zaghawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Non-linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Maritime flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ideograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adinkra_symbols" title="Adinkra symbols">Adinkra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blissymbols" title="Blissymbols">Blissymbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba_symbols" title="Dongba symbols">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_Shaba_script" title="Ersu Shaba script">Ersu Shaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(picture_language)" title="Isotype (picture language)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaid%C4%81_glyphs" title="Kaidā glyphs">Kaidā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaw_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing">Miꞌkmaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_writing" title="Mixtec writing">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Epoch_Notation_Painting" class="mw-redirect" title="New Epoch Notation Painting">New Epoch Notation Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsibidi" title="Nsibidi">Nsibidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems#Ojibwe_"hieroglyphs"" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siglas_poveiras" title="Siglas poveiras">Siglas poveiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testerian" title="Testerian">Testerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Logograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">bird-worm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen script">Bowen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Chinese-influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_script" title="Sui script">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian cuneiform">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other logosyllabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagam_script" title="Bagam script">Bagam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenevil" title="Tenevil">Tenevil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Classical_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi (Classical)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Logoconsonantal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Numerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic (Greek)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sitelen_Pona" title="Sitelen Pona">Sitelen Pona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semi-syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-syllabaries">Semi-syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Full</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Iberian_script" title="Northeastern Iberian script">Northeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Iberian_script" title="Southeastern Iberian script">Southeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khom_script_(Ong_Kommadam)" title="Khom script (Ong Kommadam)">Khom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Redundant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Espanca_script" title="Espanca script">Espanca script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Paleohispanic_script" title="Southwest Paleohispanic script">Southwest Paleohispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam#Quốc_Âm_Tân_Tự" title="History of writing in Vietnam">Quốc Âm Tân Tự</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sign_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASLwrite" title="ASLwrite">ASLwrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si5s" title="Si5s">si5s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afaka_syllabary" title="Afaka syllabary">Afaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamum_script" title="Bamum script">Bamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9t%C3%A9_syllabary" title="Bété syllabary">Bété</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypro-Minoan_syllabary" title="Cypro-Minoan syllabary">Cypro-Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditema_tsa_Dinoko" title="Ditema tsa Dinoko">Ditema tsa Dinoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskayan_script" title="Eskayan script">Eskayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geba_syllabary" title="Geba syllabary">Geba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iban_language#Alphabet" title="Iban language">Iban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindai_moji" title="Jindai moji">Jindai moji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Kikakui_script" title="Mende Kikakui script">Kikakui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_syllabary" title="Kpelle syllabary">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language#Lisu_syllabary" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loma_language#writing_systems" title="Loma language">Loma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nwagu_Aneke_script" title="Nwagu Aneke script">Nwagu Aneke script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleai_script" title="Woleai script">Woleai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Modern_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugtun_script" title="Yugtun script">Yugtun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Braille" title="Template:Braille"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Braille" title="Template talk:Braille"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Braille" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Braille"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Braille_⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a><span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span>⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille cell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1829_braille" title="1829 braille">1829 braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_uniformity_of_braille_alphabets" title="International uniformity of braille alphabets">International uniformity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_ASCII" title="Braille ASCII">ASCII braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Patterns" title="Braille Patterns">Unicode braille patterns</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:French-ordered_braille_alphabets" title="Category:French-ordered braille alphabets">French-ordered</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Braille" title="Albanian Braille">Albanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azeri_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri Braille">Azerbaijani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Braille" title="Catalan Braille">Catalan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Chinese (mainland Mandarin)</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Braille" title="Czech Braille">Czech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Braille" title="Dutch Braille">Dutch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_Braille" title="Esperanto Braille">Esperanto</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Braille" title="French Braille">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Braille" title="German Braille">German</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_braille" title="Ghanaian braille">Ghanaian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guarani_Braille" title="Guarani Braille">Guarani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Braille" title="Hawaiian Braille">Hawaiian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Braille" title="Hungarian Braille">Hungarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiaq_Braille" title="Iñupiaq Braille">Iñupiaq</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Italian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Braille" title="Latvian Braille">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Braille" title="Lithuanian Braille">Lithuanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a> (extended to 8-dot)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_Braille" title="Māori Braille">Māori</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Braille" title="Navajo Braille">Navajo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_braille" title="Nigerian braille">Nigerian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Braille" title="Philippine Braille">Philippine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Braille" title="Portuguese Braille">Portuguese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Braille" title="Romanian Braille">Romanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samoan_Braille" title="Samoan Braille">Samoan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Braille" title="Slovak Braille">Slovak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_braille" title="South African braille">South African</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Braille" title="Spanish Braille">Spanish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Braille" title="Turkish Braille">Turkish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Braille" title="Welsh Braille">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Braille" title="Yugoslav Braille">Yugoslav</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zambian_Braille" title="Zambian Braille">Zambian</a></span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nordic family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Braille" title="Estonian Braille">Estonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faroese_Braille" title="Faroese Braille">Faroese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Braille" title="Icelandic Braille">Icelandic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Braille" title="Scandinavian Braille">Scandinavian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Danish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Finnish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Greenlandic</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northern_S%C3%A1mi_Braille" title="Northern Sámi Braille">Northern Sámi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Norwegian</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Swedish</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic alphabets">Cyrillic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Braille" title="Belarusian Braille">Belarusian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Braille" title="Bulgarian Braille">Bulgarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Braille" title="Kazakh Braille">Kazakh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Braille" title="Kyrgyz Braille">Kyrgyz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Braille" title="Mongolian Braille">Mongolian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Braille" title="Tatar Braille">Tatar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Braille" title="Ukrainian Braille">Ukrainian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egyptian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (Pakistan)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Bharati_Braille" title="Bharati Braille">Bharati Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_Braille" title="Devanagari Braille">Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Braille" title="Bengali Braille">Bengali (Bangla / Assamese)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Braille" title="Gujarati Braille">Gujarati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kannada_Braille" title="Kannada Braille">Kannada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odia_Braille" title="Odia Braille">Odia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Braille" title="Punjabi Braille">Punjabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Braille" title="Sinhala Braille">Sinhala</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telugu_Braille" title="Telugu Braille">Telugu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (India)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez Braille">Amharic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Braille" title="Armenian Braille">Armenian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_Braille" title="Dzongkha Braille">Dzongkha</a> (Bhutanese)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Georgian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_Braille" title="Inuktitut Braille">Inuktitut</a> (reassigned vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Braille" title="Khmer Braille">Khmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thai_and_Lao_Braille" title="Thai and Lao Braille">Thai and Lao</a> (Japanese vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Braille" title="Tibetan Braille">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Braille" title="American Braille">American Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Chinese semi-syllabaries</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eight-dot</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (GS8)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols in braille</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency marks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Computer_Braille_Code" title="Computer Braille Code">Computer Braille Code</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (science; GS8/GS6)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nemeth_Braille" title="Nemeth Braille">Nemeth braille code</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_e-book" title="Braille e-book">Braille e-book</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_embosser" title="Braille embosser">Braille embosser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_translator" title="Braille translator">Braille translator</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mountbatten_Brailler" title="Mountbatten Brailler">Mountbatten Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Optical_braille_recognition" title="Optical braille recognition">Optical braille recognition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perkins_Brailler" title="Perkins Brailler">Perkins Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slate_and_stylus" title="Slate and stylus">Slate and stylus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braigo" title="Braigo">Braigo</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barbier" title="Charles Barbier">Charles Barbier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3%C5%BCa_Czacka" title="Róża Czacka">Róża Czacka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ha%C3%BCy" title="Valentin Haüy">Valentin Haüy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harris_Mowbray" title="Harris Mowbray">Harris Mowbray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thakur_Vishva_Narain_Singh" title="Thakur Vishva Narain Singh">Thakur Vishva Narain Singh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sabriye_Tenberken" title="Sabriye Tenberken">Sabriye Tenberken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bell_Wait" title="William Bell Wait">William Bell Wait</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Institute_of_America" title="Braille Institute of America">Braille Institute of America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Without_Borders" title="Braille Without Borders">Braille Without Borders</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japan_Braille_Library" title="Japan Braille Library">Japan Braille Library</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Braille_Association" title="National Braille Association">National Braille Association</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Blindness_organizations" title="Category:Blindness organizations">Blindness organizations</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_for_the_blind" title="Category:Schools for the blind">Schools for the blind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Printing_House_for_the_Blind" title="American Printing House for the Blind">American Printing House for the Blind</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">tactile alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decapoint" title="Decapoint">Decapoint</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Night_writing" title="Night writing">Night writing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vibratese" title="Vibratese">Vibratese</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Accessible_publishing" title="Accessible publishing">Accessible publishing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille literacy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/RoboBraille" title="RoboBraille">RoboBraille</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. 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Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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