CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Kingdom of Aksum - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"4666a646-d9a0-4b2c-8afb-c660c508e991","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Kingdom_of_Aksum","wgTitle":"Kingdom of Aksum","wgCurRevisionId":1259978254,"wgRevisionId":1259978254,"wgArticleId":20609804,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Use dmy dates from August 2023","Articles containing Ge'ez-language text","Articles containing Sabaean-language text","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters", "All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Kingdom of Aksum","Former empires in Africa","Former monarchies of Africa","Political history of Eritrea","Countries in ancient Africa","Countries in medieval Africa","States and territories established in the 1st century","States and territories disestablished in the 960s","Former Christian states","Former kingdoms"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Kingdom_of_Aksum","wgRelevantArticleId":20609804,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en" ,"pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q139377","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022", "ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Endubis.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="573"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Endubis.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="382"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="305"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Kingdom of Aksum - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Kingdom_of_Aksum rootpage-Kingdom_of_Aksum skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Kingdom+of+Aksum" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Kingdom+of+Aksum" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Kingdom+of+Aksum" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Kingdom+of+Aksum" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Aksum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Aksum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Rise of Aksum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Aksum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gudit's_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gudit's_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Gudit's invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gudit's_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Coinage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Palace_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palace_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Palace architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palace_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stelae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stelae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Stelae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stelae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations,_trade,_and_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations,_trade,_and_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Foreign relations, trade, and economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations,_trade,_and_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_change_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Climate change hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kingdom of Aksum</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">72 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkryk_Aksoem" title="Koninkryk Aksoem – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Koninkryk Aksoem" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B0_%E1%8A%A0%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%B1%E1%88%9D" title="መንግሥተ አክሱም – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="መንግሥተ አክሱም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85" title="مملكة أكسوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة أكسوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinu_d%27Aksum" title="Reinu d'Aksum – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reinu d'Aksum" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksum_krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Aksum krallığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aksum krallığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="اکسوم ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اکسوم ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="আকসুম রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আকসুম রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksum_%C3%94ng-kok" title="Aksum Ông-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Aksum Ông-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Аксум батшалығы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Аксум батшалығы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Аксумскае царства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аксумскае царства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC_(%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Аксум (държава) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Аксум (държава)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumitisches_Reich" title="Aksumitisches Reich – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Aksumitisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_d%27Axum" title="Regne d'Axum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne d'Axum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumsk%C3%A9_kr%C3%A1lovstv%C3%AD" title="Aksumské království – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aksumské království" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyrnas_Aksum" title="Teyrnas Aksum – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Teyrnas Aksum" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksum" title="Aksum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Aksum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumitisches_Reich" title="Aksumitisches Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aksumitisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumi_kuningriik" title="Aksumi kuningriik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aksumi kuningriik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%BE%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BC" title="Βασίλειο του Αξούμ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βασίλειο του Αξούμ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Axum" title="Reino de Axum – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino de Axum" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksuma_Re%C4%9Dlando" title="Aksuma Reĝlando – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aksuma Reĝlando" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumgo_Erresuma" title="Aksumgo Erresuma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aksumgo Erresuma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%B4%D9%87" title="امپراتوری حبشه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری حبشه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_d%27Aksoum" title="Royaume d'Aksoum – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume d'Aksoum" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Axum" title="Reino de Axum – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reino de Axum" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%85%EC%88%A8_%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="악숨 왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="악숨 왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masarautar_Aksum" title="Masarautar Aksum – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Masarautar Aksum" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%AB_%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աքսումի թագավորություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աքսումի թագավորություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="अकसूम राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अकसूम राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevstvo_Aksum" title="Kraljevstvo Aksum – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kraljevstvo Aksum" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Aksum" title="Kekaisaran Aksum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekaisaran Aksum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_di_Axum" title="Regno di Axum – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno di Axum" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9D" title="קיסרות אקסום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קיסרות אקסום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಅಕ್ಸಮ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಕ್ಸಮ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="აქსუმის სამეფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აქსუმის სამეფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufalme_wa_Aksum" title="Ufalme wa Aksum – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ufalme wa Aksum" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyaniya_Aksum%C3%AA" title="Keyaniya Aksumê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Keyaniya Aksumê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumas_valsts" title="Aksumas valsts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aksumas valsts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumo_imperija" title="Aksumo imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aksumo imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_de_Acsum" title="Impero de Acsum – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero de Acsum" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksz%C3%BAmi_Kir%C3%A1lys%C3%A1g" title="Akszúmi Királyság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Akszúmi Királyság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanjakan%27_i_Aksoma" title="Fanjakan' i Aksoma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fanjakan' i Aksoma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A5%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="ॲक्सुम साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ॲक्सुम साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94" title="აქსუმიშ ომაფე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="აქსუმიშ ომაფე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85" title="مملكة اكسوم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مملكة اكسوم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkrijk_Aksum" title="Koninkrijk Aksum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koninkrijk Aksum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A0%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="アクスム王国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アクスム王国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongeriket_Aksum" title="Kongeriket Aksum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kongeriket Aksum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumriket" title="Aksumriket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Aksumriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mootummaa_Aaksuum" title="Mootummaa Aaksuum – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Mootummaa Aaksuum" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%D8%AA" title="اکسوم بادشاہت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اکسوم بادشاہت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksum" title="Aksum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Aksum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_de_Axum" title="Império de Axum – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império de Axum" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regatul_Aksum" title="Regatul Aksum – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Regatul Aksum" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Аксумское царство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аксумское царство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kingdom of Aksum" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumsko_kraljestvo" title="Aksumsko kraljestvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Aksumsko kraljestvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Краљевство Аксум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Краљевство Аксум" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumsko_Kraljevstvo" title="Aksumsko Kraljevstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Aksumsko Kraljevstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksumin_valtakunta" title="Aksumin valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aksumin valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kungariket_Aksum" title="Kungariket Aksum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kungariket Aksum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="அக்சும் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அக்சும் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagldit_n_Waksum" title="Tagldit n Waksum – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tagldit n Waksum" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A1" title="อาณาจักรอักซุม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อาณาจักรอักซุม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksum_Krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Aksum Krallığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aksum Krallığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Аксумське царство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аксумське царство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA_%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85" title="مملکت اکسوم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مملکت اکسوم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Aksum" title="Vương quốc Aksum – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vương quốc Aksum" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginhadian_han_Aksum" title="Ginhadian han Aksum – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ginhadian han Aksum" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%85%8B%E8%8B%8F%E5%A7%86%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="阿克苏姆帝国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="阿克苏姆帝国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%85%8B%E8%98%87%E5%A7%86%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="阿克蘇姆帝國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="阿克蘇姆帝國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%85%8B%E8%8B%8F%E5%A7%86%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="阿克苏姆王国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="阿克苏姆王国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q139377#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Kingdom_of_Aksum" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&action=edit"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Kingdom_of_Aksum" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&oldid=1259978254" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Kingdom_of_Aksum&id=1259978254&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FKingdom_of_Aksum"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FKingdom_of_Aksum"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Kingdom_of_Aksum&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Aksum" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q139377" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Polity in Africa and Arabia before 960</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of Aksum</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">መንግሥተ አክሱም</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a>)</span><br /><span title="Sabaean-language text"><span lang="xsa" dir="rtl">𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Sabaean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaean language">Sabaean</a>)</span><br /><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Βασιλεία τῶν Ἀξωμιτῶν</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1st century – 960 AD</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Endubis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aksumite currency depicting King Endubis of Aksum or Axum"><img alt="Aksumite currency depicting King Endubis of Aksum or Axum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Endubis.jpg/250px-Endubis.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Endubis.jpg/375px-Endubis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Endubis.jpg/500px-Endubis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="293" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Aksumite_currency" title="Aksumite currency">Aksumite currency</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Endubis" title="Endubis">King Endubis</a></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axum" title="Axum">Axum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubar" title="Kubar">Kubar</a> (after <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800</span>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BFez" class="mw-redirect" title="Geʿez">Geʿez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a><sup id="cite_ref-donaldfairbairn_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donaldfairbairn-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a><sup id="cite_ref-sourcebooks.fordham.edu_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sourcebooks.fordham.edu-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div> (from 1st century)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /><i>Various</i><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Nicene and Miaphysite Christianity</a>; official after mid-4th century)<sup id="cite_ref-vincentkhapoya_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vincentkhapoya-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia#Influence_on_Aksum" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Aksumite polytheism</a> (before 350)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Ancient Semitic religion</a> (before 350)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Aksumite, Ethiopian, <a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian people">Abyssinian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Negus" title="Negus">Negus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_aristocratic_and_court_titles#Imperial_and_royal_titles" title="Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles">Negusa Nagast</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100 AD</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bazen_of_Axum" title="Bazen of Axum">Bazen of Axum</a> (first known) <a href="/wiki/Ethiopis" title="Ethiopis">Ethiopis</a> (according to tradition)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 917 or 940-960 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dil_Na%27od" title="Dil Na'od">Dil Na'od</a> (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> to <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1st century</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/GDRT#South_Arabian_involvement" title="GDRT">Early South Arabian involvement</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3rd century</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/King_Ezana" class="mw-redirect" title="King Ezana">King Ezana</a>'s conversion to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">325 or 328</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/King_Ezana" class="mw-redirect" title="King Ezana">King Ezana</a>'s conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">330</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Aksumite_invasion_of_Himyar" title="Aksumite invasion of Himyar">Aksumite invasion of Himyar</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">520</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Elephant" title="Year of the Elephant">Year of the Elephant</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">570</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/First_Hijra" class="mw-redirect" title="First Hijra">First Hijra</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">613-615</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7th century</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Collapse </div></th><td class="infobox-data">960 AD</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">350<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">1,250,000 km<sup>2</sup> (480,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">525</th><td class="infobox-data">2,500,000 km<sup>2</sup> (970,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aksumite_currency" title="Aksumite currency">Aksumite currency</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Yemen" title="Sasanian Yemen">Sasanian Yemen</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Kingdom of Aksum</b> (<a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a>: <span lang="gez">አክሱም</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾÄksum</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Sabaean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaean language">Sabaean</a>: <span lang="xsa" dir="rtl">𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣</span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">ʾkšm</span>; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Ἀξωμίτης</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Axōmítēs</i></span>) also known as the <b>Kingdom of Axum</b>, or the <b>Aksumite Empire</b>, was a kingdom in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a> from <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Ethiopia in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, based in what is now northern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, and spanning present-day <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>. Emerging from the earlier <a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a> civilization, the kingdom was founded in 1st century.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city of <a href="/wiki/Axum" title="Axum">Axum</a> served as the kingdom's capital for many centuries until it relocated to <a href="/wiki/Kubar" title="Kubar">Kubar</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 9th century due to declining trade connections and recurring external invasions.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillipson48_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillipson48-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kingdom of Aksum was considered one of the four <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a> of the 3rd century by the Persian prophet <a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a>, alongside <a href="/wiki/Sassanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanian Empire">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aksum continued to expand under the reign of <a href="/wiki/GDRT" title="GDRT">Gedara</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 200–230</span>), who was the first king to be involved in South Arabian affairs. His reign resulted in the control of much of western <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tihama" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihama">Tihama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Najran" title="Najran">Najran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%CA%BFafir" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Maʿafir">Al-Maʿafir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zafar,_Yemen" title="Zafar, Yemen">Ẓafar</a> (until <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 230</span>), and parts of <a href="/wiki/Hashid" title="Hashid">Hashid</a> territory around <a href="/wiki/Khamir,_Yemen" title="Khamir, Yemen">Hamir</a> in the northern <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Yemen" title="Geography of Yemen">highlands</a> until a joint Himyarite-Sabean alliance pushed them out. Aksum-Himyar conflicts persisted throughout the 3rd century. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Endubis" title="Endubis">Endubis</a> (270–310), Aksum began minting <a href="/wiki/Aksumite_currency" title="Aksumite currency">coins</a> that have been excavated as far away as <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea</a> and southern India.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the kingdom became a major power on the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">trade route between Rome and India</a> and gained a monopoly of <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a>, it entered the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman cultural sphere</a>. Due to its ties with the Greco-Roman world, Aksum <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ethiopia" title="Christianity in Ethiopia">adopted Christianity as the state religion</a> in the mid-4th century, under <a href="/wiki/Ezana_of_Axum" title="Ezana of Axum">Ezana</a> (320s – <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 360</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-Derat34_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Derat34-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following their Christianization, the Aksumites ceased construction of <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stelae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillipson48_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillipson48-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kingdom continued to expand throughout <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, conquering <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a> under Ezana in 330 for a short period of time and inheriting from it the Greek exonym "Ethiopia".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aksumite dominance in the Red Sea culminated during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Kaleb_of_Axum" title="Kaleb of Axum">Kaleb of Axum</a> (514–542), who, at the behest of the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justin_I" title="Justin I">Justin I</a>, invaded the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite Kingdom</a> in Yemen in order to end the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">persecution of Christians</a> perpetrated by the Jewish king <a href="/wiki/Dhu_Nuwas" title="Dhu Nuwas">Dhu Nuwas</a>. With the annexation of Himyar, the Kingdom of Aksum was at its largest territorial extent, being around 2,500,000 km<sup>2</sup> (970,000 sq mi). However, the territory was lost in the <a href="/wiki/Aksumite%E2%80%93Persian_wars" title="Aksumite–Persian wars">Aksumite–Persian wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aksum held on to Southern Arabia from 520 until 525 when Sumyafa Ashwa was deposed by <a href="/wiki/Abraha" title="Abraha">Abraha</a>. </p><p>The kingdom's slow decline had begun by the 7th century, at which point currency ceased to be minted. The Persian (and later Muslim) presence in the Red Sea caused Aksum to suffer economically, and the population of the city of Axum shrank. Alongside environmental and internal factors, this has been suggested as the reason for its decline. Aksum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, and through uncertain circumstances, the kingdom collapsed around 960.<sup id="cite_ref-Derat34_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Derat34-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, the Kingdom of Aksum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout the Late Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Conti_Rossini" title="Carlo Conti Rossini">Carlo Conti Rossini</a> believed that the word <i>Aksum</i> derives from a Semitic root, and means 'a green and dense garden' or 'full of grass'.<sup id="cite_ref-Mordechai32_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mordechai32-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contenitore_di_simulacro_con_rilievo_e_iscrizioni,_V_secolo_ac_ca._06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Contenitore_di_simulacro_con_rilievo_e_iscrizioni%2C_V_secolo_ac_ca._06.jpg/220px-Contenitore_di_simulacro_con_rilievo_e_iscrizioni%2C_V_secolo_ac_ca._06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Contenitore_di_simulacro_con_rilievo_e_iscrizioni%2C_V_secolo_ac_ca._06.jpg/330px-Contenitore_di_simulacro_con_rilievo_e_iscrizioni%2C_V_secolo_ac_ca._06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Contenitore_di_simulacro_con_rilievo_e_iscrizioni%2C_V_secolo_ac_ca._06.jpg/440px-Contenitore_di_simulacro_con_rilievo_e_iscrizioni%2C_V_secolo_ac_ca._06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3324" data-file-height="3558" /></a><figcaption>An Axumite <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stela</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3></div> <p>Before the establishment of Axum, the Tigray plateau of northern Ethiopia was home to a kingdom known as <a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a>. Archaeological evidence shows that the kingdom was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabaeans</a> from modern-day Yemen; scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been the founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been refuted, and their influence is considered to have been minor.<sup id="cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro-Hay57-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a>, which developed into <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Ancient Semitic religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Munro6162_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro6162-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initial centuries of Aksum's development, transitioning from a modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed at <a href="/wiki/Lioness_of_Gobedra" title="Lioness of Gobedra">Gobedra</a>, two kilometers west of <a href="/wiki/Aksum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksum">Aksum</a>. Excavations on Beta Giyorgis, a hill to the northwest of Aksum, validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the 7th to 4th centuries BC. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the outset of the common era. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area.<sup id="cite_ref-users.clas.ufl.edu_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-users.clas.ufl.edu-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-whc.unesco.org_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whc.unesco.org-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 BC and 150 AD. Small scale district "kingdoms" denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appears to have existed in the early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and here <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Munro-Hay" title="Stuart Munro-Hay">Stuart Munro-Hay</a> concludes that; "Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one which was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'King-of-Kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it is quite possible that at the death of a King-of-Kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in the confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_Aksum">Rise of Aksum</h3></div> <p>The first historical mention of Axum comes from the <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i>, a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-1st century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais of the Hunts</a> as lying within the realm of <a href="/wiki/Zoskales" title="Zoskales">Zoskales</a>. The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. King Zoskales had a Greek education, indicating that Greco-Roman influence was already present at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-sourcebooks.fordham.edu_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sourcebooks.fordham.edu-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">trade route between Rome and India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Aksumite control over <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> enabled the exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market at <a href="/wiki/Qohaito" title="Qohaito">Coloe</a>, itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. During the 2nd century AD, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the 4th century AD, the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and a organized military.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 200 AD, Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in <a href="/wiki/Al-Maafer_District" title="Al-Maafer District">Al-Maafer</a> and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the 3rd century, the kings <a href="/wiki/GDRT" title="GDRT">GDRT</a> and <a href="/wiki/%CA%BDDBH" title="ʽDBH">ʽDBH</a> dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with the title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR <i>negus</i> of Aksum." Later in the century the <i>mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns</i> (kings of Habashat <a href="/wiki/DTWNS" title="DTWNS">DTWNS</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=ZQRNS&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ZQRNS (page does not exist)">ZQRNS</a>) are also mentioned fighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Monumentum_Adulitanum" title="Monumentum Adulitanum">Monumentum Adulitanum</a></i> recorded by <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a>, in around the mid to late 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260), the Aksumites led by an anonymous king achieved significant territorial expansion in the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, with their influence extending as far as <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tana" title="Lake Tana">Lake Tana</a> and the borders of Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dx.doi.org2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dx.doi.org2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the 3rd century AD, Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet <a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Kephalaia" title="Kephalaia">Kephalaia</a></i>, as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As the political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite stelae in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matara,_Eritrea" title="Matara, Eritrea">Matara</a>, boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In the early 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a> described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides and back with inscriptions, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Ousanas" title="Ousanas">Ousanas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ezana_of_Axum" title="Ezana of Axum">Ezana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaleb_of_Axum" title="Kaleb of Axum">Kaleb</a>, and his son <a href="/wiki/Wazeba_of_Axum" title="Wazeba of Axum">Wazeba</a>, serving as victory monuments documenting the wars of these kings.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>King <a href="/wiki/Ezana_of_Axum" title="Ezana of Axum">Ezana</a> became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the 4th century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340 AD. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural link with the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Mediterranean</a>. Aksum gained a political link with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, which regarded itself as the protector of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. Three inscriptions on the <a href="/wiki/Ezana_Stone" title="Ezana Stone">Ezana Stone</a> documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Geez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the "<a href="/wiki/Noba" title="Noba">Noba</a>", and the other against the <a href="/wiki/Beja_people" title="Beja people">Beja</a>. According to the inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a>. Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland, since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king <a href="/wiki/Silko" title="Silko">Silko</a> carved on the wall of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Kalabsha" title="Temple of Kalabsha">Temple of Kalabsha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aksum_obelisk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Aksum_obelisk.jpg/220px-Aksum_obelisk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Aksum_obelisk.jpg/330px-Aksum_obelisk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Aksum_obelisk.jpg/440px-Aksum_obelisk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Obelisk_of_Axum" title="Obelisk of Axum">Obelisk of Axum</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Kaleb_of_Axum" title="Kaleb of Axum">King Kaleb</a> sent an expedition against the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite</a> King <a href="/wiki/Dhu_Nuwas" title="Dhu Nuwas">Dhu Nuwas</a>, who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as the coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia. <a href="/wiki/Dhu_Nuwas" title="Dhu Nuwas">Dhu Nuwas</a> was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named <a href="/wiki/Esimiphaios" class="mw-redirect" title="Esimiphaios">Esimiphaios</a> ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named <a href="/wiki/Abraha" title="Abraha">Abraha</a> after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a>, following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him, <a href="/wiki/Abraha" title="Abraha">Abraha</a> continued to govern Yemen through a tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Abraha" title="Abraha">Abraha</a>'s death, his son <a href="/w/index.php?title=Masruq_Abraha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Masruq Abraha (page does not exist)">Masruq Abraha</a> continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian the Great">Justinian the Great</a>, but having been denied, he decided to ally with the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid Persian Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a>, triggering the <a href="/wiki/Aksumite%E2%80%93Persian_wars" title="Aksumite–Persian wars">Aksumite–Persian wars</a>. Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander <a href="/wiki/Vahrez" class="mw-redirect" title="Vahrez">Vahrez</a> to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sana%27a_(570)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Sana'a (570)">Siege of Sana'a</a>, capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general <a href="/wiki/Vahrez" class="mw-redirect" title="Vahrez">Vahrez</a> led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Munro-Hay" title="Stuart Munro-Hay">Stuart Munro-Hay</a>, these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hijra_Abyssinia_(Rashid_ad-Din).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg/220px-Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg/330px-Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg/440px-Hijra_Abyssinia_%28Rashid_ad-Din%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2086" data-file-height="862" /></a><figcaption>14th century Islamic portrayal of the <a href="/wiki/Migration_to_Abyssinia" title="Migration to Abyssinia">First Hijrah</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in the early 7th century and the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615 AD for example, early <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> fleeing <a href="/wiki/Quraysh_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quraysh (tribe)">Qurayshi</a> persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey is known in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic history">Islamic history</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Migration_to_Abyssinia" title="Migration to Abyssinia">First Hijrah</a>. In 630, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> sent a naval expedition against suspected Abyssinian pirates, the <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_Alqammah_bin_Mujazziz" title="Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz">Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trade with the Roman/Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in the early 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the <a href="/wiki/Beja_people" title="Beja people">Beja</a> nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the 7th century AD, a strong Beja tribe known as the <a href="/wiki/Beja_kingdoms" title="Beja kingdoms">Zanafaj</a> entered the <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrean</a> plateau through the valley of <a href="/wiki/Gash-Barka" class="mw-redirect" title="Gash-Barka">Gash-Barka</a>. They overran and pillaged much of the <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrean</a> highlands as the Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result the connection to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> ports was lost.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">highlands</a> for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of the coast and their tributaries.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called <a href="/wiki/Kubar" title="Kubar">Kubar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro-Hay57-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Arab writer <a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Ya'qubi</a> was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern <a href="/wiki/Tigray_Region" title="Tigray Region">Tigray</a> or <a href="/wiki/Angot" title="Angot">Angot</a>; however, the exact location of this city is currently unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">Famine</a> is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs <a href="/wiki/Pope_Jacob_of_Alexandria" title="Pope Jacob of Alexandria">James</a> (819–830) and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Joseph_I_of_Alexandria" title="Pope Joseph I of Alexandria">Joseph</a> (830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Degna_Djan" title="Degna Djan">Degna Djan</a>, during the 9th century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of <a href="/wiki/Angot" title="Angot">Angot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gudit's_invasion"><span id="Gudit.27s_invasion"></span>Gudit's invasion</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gudit" title="Gudit">Gudit</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img45_Dungur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Aksum Dongur Palace in Aksum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img45_Dungur.jpg/220px-ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img45_Dungur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img45_Dungur.jpg/330px-ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img45_Dungur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img45_Dungur.jpg/440px-ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img45_Dungur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6730" data-file-height="3786" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of <a href="/wiki/Dungur" title="Dungur">Dungur</a> (also known as Queen of Sheba's Palace) in Aksum, Tigray Region, Ethiopia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AXUM._Ezanas._Circa_330-360.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/AXUM._Ezanas._Circa_330-360.jpg/170px-AXUM._Ezanas._Circa_330-360.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/AXUM._Ezanas._Circa_330-360.jpg/255px-AXUM._Ezanas._Circa_330-360.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/AXUM._Ezanas._Circa_330-360.jpg/340px-AXUM._Ezanas._Circa_330-360.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1656" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>Coins of King <a href="/wiki/Ezana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ezana">Ezana</a>, 330–360 AD. </figcaption></figure> <p>Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or "<a href="/wiki/Gudit" title="Gudit">Gudit</a>" defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors. <a href="/wiki/Gudit" title="Gudit">Gudit</a> sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclasm</a>. Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had a <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a> lasted until 1137 AD, when it was overthrown by <a href="/wiki/Mara_Takla_Haymanot" title="Mara Takla Haymanot">Mara Takla Haymanot</a>, resulting in the inception of the <a href="/wiki/Agaw_people" title="Agaw people">Agaw</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> king and then reigned for 40 years. She brought her Jewish army from <a href="/wiki/Semien_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Semien Mountains">Semien Mountains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tana" title="Lake Tana">Lake Tana</a> to orchestrate the pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in <a href="/wiki/Tigray_Province" title="Tigray Province">Tigray</a>. Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and stelae are found in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly <a href="/wiki/Dil_Na%27od" title="Dil Na'od">Dil Na'od</a>, while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in <a href="/wiki/Shewa" title="Shewa">Shewa</a>, protected by Christians. He begged assistance from a <a href="/wiki/African_Greeks#Ancient_Nubia" title="African Greeks">Nubian Greek</a> ruler, King <a href="/wiki/Moses_Georgios_of_Makuria" title="Moses Georgios of Makuria">Moses Georgios</a>, but remained unanswered.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by <a href="/wiki/Mara_Takla_Haymanot" title="Mara Takla Haymanot">Mara Tekla Haymanot</a> in 1137 AD, who ushered in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe dynasty</a> by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe dynasty</a> in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, <a href="/wiki/Yekuno_Amlak" title="Yekuno Amlak">Yekuno Amlak</a>, who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern <a href="/wiki/Solomonic_dynasty" title="Solomonic dynasty">Solomonic dynasty</a> around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum, <a href="/wiki/Dil_Na%27od" title="Dil Na'od">Dil Na'od</a>. It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at <a href="/wiki/Lalibela" title="Lalibela">Lalibela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yemrehana_Krestos_Church" title="Yemrehana Krestos Church">Yemrehana Krestos Church</a> shows heavy Aksumite influence.<sup id="cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro-Hay57-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <p>The Aksumite population mainly consisted of <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>-speaking groups, one of these groups were the <a href="/wiki/Ag%CA%BFazi" title="Agʿazi">Agʿazian</a> or the speakers of <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Geʽez language">Geʽez</a>, the commenter of the <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> inscription identifies them as the main inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Aksum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksum">Aksum</a> and its surroundings. The <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Agaw_people" title="Agaw people">Agaw people</a> were also known to have lived within the kingdom, as <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a> notes that a "governor of Agau", was entrusted by King <a href="/wiki/Kaleb_of_Axum" title="Kaleb of Axum">Kaleb of Axum</a> with the protection of the vital long-distance caravan routes from the south, suggesting that they lived within the southern frontier of the Aksumite kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aksum also had a sizeable <a href="/wiki/African_Greeks#Axumites_of_Ethiopia" title="African Greeks">Ethiopian Greek</a> population, which resided in the cities of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic</a> groups also inhabited Aksum, as inscriptions from the time of <a href="/wiki/Ezana_of_Axum" title="Ezana of Axum">Ezana</a> note the "Barya", an animist tribe who lived in the western part of the empire, believed to be the <a href="/wiki/Nara_people" title="Nara people">Naras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aksumite settlements were distributed across a significant portion of the highlands in the northern Horn of Africa, with the majority located in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Tigray_Region" title="Tigray Region">Tigray</a>, Ethiopia, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Akele_Guzai" class="mw-redirect" title="Akele Guzai">Akele Guzai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seraye" class="mw-redirect" title="Seraye">Seraye</a> regions of Eritrea. Despite the concentration in these areas, some Aksumite settlements such as <a href="/wiki/Tchika_Beret" title="Tchika Beret">Tchika Beret</a> are located as far as <a href="/wiki/South_Wollo" class="mw-redirect" title="South Wollo">South Wollo</a>. In addition to the highlands, sites from the Aksumite period were discovered along the Red Sea coast of Eritrea, near the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Zula" title="Gulf of Zula">Gulf of Zula</a>. Numerous Aksumite settlements were strategically positioned along an axis that traversed from Aksum to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Zula" title="Gulf of Zula">Gulf of Zula</a>, forming a route connecting the Aksumite capital in the highlands to the principal Aksumite port of <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> on the Red Sea. Along this route, two of the largest Aksumite-era settlements, <a href="/wiki/Matara,_Eritrea" title="Matara, Eritrea">Matara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qohaito" title="Qohaito">Qohaito</a>, were situated in the Eritrean highlands. The concertation of these Aksumite ancient settlements suggests high population density in the highlands of Tigray and central Eritrea.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Taddesse_Tamrat" title="Taddesse Tamrat">Taddesse Tamrat</a>, the integral regions of the Aksumite Kingdom included "much of the province of <a href="/wiki/Tigray_Region" title="Tigray Region">Tigre</a>, the whole of the Eritrean plateau" and the regions of <a href="/wiki/Wag_Province" title="Wag Province">Wag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lasta" title="Lasta">Lasta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angot" title="Angot">Angot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A complex agricultural system in the Aksumite area, which involved irrigation, dam construction, terracing, and plough-farming, played a crucial role in sustaining both urban and rural populations. Aksumite farmers cultivated a variety of cereal crops with origins from both Africa and the Near East. These crops included <a href="/wiki/Teff" title="Teff">teff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finger_millet" title="Finger millet">finger millet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, emmer wheat, bread wheat, hulled barley, and oats. In addition to cereal crops, Aksumite farmers also grew linseed, cotton, grapes, and legumes of Near Eastern origin such as lentils, fava beans, chickpeas, common peas, and grass peas. Other important crops included the African oil crop, <a href="/wiki/Guizotia_abyssinica" title="Guizotia abyssinica">Guizotia abyssinica</a>, as well as gourds and cress. This diverse range of crops, combined with the herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, contributed to the creation of a highly productive indigenous agropastoral food-producing tradition. This tradition played an integral role in the development of the Aksumite economy and the consolidation of state power.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Garima-Gospels-completed-project-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Garima-Gospels-completed-project-2.jpg/220px-Garima-Gospels-completed-project-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Garima-Gospels-completed-project-2.jpg/330px-Garima-Gospels-completed-project-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Garima-Gospels-completed-project-2.jpg/440px-Garima-Gospels-completed-project-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Garima_Gospels" title="Garima Gospels">Garima Gospels</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yeha,_chiesa_di_abuna_aftse,_museo,_manoscritto_del_xviii_secolo_01_sogno_di_giuseppe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Yeha%2C_chiesa_di_abuna_aftse%2C_museo%2C_manoscritto_del_xviii_secolo_01_sogno_di_giuseppe.jpg/220px-Yeha%2C_chiesa_di_abuna_aftse%2C_museo%2C_manoscritto_del_xviii_secolo_01_sogno_di_giuseppe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Yeha%2C_chiesa_di_abuna_aftse%2C_museo%2C_manoscritto_del_xviii_secolo_01_sogno_di_giuseppe.jpg/330px-Yeha%2C_chiesa_di_abuna_aftse%2C_museo%2C_manoscritto_del_xviii_secolo_01_sogno_di_giuseppe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Yeha%2C_chiesa_di_abuna_aftse%2C_museo%2C_manoscritto_del_xviii_secolo_01_sogno_di_giuseppe.jpg/440px-Yeha%2C_chiesa_di_abuna_aftse%2C_museo%2C_manoscritto_del_xviii_secolo_01_sogno_di_giuseppe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4314" data-file-height="3090" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscript</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Holy Mother Mary</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, the <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a>, which was eventually modified to include <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>, becoming an <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a>. Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is the <a href="/wiki/Obelisk_of_Aksum" class="mw-redirect" title="Obelisk of Aksum">Obelisk of Aksum</a>. </p><p>Under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ezana_of_Axum" title="Ezana of Axum">Ezana</a>, Aksum adopted <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Christianity</a> in place of its former <a href="/wiki/Polytheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheistic">polytheistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaic">Judaic</a> religions around 325. The Axumite Coptic Church gave rise to the present day <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a> (only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church in 1959) and <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahdo_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church">Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church</a> (granted autonomy from the Ethiopian Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a> (451), it has been an important <a href="/wiki/Miaphysite" class="mw-redirect" title="Miaphysite">Miaphysite</a> church, and its <a href="/wiki/Scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Scriptures">scriptures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a> continue to be in Geʽez.<sup id="cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britishmuseum.org-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Daily_Life_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daily_Life-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-georgeocox_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-georgeocox-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> became the official and literary language of the Axumite state, coming from the influence of the significant <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Greeks" title="Ethiopian Greeks">Ethiopian Greek</a> communities established in <a href="/wiki/Axum" title="Axum">Axum</a>, the port of <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a>, and other cities in the region during <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Empire">Ptolemaic</a> times.<sup id="cite_ref-abbasalamavol68_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abbasalamavol68-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-andebrhanweldegiorgis_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-andebrhanweldegiorgis-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McLaughlin_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greek was used in the state's administration, international diplomacy, and trade; it can be widely seen in coinage and inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-garimagospels_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garimagospels-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-americannumismaticsociety_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americannumismaticsociety-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fjnothling_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fjnothling-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-louisieminks_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisieminks-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BFez" class="mw-redirect" title="Geʿez">Geʿez</a>, the language of <a href="/wiki/Ag%CA%BFazi" title="Agʿazi">Agʿazi</a>, was spoken alongside Greek in the court of Aksum. Although during the early kingdom, Geʿez was a spoken language, it has attestations written in the Old South Arabian language <a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-unescoscientifichistoryofafrica_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unescoscientifichistoryofafrica-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jamescowlesprichard_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jamescowlesprichard-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-encylopediabritannica_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encylopediabritannica-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 4th century, <a href="/wiki/Ezana_of_Axum" title="Ezana of Axum">Ezana of Axum</a> promoted the <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a> and made Geʽez an official state language alongside Greek; by the 6th century literary translations into Geʿez were common.<sup id="cite_ref-garimagospels_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garimagospels-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-thomasolambdin_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomasolambdin-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-washingtonforeignareasstudiesdivision_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washingtonforeignareasstudiesdivision-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 7th century's Muslim conquests in the Middle East and North Africa, which effectively isolated Axum from the Greco-Roman world, Geʿez replaced Greek entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-muhammadjamalaldinmukhtar_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muhammadjamalaldinmukhtar-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Arabian_-_Fragment_of_a_Frieze_with_an_Ibex_and_Oryxes_-_Walters_2138.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/South_Arabian_-_Fragment_of_a_Frieze_with_an_Ibex_and_Oryxes_-_Walters_2138.jpg/220px-South_Arabian_-_Fragment_of_a_Frieze_with_an_Ibex_and_Oryxes_-_Walters_2138.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/South_Arabian_-_Fragment_of_a_Frieze_with_an_Ibex_and_Oryxes_-_Walters_2138.jpg/330px-South_Arabian_-_Fragment_of_a_Frieze_with_an_Ibex_and_Oryxes_-_Walters_2138.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/South_Arabian_-_Fragment_of_a_Frieze_with_an_Ibex_and_Oryxes_-_Walters_2138.jpg/440px-South_Arabian_-_Fragment_of_a_Frieze_with_an_Ibex_and_Oryxes_-_Walters_2138.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1205" /></a><figcaption>A stela with an <a href="/wiki/Nubian_ibex" title="Nubian ibex">ibex</a> and three <a href="/wiki/Arabian_oryx" title="Arabian oryx">Arabian oryx</a>, associated with <a href="/wiki/Astar_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Astar (god)">Astar</a> (<span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዐስተር</span></span>), Semitic god of the <a href="/wiki/Venus_in_culture" title="Venus in culture">Morning and Evening Star</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a <a href="/wiki/Polytheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheistic">polytheistic</a> religion related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> sponsored <i><a href="/wiki/General_History_of_Africa" title="General History of Africa">General History of Africa</a></i> French archaeologist Francis Anfray, suggests that the Aksumites worshipped <a href="/wiki/Astar_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Astar (god)">Astar</a>, his son, <a href="/wiki/Mahrem" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahrem">Mahrem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beher_(god)" title="Beher (god)">Beher</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Heath_-_No_1_-_A_Table_of_Hieroglyphics_found_at_Axum_-_B1977.14.8631_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/James_Heath_-_No_1_-_A_Table_of_Hieroglyphics_found_at_Axum_-_B1977.14.8631_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg/220px-James_Heath_-_No_1_-_A_Table_of_Hieroglyphics_found_at_Axum_-_B1977.14.8631_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/James_Heath_-_No_1_-_A_Table_of_Hieroglyphics_found_at_Axum_-_B1977.14.8631_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg/330px-James_Heath_-_No_1_-_A_Table_of_Hieroglyphics_found_at_Axum_-_B1977.14.8631_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/James_Heath_-_No_1_-_A_Table_of_Hieroglyphics_found_at_Axum_-_B1977.14.8631_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg/440px-James_Heath_-_No_1_-_A_Table_of_Hieroglyphics_found_at_Axum_-_B1977.14.8631_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1338" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A Table of Hieroglyphics found at Axum c. 19th century</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Steven_Kaplan_(Africanist)" title="Steven Kaplan (Africanist)">Steve Kaplan</a> argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that "The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign of <a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sheba" title="Queen of Sheba">Queen of Sheba</a> BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AD." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had a considerable impact." and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the acceptance of Christianity."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before converting to Christianity, King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might have worshiped the gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by his teacher <a href="/wiki/Saint_Frumentius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Frumentius">Frumentius</a>, who established the Axumite Coptic Church, which later became the modern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-313-32273-2_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-313-32273-2-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-goblues.org_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goblues.org-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-obelisk_bekerie_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obelisk_bekerie-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-ruperthopkins.com_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruperthopkins.com-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-otik.uk.zcu.cz_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-otik.uk.zcu.cz-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the disc and crescent with the cross. </p><p>Frumentius was in contact with the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Alexandria" title="Church of Alexandria">Church of Alexandria</a>, and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-users.clas.ufl.edu_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-users.clas.ufl.edu-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-whc.unesco.org_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whc.unesco.org-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria into <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a> by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is said to have been placed in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Our_Lady_Mary_of_Zion" title="Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion">Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion</a> by Menelik I for safekeeping.<sup id="cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britishmuseum.org-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Daily_Life_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daily_Life-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Islam came in the 7th century at the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ashama_ibn-Abjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashama ibn-Abjar">Ashama ibn-Abjar</a>, when the first followers of the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahabah</a>) migrated from <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> due to their persecution by the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>, the ruling <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> tribal confederation of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a> appealed to the <a href="/wiki/Ashama_ibn-Abjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashama ibn-Abjar">Ashama ibn-Abjar</a>, arguing that the early <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither the Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants. A <a href="/wiki/Second_migration_to_Abyssinia" title="Second migration to Abyssinia">second migration</a> consisting of 100 Muslim migrants occurred a few years later. Arabic inscriptions on the <a href="/wiki/Dahlak_Archipelago" title="Dahlak Archipelago">Dahlak Archipelago</a> dated to the mid 9th century AD. confirm the existence of an early Muslim presence in Aksum.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage">Coinage</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aksumite_currency" title="Aksumite currency">Aksumite currency</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg/250px-KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg/375px-KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg/500px-KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>Coins of king <a href="/wiki/Endybis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endybis">Endybis</a>, 227–235 AD. The right coin reads in Greek ΕΝΔΥΒΙC ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis".</figcaption></figure> <p>The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue <a href="/wiki/Aksumite_currency" title="Aksumite currency">its own coins</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ruperthopkins.com_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruperthopkins.com-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-otik.uk.zcu.cz_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-otik.uk.zcu.cz-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which bore legends in Geʽez and Greek. From the reign of Endubis up to <a href="/wiki/Armah" title="Armah">Armah</a> (approximately 270 to 610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to the coin after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was at once a useful instrument of <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> and a source of profit to the empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian architecture">Ethiopian architecture</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Palace_architecture">Palace architecture</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aksum,_chiesa_nuova_di_santa_maria_di_zion,_costruita_da_haile_selassie_negli_anni_%2760,_esterno_00,0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Aksum%2C_chiesa_nuova_di_santa_maria_di_zion%2C_costruita_da_haile_selassie_negli_anni_%2760%2C_esterno_00%2C0.jpg/220px-Aksum%2C_chiesa_nuova_di_santa_maria_di_zion%2C_costruita_da_haile_selassie_negli_anni_%2760%2C_esterno_00%2C0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Aksum%2C_chiesa_nuova_di_santa_maria_di_zion%2C_costruita_da_haile_selassie_negli_anni_%2760%2C_esterno_00%2C0.jpg/330px-Aksum%2C_chiesa_nuova_di_santa_maria_di_zion%2C_costruita_da_haile_selassie_negli_anni_%2760%2C_esterno_00%2C0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Aksum%2C_chiesa_nuova_di_santa_maria_di_zion%2C_costruita_da_haile_selassie_negli_anni_%2760%2C_esterno_00%2C0.jpg/440px-Aksum%2C_chiesa_nuova_di_santa_maria_di_zion%2C_costruita_da_haile_selassie_negli_anni_%2760%2C_esterno_00%2C0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5806" data-file-height="3595" /></a><figcaption>An Axumite Cathedral, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Our_Lady_Mary_of_Zion" title="Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion">Lady Mary of Zion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop <a href="/wiki/Podia" class="mw-redirect" title="Podia">podia</a> built of loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as the wall got higher, so the walls narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often whitewashed, like at <a href="/wiki/Yemrehana_Krestos_Church" title="Yemrehana Krestos Church">Yemrehana Krestos Church</a>) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on the exterior and sometimes the interior. </p><p>Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls. Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals, doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous flights of stairs that often flanked the walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later <a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_architecture" title="Rock-cut architecture">rock hewn churches</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tigray_Region" title="Tigray Region">Tigray</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lalibela" title="Lalibela">Lalibela</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro-Hay57-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">Palaces</a> usually consisted of a central <a href="/wiki/Pavilion" title="Pavilion">pavilion</a> surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (see <a href="/wiki/Dungur" title="Dungur">Dungur</a> for an example). The largest of these structures now known is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger.<sup id="cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro-Hay57-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in 'monkey heads', and a parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found in <a href="/wiki/Hawulti_(monument)" title="Hawulti (monument)">Hawelti</a>. Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the roof.<sup id="cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro-Hay57-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stelae">Stelae</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stela_aksum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stela_aksum.jpg/180px-Stela_aksum.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stela_aksum.jpg/270px-Stela_aksum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stela_aksum.jpg/360px-Stela_aksum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="511" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/King_Ezana%27s_Stela" class="mw-redirect" title="King Ezana's Stela">King Ezana's Stela</a>, an Aksumite <a href="/wiki/Obelisk" title="Obelisk">obelisk</a> in <a href="/wiki/Axum" title="Axum">Axum</a>, Ethiopia</figcaption></figure> <p>The stelae are perhaps the most identifiable part of the Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design. The largest of these towering obelisks would measure 33 meters high had it not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank.<sup id="cite_ref-users.clas.ufl.edu_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-users.clas.ufl.edu-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-whc.unesco.org_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whc.unesco.org-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For important monuments built in the region, a particular type of granite is used called <i>nepheline syenite</i>. It is fine grained and has also been used in historic monuments like the Stelae. These monuments are used to celebrate key figures in Axum history, especially kings or priests. These Stelae's are also called "Obelisk's," they are located in the Mai Hejja stelae field, where complex sedimentology of the land can be observed. The foundations for the monuments are around 8.5 m below the surface of the Mai Hejja stelae field. Sediments in this area have undergone a lot of weathering over the years, so the surface of this area has undergone a lot of changes. This is part of the reason for the complex stratigraphic history in this site, some previous layers under the surface of the site.<sup id="cite_ref-Butzer_471–495_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butzer_471–495-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_relations,_trade,_and_economy"><span id="Foreign_relations.2C_trade.2C_and_economy"></span>Foreign relations, trade, and economy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/250px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/375px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/500px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="903" /></a><figcaption>Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the 1st century AD (<a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a>) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium when it succumbed to a long decline against pressures from the various Islamic <a href="/wiki/Regional_power" title="Regional power">powers</a> leagued against it.</figcaption></figure> <p>Covering parts of what is now northern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and southern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between the <a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Indian subcontinent</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Mediterranean</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a>), exporting <a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">ivory</a>, tortoise shell, gold and <a href="/wiki/Emerald" title="Emerald">emeralds</a>, and importing <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> and spices.<sup id="cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britishmuseum.org-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Daily_Life_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daily_Life-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit in trade between various African (<a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>), Arabian (<a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>), and Indian states. </p><p>The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of a state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teff" title="Teff">teff</a>. The people of Aksum also raised <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded: <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>. Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently.<sup id="cite_ref-goblues.org_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goblues.org-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-obelisk_bekerie_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obelisk_bekerie-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">the Roman Empire and India</a>. This change took place around the start of the 1st century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red Sea was of secondary importance to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> and overland connections to the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. Starting around 1st century, a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a> directly to <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">southern India</a>. By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> to the Arabian Sea and India.<sup id="cite_ref-ruperthopkins.com_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruperthopkins.com-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-otik.uk.zcu.cz_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-otik.uk.zcu.cz-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although excavations have been limited, fourteen Roman coins dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries have been discovered at Aksumite sites like Matara. This suggests that trade with the Roman Empire existed at least since this period. <sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Coins_found_in_Matara_in_2-3rd_century.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Roman_Coins_found_in_Matara_in_2-3rd_century.png/220px-Roman_Coins_found_in_Matara_in_2-3rd_century.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Roman_Coins_found_in_Matara_in_2-3rd_century.png/330px-Roman_Coins_found_in_Matara_in_2-3rd_century.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Roman_Coins_found_in_Matara_in_2-3rd_century.png/440px-Roman_Coins_found_in_Matara_in_2-3rd_century.png 2x" data-file-width="1193" data-file-height="637" /></a><figcaption>14 Roman Coins found in Matara in 2-3rd century<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 525 AD, the Aksumites attempted to take over the Yemen region to gain control over The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; one of the most significant trading routes in the medieval world, connecting the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Rulers were inclined to establish a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea in Yemen to completely control the trading vessels that ran down the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is located in the maritime choke point between Yemen and Djibouti and Eritrea. Because of the ruler of Yemen's persecution of Christians in 523 AD, Kaleb I, the ruler of Aksum (a Christian region) at the time, responded to the persecutions by attacking the Himyarite king Yūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known as Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish convert who was persecuting the Christian community of Najran,Yemen in 525 AD, with the help of the Byzantine empire, with whom had ties with his kingdom. Victoriously, the Aksum empire was able to claim the Yemen region, establishing a viceroy in the region and troops to defend it until 570 AD when the Sassanids invaded. </p><p>The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation. <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped the same interior region of Africa was that of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a>, which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> corridor. By the 1st century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i> explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a>, the capital of Kush. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Climate_change_hypothesis">Climate change hypothesis</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Balaw_Kalaw_(metera),_stele_axumita_06.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Balaw_Kalaw_%28metera%29%2C_stele_axumita_06.JPG/220px-Balaw_Kalaw_%28metera%29%2C_stele_axumita_06.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Balaw_Kalaw_%28metera%29%2C_stele_axumita_06.JPG/330px-Balaw_Kalaw_%28metera%29%2C_stele_axumita_06.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Balaw_Kalaw_%28metera%29%2C_stele_axumita_06.JPG/440px-Balaw_Kalaw_%28metera%29%2C_stele_axumita_06.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Axumite Menhir in Balaw Kalaw (Metera) near <a href="/wiki/Senafe" title="Senafe">Senafe</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a> and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for the decline of the culture.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during the 1st century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to six or seven months, vastly improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without the aid of irrigation). </p><p>Askum was also located on a plateau 2,000 m (6,600 ft) feet above sea level, making its soil fertile and the land good for agriculture. This appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to support the demographic base that made this far flung commercial empire possible. It may also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into the moister, more fertile, and naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of Aksumite power. </p><p>As international profits from the exchange network declined, Aksum lost control over its raw material sources, and that network collapsed. The persistent environmental pressure on a large population needing to maintain a high level of regional food production intensified, which resulted in a wave of soil erosion that began on a local scale <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 650</span>, and reached crisis levels after 700. Additional socioeconomic contingencies presumably compounded the problem: these are traditionally reflected in a decline in maintenance, the deterioration and partial abandonment of marginal crop lands, shifts toward more destructive exploitation of pasture land—and ultimately wholesale, irreversible <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a>. This decline was possibly accelerated by an apparent decline in the reliability of rainfall beginning between 730 and 760, presumably with the result that an abbreviated modern growing season was reestablished during the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-butzer1981_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-butzer1981-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 495">: 495 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_literature">In literature</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_literature" title="Ethiopian literature">Ethiopian literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopian historiography</a></div> <p>The Aksumite Empire is portrayed as the main ally of <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Belisarius_series" title="Belisarius series">Belisarius series</a> by <a href="/wiki/David_Drake" title="David Drake">David Drake</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Flint" title="Eric Flint">Eric Flint</a> published by <a href="/wiki/Baen_Books" title="Baen Books">Baen Books</a>. The series takes place during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Kaleb_of_Axum" title="Kaleb of Axum">Kaleb</a>, who in the series was assassinated by the <a href="/wiki/Malwa" title="Malwa">Malwa</a> in 532 at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ta%27akha_Maryam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ta'akha Maryam (page does not exist)">Ta'akha Maryam</a> and succeeded by his youngest son Eon bisi Dakuen. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Wein" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Wein">Elizabeth Wein</a> series <i>The Lion Hunters</i>, <a href="/wiki/Mordred" title="Mordred">Mordred</a> and his family take refuge in Aksum after the fall of <a href="/wiki/Camelot" title="Camelot">Camelot</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kaleb_of_Axum" title="Kaleb of Axum">Kaleb</a> is the ruler in the first book; he passes his sovereignty onto his son Gebre Meskal, who rules during the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethio_w3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reconstruction of Dungur"><img alt="Reconstruction of Dungur" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Ethio_w3.jpg/120px-Ethio_w3.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Ethio_w3.jpg/180px-Ethio_w3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Ethio_w3.jpg/240px-Ethio_w3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reconstruction of Dungur</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_North_Stelae_Park,_Axum,_Ethiopia_(2812686646).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The largest Aksumite stele, broken where it fell."><img alt="The largest Aksumite stele, broken where it fell." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_North_Stelae_Park%2C_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282812686646%29.jpg/120px-The_North_Stelae_Park%2C_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282812686646%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_North_Stelae_Park%2C_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282812686646%29.jpg/180px-The_North_Stelae_Park%2C_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282812686646%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_North_Stelae_Park%2C_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282812686646%29.jpg/240px-The_North_Stelae_Park%2C_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282812686646%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2840" data-file-height="1837" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The largest Aksumite stele, broken where it fell.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethio_w4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aksumite-era Amphora from Asmara."><img alt="Aksumite-era Amphora from Asmara." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Ethio_w4.jpg/90px-Ethio_w4.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Ethio_w4.jpg/135px-Ethio_w4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Ethio_w4.jpg/180px-Ethio_w4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="338" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aksumite-era <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">Amphora</a> from <a href="/wiki/Asmara" title="Asmara">Asmara</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rome_Stele.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Obelisk of Aksum after being returned to Ethiopia."><img alt="The Obelisk of Aksum after being returned to Ethiopia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Rome_Stele.jpg/90px-Rome_Stele.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Rome_Stele.jpg/135px-Rome_Stele.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Rome_Stele.jpg/180px-Rome_Stele.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Obelisk_of_Aksum" class="mw-redirect" title="Obelisk of Aksum">Obelisk of Aksum</a> after being returned to Ethiopia.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Axumite_Palace_(2827701317).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Model of the Ta'akha Maryam palace."><img alt="Model of the Ta'akha Maryam palace." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Axumite_Palace_%282827701317%29.jpg/120px-Axumite_Palace_%282827701317%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Axumite_Palace_%282827701317%29.jpg/180px-Axumite_Palace_%282827701317%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Axumite_Palace_%282827701317%29.jpg/240px-Axumite_Palace_%282827701317%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2837" data-file-height="1784" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Model of the Ta'akha Maryam palace.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Axumite_Architectural_Fragments_(2823506028).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aksumite water-spouts in the shape of lion heads."><img alt="Aksumite water-spouts in the shape of lion heads." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Axumite_Architectural_Fragments_%282823506028%29.jpg/120px-Axumite_Architectural_Fragments_%282823506028%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Axumite_Architectural_Fragments_%282823506028%29.jpg/180px-Axumite_Architectural_Fragments_%282823506028%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Axumite_Architectural_Fragments_%282823506028%29.jpg/240px-Axumite_Architectural_Fragments_%282823506028%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2225" data-file-height="1616" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aksumite water-spouts in the shape of lion heads.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Axumite_Jar_With_Figural_Spout_(2822617017).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aksumite jar with figural spout."><img alt="Aksumite jar with figural spout." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Axumite_Jar_With_Figural_Spout_%282822617017%29.jpg/120px-Axumite_Jar_With_Figural_Spout_%282822617017%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Axumite_Jar_With_Figural_Spout_%282822617017%29.jpg/180px-Axumite_Jar_With_Figural_Spout_%282822617017%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Axumite_Jar_With_Figural_Spout_%282822617017%29.jpg/240px-Axumite_Jar_With_Figural_Spout_%282822617017%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2165" data-file-height="1636" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aksumite jar with figural spout.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img41_Stelae_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tombs beneath the stele field."><img alt="Tombs beneath the stele field." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img41_Stelae_Park.jpg/90px-ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img41_Stelae_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img41_Stelae_Park.jpg/135px-ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img41_Stelae_Park.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img41_Stelae_Park.jpg/180px-ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img41_Stelae_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4541" data-file-height="6054" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tombs beneath the stele field.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethio_w29.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Entrance to the Tomb Of The False Door."><img alt="Entrance to the Tomb Of The False Door." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ethio_w29.jpg/90px-Ethio_w29.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ethio_w29.jpg/135px-Ethio_w29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ethio_w29.jpg/180px-Ethio_w29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Entrance to the Tomb Of The False Door.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stelenpark_in_Axum_2010.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Stelae Park in Aksum."><img alt="The Stelae Park in Aksum." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Stelenpark_in_Axum_2010.JPG/120px-Stelenpark_in_Axum_2010.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Stelenpark_in_Axum_2010.JPG/180px-Stelenpark_in_Axum_2010.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Stelenpark_in_Axum_2010.JPG/240px-Stelenpark_in_Axum_2010.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2896" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Stelae Park in Aksum.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Small_Steles_near_Aksum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Small stelae in the Gudit Stelae Field"><img alt="Small stelae in the Gudit Stelae Field" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Small_Steles_near_Aksum.jpg/120px-Small_Steles_near_Aksum.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Small_Steles_near_Aksum.jpg/180px-Small_Steles_near_Aksum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Small_Steles_near_Aksum.jpg/240px-Small_Steles_near_Aksum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Small stelae in the Gudit Stelae Field</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stelae_Field_in_Axum,_Ethiopia_(2830293765).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Another stelae field in Aksum."><img alt="Another stelae field in Aksum." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Stelae_Field_in_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282830293765%29.jpg/120px-Stelae_Field_in_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282830293765%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Stelae_Field_in_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282830293765%29.jpg/180px-Stelae_Field_in_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282830293765%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Stelae_Field_in_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282830293765%29.jpg/240px-Stelae_Field_in_Axum%2C_Ethiopia_%282830293765%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2460" data-file-height="1764" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Another stelae field in Aksum.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haiq_Istefanos_Church.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Istifanos Monastery in Hayk."><img alt="Istifanos Monastery in Hayk." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Haiq_Istefanos_Church.jpg/120px-Haiq_Istefanos_Church.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Haiq_Istefanos_Church.jpg/180px-Haiq_Istefanos_Church.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Haiq_Istefanos_Church.jpg/240px-Haiq_Istefanos_Church.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1836" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Istifanos Monastery in Hayk.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ousas.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aksumite gold coins."><img alt="Aksumite gold coins." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ousas.jpg/120px-Ousas.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ousas.jpg/180px-Ousas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ousas.jpg/240px-Ousas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="243" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aksumite gold coins.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aksum-107532.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aksum stelle and ruins"><img alt="Aksum stelle and ruins" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Aksum-107532.jpg/120px-Aksum-107532.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Aksum-107532.jpg/180px-Aksum-107532.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Aksum-107532.jpg/240px-Aksum-107532.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aksum stelle and ruins</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aksum-139458.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aksum stelle in desert"><img alt="Aksum stelle in desert" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Aksum-139458.jpg/120px-Aksum-139458.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Aksum-139458.jpg/180px-Aksum-139458.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Aksum-139458.jpg/240px-Aksum-139458.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aksum stelle in desert</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Eritrea" title="Category:History of Eritrea">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eritrea" title="History of Eritrea">History of <span class="fn org label">Eritrea</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Insigne_Eritreae.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arms of the flag of Eritrea"><img alt="Arms of the flag of Eritrea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Insigne_Eritreae.svg/70px-Insigne_Eritreae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Insigne_Eritreae.svg/105px-Insigne_Eritreae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Insigne_Eritreae.svg/140px-Insigne_Eritreae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="257" data-file-height="253" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="#e3e3ff;color: var(--color-base)">Pre-colonial</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Eritrea#Prehistory" title="History of Eritrea">Prehistory</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500–980 BC)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Kingdom of Dəmot</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 980–400 BC)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aksumite Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 BC–AD 960)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Dahlak" title="Sultanate of Dahlak">Sultanate of Dahlak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(960–1557)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Zagwe_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zagwe Dynasty">Zagwe Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1137–1270)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1270–1974)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Dankali_Sultanate" title="Dankali Sultanate">Dankali Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> Late 13th century–18th century)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Aussa" title="Sultanate of Aussa">Sultanate of Aussa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1734–1936)</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="#e3e3ff;color: var(--color-base)">Colonial</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Habesh_Eyalet" title="Habesh Eyalet">Eyalet-i Habeş</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1554–1872)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Italian Eritrea</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1882–1936)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Eritrea_Governorate" title="Eritrea Governorate">Eritrea Governorate</a> of <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936–1941)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African Campaign</a> of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1940–1941)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Eritrea#British_administration_and_federalisation" title="History of Eritrea">British Military Administration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1941–1952)</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="#e3e3ff;color: var(--color-base)">Post-Colonial</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Ethiopia_and_Eritrea" title="Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea">Autonomy within Ethiopia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1952–1962)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1961–1991)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> Annexation as the <a href="/wiki/Eritrea_Province" title="Eritrea Province">Eritrea Province</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1962–1993)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1974–1991)</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="#e3e3ff;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">State of Eritrea</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Eritrea#1990s" title="History of Eritrea">1990s in Eritrea</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Eritrean%E2%80%93Ethiopian_War" title="Eritrean–Ethiopian War">Eritrean–Ethiopian War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1998–2000)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/2000s_in_Eritrea" title="2000s in Eritrea">2000s in Eritrea</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/2010s_in_Eritrea" title="2010s in Eritrea">2010s in Eritrea</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/16px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/24px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/32px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Eritrea" title="Portal:Eritrea">Eritrea portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Eritrea" title="Template:History of Eritrea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Eritrea" title="Template talk:History of Eritrea"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Eritrea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Eritrea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Ethiopia" title="Category:History of Ethiopia">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ethiopia" title="History of Ethiopia">History of <span class="fn org label">Ethiopia</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_of_Judah_emblem_of_the_Ethiopian_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lion of Judah"><img alt="Lion of Judah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lion_of_Judah_emblem_of_the_Ethiopian_Empire.svg/75px-Lion_of_Judah_emblem_of_the_Ethiopian_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lion_of_Judah_emblem_of_the_Ethiopian_Empire.svg/113px-Lion_of_Judah_emblem_of_the_Ethiopian_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lion_of_Judah_emblem_of_the_Ethiopian_Empire.svg/150px-Lion_of_Judah_emblem_of_the_Ethiopian_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;;color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Ethiopia" title="Prehistoric Ethiopia">Prehistory</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 980 – 400 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Ethiopia in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aksum</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 100 – 940 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 900–1270</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Solomonic_dynasty" title="Solomonic dynasty">Early Solomonic period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1270–1529</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Amda_Seyon_I%27s_Expansions" class="mw-redirect" title="Amda Seyon I's Expansions">Amda Seyon's Expansions</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1314–1344</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;;color: var(--color-base)">Early modern history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian%E2%80%93Adal_War" title="Ethiopian–Adal War">Ethiopian–Adal War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1527–1543</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Oromo_migrations" class="mw-redirect" title="Oromo migrations">Oromo migrations</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">1543 – 17th cent. </span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_conquest_of_Habesh" title="Ottoman conquest of Habesh">Habesh Eyalet</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">1557 – 17th cent. </span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Gondarine_period" title="Gondarine period">Gondarine period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1632–1769</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Zemene_Mesafint" title="Zemene Mesafint">Zemene Mesafint</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1769–1855</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian%E2%80%93Ottoman_border_conflict" title="Ethiopian–Ottoman border conflict">Ottoman border conflict</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1832–1848</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;;color: var(--color-base)">Modern history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ethiopia#1855–1936" title="History of Ethiopia">Unification</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1855–1913</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Menelik%27s_Invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Menelik's Invasions">Menelik's Invasions</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1878–1904</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/First_Italo%E2%80%93Ethiopian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Italo–Ethiopian War">First Italo–Ethiopian War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1895–1896</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Modernization_under_Haile_Selassie" title="Modernization under Haile Selassie">Modernization</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1913–1974</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia_in_World_War_I" title="Ethiopia in World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo%E2%80%93Ethiopian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Italo–Ethiopian War">Second Italo–Ethiopian War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1935–1936</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1936–1941</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">World War II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia" title="Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia">Italian guerrilla war</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1943</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Ethiopia_and_Eritrea" title="Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea">Federation with Eritrea</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1952–1962</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean Independence War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1961–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1974–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1977–1978</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Federal_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia" title="History of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia">Recent history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Eritrean%E2%80%93Ethiopian_War" title="Eritrean–Ethiopian War">Eritrean–Ethiopian War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1998–2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Eritrean%E2%80%93Ethiopian_border_conflict" title="Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict">Eritrean border conflict</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1998–2018</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/2005_Ethiopian_general_election_violence" title="2005 Ethiopian general election violence">Police massacre</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2005</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/War_in_Somalia_(2006%E2%80%9309)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Somalia (2006–09)">War in Somalia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2006–2009</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">East Africa drought</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2011–2012</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/2014%E2%80%932016_Oromo_protests" title="2014–2016 Oromo protests">Oromo protests</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2014–2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_civil_conflict_(2018%E2%80%93present)" title="Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)">Ethiopian civil conflict</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2018–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;"> <a href="/wiki/Tigray_war" title="Tigray war">Tigray war</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2020–2022</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Ethiopia" title="Economic history of Ethiopia">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" title="Emperor of Ethiopia">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_aristocratic_and_court_titles" title="Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Ethiopia" title="Military history of Ethiopia">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Ethiopian_Empire" title="Army of the Ethiopian Empire">Army of the Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Ethiopia" title="Territorial evolution of Ethiopia">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_birr#History" title="Ethiopian birr">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aksumite_currency" title="Aksumite currency">Aksumite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famines_in_Ethiopia" title="Famines in Ethiopia">Famines</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Ethiopia" title="Template:History of Ethiopia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Ethiopia" title="Template talk:History of Ethiopia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Ethiopia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Ethiopia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/32px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/48px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/64px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Eritrea" title="Portal:Eritrea">Eritrea portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraha" title="Abraha">Abraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ethiopia" title="History of Ethiopia">History of Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mifsas_Bahri" title="Mifsas Bahri">Mifsas Bahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumentum_Adulitanum" title="Monumentum Adulitanum">Monumentum Adulitanum</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian language">Nubian</a>, and other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-molefikete_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-molefikete-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> According to Munro-Hay, "The arrival of Sabaean influences does not represent the beginning of Ethiopian civilisation.... Semiticized Agaw peoples are thought to have migrated from south-eastern Eritrea possibly as early as 2000 BC, bringing their 'proto-Ethiopic' language, ancestor of Geʽez and the other Ethiopian Semitic languages, with them; and these and other groups had already developed specific cultural and linguistic identities by the time any Sabaean influences arrived."<sup id="cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munro-Hay57-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-donaldfairbairn-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-donaldfairbairn_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFairbairn2021" class="citation book cs1">Fairbairn, Donald (2021). <i>The Global Church—The First Eight Centuries From Pentecost Through the Rise of Islam</i>. Zondervan Academic. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0310097853" title="Special:BookSources/978-0310097853"><bdi>978-0310097853</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Church%E2%80%94The+First+Eight+Centuries+From+Pentecost+Through+the+Rise+of+Islam&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Zondervan+Academic&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0310097853&rft.aulast=Fairbairn&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sourcebooks.fordham.edu-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sourcebooks.fordham.edu_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sourcebooks.fordham.edu_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/periplus.asp">"The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century"</a>. <i>Fordham University Internet History Sourcebooks, chapters 4 and 5</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fordham+University+Internet+History+Sourcebooks%2C+chapters+4+and+5&rft.atitle=The+Periplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea%3A+Travel+and+Trade+in+the+Indian+Ocean+by+a+Merchant+of+the+First+Century&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fancient%2Fperiplus.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/snowden-lectures-stanley-burstein-when-greek-was-an-african-language/">"Snowden Lectures: Stanley Burstein, When Greek was an African Language"</a>. <i>The Center for Hellenic Studies</i>. 2 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Center+for+Hellenic+Studies&rft.atitle=Snowden+Lectures%3A+Stanley+Burstein%2C+When+Greek+was+an+African+Language&rft.date=2020-11-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchs.harvard.edu%2Fcurated-article%2Fsnowden-lectures-stanley-burstein-when-greek-was-an-african-language%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-molefikete-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-molefikete_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsante2013" class="citation book cs1">Asante, Molefi Kete (2013). <i>The African American People A Global History</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+African+American+People+A+Global+History&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Asante&rft.aufirst=Molefi+Kete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vincentkhapoya-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vincentkhapoya_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhapoya2015" class="citation book cs1">Khapoya, Vincent (2015). <i>The African Experience</i>. Routledge. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0205851713" title="Special:BookSources/978-0205851713"><bdi>978-0205851713</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+African+Experience&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0205851713&rft.aulast=Khapoya&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turchin, Peter and Jonathan M. Adams and Thomas D. Hall: "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States", p. 222. Journal of World-Systems Research, Vol. XII, No. II, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Turchin" title="Peter Turchin">Turchin, Peter</a>; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World-Systems_Research" title="Journal of World-Systems Research">Journal of World-Systems Research</a></i>. <b>12</b> (2): 222. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200707181315/http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 7 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222&rft.date=2006-12&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeterturchin.com%2FPDF%2FTurchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/15/">The Cultural Heritage of Aksum.</a>, UNESCO <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231008220415/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6477/">Archived</a> 2023-10-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay1991" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). <i>Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748601066" title="Special:BookSources/0748601066"><bdi>0748601066</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum%3A+An+African+Civilisation+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0748601066&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurstein2015" class="citation book cs1">Burstein, Stanley (2015). "Africa: states, empires, and connections". In Benjamin, Craig (ed.). <i>The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE</i>. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 631–661. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139059251.025">10.1017/cbo9781139059251.025</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05925-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05925-1"><bdi>978-1-139-05925-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Africa%3A+states%2C+empires%2C+and+connections&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History%3A+Volume+4%3A+A+World+with+States%2C+Empires+and+Networks+1200+BCE%E2%80%93900+CE&rft.series=The+Cambridge+World+History&rft.pages=631-661&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139059251.025&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05925-1&rft.aulast=Burstein&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phillipson48-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Phillipson48_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillipson48_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillipson2012" class="citation book cs1">Phillipson, David W. (2012). <i>Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300</i>. Woodbridge: James Currey. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84701-041-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84701-041-4"><bdi>978-1-84701-041-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+an+African+Civilisation%3A+Aksum+%26+the+Northern+Horn%2C+1000+BC+-+AD+1300&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=James+Currey&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84701-041-4&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButzer1981" class="citation journal cs1">Butzer, Karl W. (1981). "Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation". <i>American Antiquity</i>. <b>46</b> (3). Cambridge University Press: 471–495. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/280596">280596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162374800">162374800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Rise+and+Fall+of+Axum%2C+Ethiopia%3A+A+Geo-Archaeological+Interpretation&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=471-495&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F280596%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162374800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Butzer&rft.aufirst=Karl+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay1991" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). <i>Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748601066" title="Special:BookSources/0748601066"><bdi>0748601066</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum%3A+An+African+Civilisation+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0748601066&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hahn, Wolfgang (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_2000_num_6_155_2289">"Askumite Numismatics - A critical survey of recent Research"</a>. <i>Revue Numismatique</i>. <b>6</b> (155): 281–311. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fnumi.2000.2289">10.3406/numi.2000.2289</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+Numismatique&rft.atitle=Askumite+Numismatics+-+A+critical+survey+of+recent+Research&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=155&rft.pages=281-311&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fnumi.2000.2289&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fnumi_0484-8942_2000_num_6_155_2289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Derat34-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Derat34_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Derat34_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerat2020" class="citation book cs1">Derat, Marie-Laure (2020). "Before the Solomonids: Crisis, Renaissance and the Emergence of the Zagwe Dynasty (Seventh–Thirteenth Centuries)". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.). <i>A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea</i>. Leiden: Brill. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41958-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41958-2"><bdi>978-90-04-41958-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Before+the+Solomonids%3A+Crisis%2C+Renaissance+and+the+Emergence+of+the+Zagwe+Dynasty+%28Seventh%E2%80%93Thirteenth+Centuries%29&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Medieval+Ethiopia+and+Eritrea&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41958-2&rft.aulast=Derat&rft.aufirst=Marie-Laure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay1991" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). <i>Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748601066" title="Special:BookSources/0748601066"><bdi>0748601066</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum%3A+An+African+Civilisation+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0748601066&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay1991" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). <i>Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748601066" title="Special:BookSources/0748601066"><bdi>0748601066</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum%3A+An+African+Civilisation+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0748601066&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritschKidane2020" class="citation book cs1">Fritsch, Emmanuel; Kidane, Habtemichael (2020). "The Medieval Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Its Liturgy". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.). <i>A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea</i>. Leiden: Brill. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41958-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41958-2"><bdi>978-90-04-41958-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Medieval+Ethiopian+Orthodox+Church+and+Its+Liturgy&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Medieval+Ethiopia+and+Eritrea&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41958-2&rft.aulast=Fritsch&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft.au=Kidane%2C+Habtemichael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mordechai32-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mordechai32_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelassie1972" class="citation book cs1">Selassie, Sergew Hable (1972). <i>Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270</i>. p. 68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+and+Medieval+Ethiopian+History+to+1270&rft.pages=68&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Selassie&rft.aufirst=Sergew+Hable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Munro-Hay57-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munro-Hay57_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay1991" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf"><i>Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 57. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum%3A+An+African+Civilization+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dskmariam.org%2Fartsandlitreature%2Flitreature%2Fpdf%2Faksum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankhurst2003" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pankhurst_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Pankhurst (academic)">Pankhurst, Richard K. P.</a> (17 January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm">"Let's Look Across the Red Sea I"</a>. <i>Addis Tribune</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm">the original</a> on 9 January 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Addis+Tribune&rft.atitle=Let%27s+Look+Across+the+Red+Sea+I&rft.date=2003-01-17&rft.aulast=Pankhurst&rft.aufirst=Richard+K.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.addistribune.com%2FArchives%2F2003%2F01%2F17-01-03%2FLet.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Munro6162-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Munro6162_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay1991" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). <i>Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 61–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748601066" title="Special:BookSources/0748601066"><bdi>0748601066</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum%3A+An+African+Civilisation+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=61-62&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0748601066&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-users.clas.ufl.edu-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-users.clas.ufl.edu_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-users.clas.ufl.edu_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-users.clas.ufl.edu_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.clas.ufl.edu/sterk/junsem/haas.pdf">Archived copy</a> ufl.edu <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180329065343/http://users.clas.ufl.edu/sterk/junsem/haas.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-03-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-whc.unesco.org-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-whc.unesco.org_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-whc.unesco.org_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-whc.unesco.org_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/15">"Aksum"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aksum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=173&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 181.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=181&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. C. Munro-Hay (1991) <i>Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity</i>. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 40. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748601066" title="Special:BookSources/0748601066">0748601066</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2016" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Jacke (2016). "Aksum, Kingdom of". In MacKenzie, John M. (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Empire</i>. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118455074" title="Special:BookSources/9781118455074"><bdi>9781118455074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aksum%2C+Kingdom+of&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Empire&rft.place=Hoboken&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781118455074&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Jacke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 174.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=174&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Hatke, <i>Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa</i> (New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-0106-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-0106-6">0-7486-0106-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dx.doi.org2-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dx.doi.org2_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christiantopogra00cosmuoft">"The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>84</b> (2127): 133–134. August 1910. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1910Natur..84..133.">1910Natur..84..133.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F084133a0">10.1038/084133a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fcoo1.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft07w6zm1b">2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t07w6zm1b</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3942233">3942233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Christian+Topography+of+Cosmas+Indicopleustes&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=2127&rft.pages=133-134&rft.date=1910-08&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fcoo1.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft07w6zm1b&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3942233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1910Natur..84..133.&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F084133a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristiantopogra00cosmuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 175.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=175&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 176.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=176&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=177&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N</i>. p. 1193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+He-N&rft.pages=1193&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury1923" class="citation book cs1">Bury, J. B. (1923). <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i>. Vol. II. Macmillan & Co. pp. 325–326.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=325-326&rft.pub=Macmillan+%26+Co.&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=178&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=178&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Cerulli, "Ethiopia's Relations with the Muslim World" in <i>Cambridge History of Africa: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh century</i>, p. 575.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trimingham, Spencer, <i>Islam in Ethiopia</i>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=178&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trimingham, Spencer, <i>Islam in Ethiopia</i>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=178&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taddesse Tamrat, <i>Church and State in Ethiopia</i> (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evetts, B.: "History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria", by Sawirus ibn al-Mukaffa', bishop of al-Ashmunien, Vol I, IV, Menas I to Joseph, PO X fasc. 5. pp 375-551, Paris, 1904</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner J. Lange, "History of the Southern Gonga (southwestern Ethiopia)", Steiner, 1982, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenze2000" class="citation book cs1">Henze, Paul B. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&pg=PA49"><i>Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia</i></a>. Hurst & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-393-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-393-6"><bdi>978-1-85065-393-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Layers+of+Time%3A+A+History+of+Ethiopia&rft.pub=Hurst+%26+Company&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85065-393-6&rft.aulast=Henze&rft.aufirst=Paul+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgzwoedwOkQMC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChildress2015" class="citation book cs1">Childress, David Hatcher (27 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N4pXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207"><i>Ark of God: The Incredible Power of the Ark of the Covenant</i></a>. SCB Distributors. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-939149-60-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-939149-60-2"><bdi>978-1-939149-60-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ark+of+God%3A+The+Incredible+Power+of+the+Ark+of+the+Covenant&rft.pub=SCB+Distributors&rft.date=2015-10-27&rft.isbn=978-1-939149-60-2&rft.aulast=Childress&rft.aufirst=David+Hatcher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN4pXDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJewel2012" class="citation book cs1">Jewel, Lady (August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vx_N_bEKNj8C&pg=PA246"><i>Keeper of the Ark (a Moses Trilogy): For the Love of Moses, for the Children of Moses, for the Children of God</i></a>. WestBow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4497-5061-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4497-5061-9"><bdi>978-1-4497-5061-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keeper+of+the+Ark+%28a+Moses+Trilogy%29%3A+For+the+Love+of+Moses%2C+for+the+Children+of+Moses%2C+for+the+Children+of+God&rft.pub=WestBow+Press&rft.date=2012-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4497-5061-9&rft.aulast=Jewel&rft.aufirst=Lady&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVx_N_bEKNj8C%26pg%3DPA246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMekonnen2013" class="citation book cs1">Mekonnen, Yohannes K. (April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0pZPp032c0C&pg=PA288"><i>Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture</i></a>. New Africa Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9987-16-024-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9987-16-024-2"><bdi>978-9987-16-024-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethiopia%3A+The+Land%2C+Its+People%2C+History+and+Culture&rft.pub=New+Africa+Press&rft.date=2013-04&rft.isbn=978-9987-16-024-2&rft.aulast=Mekonnen&rft.aufirst=Yohannes+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ0pZPp032c0C%26pg%3DPA288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHable_Selassie" class="citation book cs1">Hable Selassie, Sergew. <i>Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270</i>. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+and+Medieval+Ethiopian+History+to+1270&rft.pages=27&rft.aulast=Hable+Selassie&rft.aufirst=Sergew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taddesse Tamrat, <i>Church and State in Ethiopia</i> (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crawford Young, <i>The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism: The Nation-state at Bay?</i>, (University of Wisconsin Press: 1993), p. 160</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankhrust1997" class="citation book cs1">Pankhrust, Richard (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&q=ethiopian+borderlands"><i>The Ethiopian Borderlands</i></a>. The Red Sea Press. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780932415196" title="Special:BookSources/9780932415196"><bdi>9780932415196</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethiopian+Borderlands&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=The+Red+Sea+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780932415196&rft.aulast=Pankhrust&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzpYBD3bzW1wC%26q%3Dethiopian%2Bborderlands&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatke2013" class="citation book cs1">Hatke, George (7 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oy7N_d6HoYIC&dq=Aksumite+baryas&pg=PA165"><i>Aksum and Nubia</i></a>. NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814762837" title="Special:BookSources/9780814762837"><bdi>9780814762837</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum+and+Nubia&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2013-01-07&rft.isbn=9780814762837&rft.aulast=Hatke&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOy7N_d6HoYIC%26dq%3DAksumite%2Bbaryas%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 187.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=187&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taddesse Tamrat, <i>Church and State in Ethiopia</i> (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig" class="citation book cs1">Uhlig, Siegbert. <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C</i>. p. 187.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica%3A+A-C&rft.pages=187&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Siegbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britishmuseum.org-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britishmuseum.org_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_British_MuseumThe_CarAf_Centre" class="citation web cs1">The British Museum; The CarAf Centre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191104191259/https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf">"The wealth of Africa – The kingdom of Aksum: Teachers' notes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>BritishMuseum.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BritishMuseum.org&rft.atitle=The+wealth+of+Africa+%E2%80%93+The+kingdom+of+Aksum%3A+Teachers%27+notes&rft.au=The+British+Museum&rft.au=The+CarAf+Centre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fpdf%2FKingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daily_Life-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daily_Life_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daily_Life_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daily_Life_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803075358/https://www.eduplace.com/kids/socsci/ca/books/bkf3/writing/03_aksum.pdf">"Daily Life in Aksum"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.hmhco.com/ (formerly eduplace.com)</i>. Research Reports: Daily Life in Ancient Times. Houghton Mifflin Company. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eduplace.com/kids/socsci/ca/books/bkf3/writing/03_aksum.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 3 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hmhco.com%2F+%28formerly+eduplace.com%29&rft.atitle=Daily+Life+in+Aksum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eduplace.com%2Fkids%2Fsocsci%2Fca%2Fbooks%2Fbkf3%2Fwriting%2F03_aksum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-georgeocox-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-georgeocox_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_O._Cox2015" class="citation book cs1">George O. Cox (2015). <i>African Empires and Civilizations : Ancient and Medieval</i>. Routledge. p. 71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Empires+and+Civilizations+%3A+Ancient+and+Medieval&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.au=George+O.+Cox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-abbasalamavol68-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-abbasalamavol68_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Abba Salama Volumes 6-8</i>. University of California. 1975. p. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abba+Salama+Volumes+6-8&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=University+of+California&rft.date=1975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-andebrhanweldegiorgis-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-andebrhanweldegiorgis_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndebrhan_Welde_Giorgis2014" class="citation book cs1">Andebrhan Welde Giorgis (2014). <i>Eritrea at a Crossroads A Narrative of Triumph, Betrayal and Hope</i>. Strategic Book Publishing and Rights Company. p. 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eritrea+at+a+Crossroads+A+Narrative+of+Triumph%2C+Betrayal+and+Hope&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Strategic+Book+Publishing+and+Rights+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Andebrhan+Welde+Giorgis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLaughlin-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McLaughlin_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raoul McLaughlin, <i>The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean</i>, p. 114, Barnsley, Pen & Sword Military, 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781-78346-381-7" title="Special:BookSources/9781-78346-381-7">9781-78346-381-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-garimagospels-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-garimagospels_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-garimagospels_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudith_S._McKenzieFrancis_Watson2016" class="citation book cs1">Judith S. McKenzie; Francis Watson (2016). <i>The Garima Gospels: Early Illuminated Gospel Books from Ethiopia</i>. NYU Press. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Garima+Gospels%3A+Early+Illuminated+Gospel+Books+from+Ethiopia&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Judith+S.+McKenzie&rft.au=Francis+Watson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-americannumismaticsociety-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-americannumismaticsociety_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Numismatic_Society1984" class="citation book cs1">American Numismatic Society (1984). <i>Museum Notes, Volumes 29 to 31</i>. American Numismatic Society. p. 165.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Museum+Notes%2C+Volumes+29+to+31&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=American+Numismatic+Society&rft.date=1984&rft.au=American+Numismatic+Society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fjnothling-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fjnothling_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._J._Nöthling1989" class="citation book cs1">F. J. Nöthling (1989). <i>Pre-colonial Africa: Her Civilisations and Foreign Contacts</i>. Southern Book Publishers. p. 58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pre-colonial+Africa%3A+Her+Civilisations+and+Foreign+Contacts&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Southern+Book+Publishers&rft.date=1989&rft.au=F.+J.+N%C3%B6thling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-louisieminks-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-louisieminks_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouise_Minks1995" class="citation book cs1">Louise Minks (1995). <i>Traditional Africa</i>. Lucent Books. p. 28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traditional+Africa&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Lucent+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Louise+Minks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-unescoscientifichistoryofafrica-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-unescoscientifichistoryofafrica_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnesco._International_Scientific_Committee_for_the_Drafting_of_a_General_History_of_Africa1981" class="citation book cs1">Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa (1981). <i>Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>. Heinemann Educational Books. p. 398.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Civilizations+of+Africa&rft.pages=398&rft.pub=Heinemann+Educational+Books&rft.date=1981&rft.au=Unesco.+International+Scientific+Committee+for+the+Drafting+of+a+General+History+of+Africa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jamescowlesprichard-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jamescowlesprichard_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Cowles_Prichard1826" class="citation book cs1">James Cowles Prichard (1826). <i>Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind, Volume 1</i>. John and Arthur Arch, Cornhill. p. 284.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researches+Into+the+Physical+History+of+Mankind%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=John+and+Arthur+Arch%2C+Cornhill&rft.date=1826&rft.au=James+Cowles+Prichard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-encylopediabritannica-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-encylopediabritannica_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Encyclopædia Britannica: The New Volumes, Constituting, in Combination with the Twenty-nine Volumes of the Eleventh Edition, the Twelfth Edition of that Work, and Also Supplying a New, Distinctive, and Independent Library of Reference Dealing with Events and Developments of the Period 1910 to 1921 Inclusive, Volume 24</i>. Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Limited. 1911. p. 629.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%3A+The+New+Volumes%2C+Constituting%2C+in+Combination+with+the+Twenty-nine+Volumes+of+the+Eleventh+Edition%2C+the+Twelfth+Edition+of+that+Work%2C+and+Also+Supplying+a+New%2C+Distinctive%2C+and+Independent+Library+of+Reference+Dealing+with+Events+and+Developments+of+the+Period+1910+to+1921+Inclusive%2C+Volume+24&rft.pages=629&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Company%2C+Limited&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thomasolambdin-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thomasolambdin_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_O._Lambdin2018" class="citation book cs1">Thomas O. Lambdin (2018). <i>Introduction to Classical Ethiopic (Geʻez)</i>. Brill. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Classical+Ethiopic+%28Ge%CA%BBez%29&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2018&rft.au=Thomas+O.+Lambdin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-washingtonforeignareasstudiesdivision-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-washingtonforeignareasstudiesdivision_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_University_(Washington,_D.C.)._Foreign_Areas_Studies_DivisionIrving_Kaplan1964" class="citation book cs1">American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division; Irving Kaplan (1964). <i>Area Handbook for Ethiopia</i>. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Area+Handbook+for+Ethiopia&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1964&rft.au=American+University+%28Washington%2C+D.C.%29.+Foreign+Areas+Studies+Division&rft.au=Irving+Kaplan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay1991" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). <i>Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748601066" title="Special:BookSources/0748601066"><bdi>0748601066</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum%3A+An+African+Civilisation+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0748601066&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-muhammadjamalaldinmukhtar-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-muhammadjamalaldinmukhtar_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuḥammad_Jamāl_al-Dīn_Mukhtār1990" class="citation book cs1">Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār (1990). <i>UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. II, Abridged Edition: Ancient Africa</i>. University of California Press. p. 234.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=UNESCO+General+History+of+Africa%2C+Vol.+II%2C+Abridged+Edition%3A+Ancient+Africa&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.au=Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+Jam%C4%81l+al-D%C4%ABn+Mukht%C4%81r&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillipson2012" class="citation book cs1">Phillipson, David (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nx-qYO3zqlIC&pg=PA292"><i>Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the northern Horn, 1000 BC – AD 1300</i></a>. James Currey. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1847010414" title="Special:BookSources/978-1847010414"><bdi>978-1847010414</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+an+African+Civilisation%3A+Aksum+and+the+northern+Horn%2C+1000+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+1300&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=James+Currey&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1847010414&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNx-qYO3zqlIC%26pg%3DPA292&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._Mokhtar1990" class="citation book cs1">G. Mokhtar, ed. (1990). <i>UNESCO General History of Africa: Ancient Africa v. 2</i>. University of California Press. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520066977" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520066977"><bdi>978-0520066977</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=UNESCO+General+History+of+Africa%3A+Ancient+Africa+v.+2&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0520066977&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan1994" class="citation book cs1">Kaplan, Steve (1994). <i>The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia: From the Earliest Times to the Twentieth Century</i>. New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0814746646" title="Special:BookSources/978-0814746646"><bdi>978-0814746646</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beta+Israel+%28Falasha%29+in+Ethiopia%3A+From+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0814746646&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay2010" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (2010). Henry Louis Gates Jr., Kwame Anthony Appiah (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC&pg=PA77"><i>Encyclopedia of Africa Vol. I</i></a>. Oxford University press. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195337709" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195337709"><bdi>978-0195337709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Africa+Vol.+I&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Oxford+University+press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0195337709&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA0XNvklcqbwC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-313-32273-2-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-313-32273-2_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdejumobi2007" class="citation book cs1">Adejumobi, Saheed A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3Un6_LGIEyQC&pg=PA171"><i>The History of Ethiopia</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32273-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32273-0"><bdi>978-0-313-32273-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Ethiopia&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32273-0&rft.aulast=Adejumobi&rft.aufirst=Saheed+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3Un6_LGIEyQC%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goblues.org-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goblues.org_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goblues.org_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goblues.org/faculty/weekse/files/2012/08/axum-and-the-solomonic-dynasty.pdf">"GoBlues - Asheville School"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 16 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GoBlues+-+Asheville+School&rft.date=2023-05-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgoblues.org%2Ffaculty%2Fweekse%2Ffiles%2F2012%2F08%2Faxum-and-the-solomonic-dynasty.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-obelisk_bekerie-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-obelisk_bekerie_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-obelisk_bekerie_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBekerie" class="citation web cs1">Bekerie, Ayele. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170107100939/http://hornofafrica.newark.rutgers.edu/downloads/aksum.pdf">"The Rise of the Askum Obelisk is the Rise of Ethiopian History"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Newark, USA: Rutgers University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hornofafrica.newark.rutgers.edu/downloads/aksum.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Askum+Obelisk+is+the+Rise+of+Ethiopian+History&rft.place=Newark%2C+USA&rft.pub=Rutgers+University&rft.aulast=Bekerie&rft.aufirst=Ayele&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhornofafrica.newark.rutgers.edu%2Fdownloads%2Faksum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ruperthopkins.com-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ruperthopkins.com_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ruperthopkins.com_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ruperthopkins.com_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ruperthopkins.com/pdf/Kingdom_of_Axum.pdf">Kingdom of Axum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200925100701/http://www.ruperthopkins.com/pdf/Kingdom_of_Axum.pdf">Archived</a> 2020-09-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-otik.uk.zcu.cz-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-otik.uk.zcu.cz_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-otik.uk.zcu.cz_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-otik.uk.zcu.cz_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZáhoří2014" class="citation web cs1">Záhoří, Jan (February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170107100243/https://otik.uk.zcu.cz/bitstream/handle/11025/15553/Zahorik.pdf?sequence=1">"Review: Phillipson, (2012). <i>Foundations of an African civilization: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://otik.uk.zcu.cz/bitstream/handle/11025/15553/Zahorik.pdf?sequence=1">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review%3A+Phillipson%2C+%282012%29.+Foundations+of+an+African+civilization%3A+Aksum+%26+the+Northern+Horn%2C+1000+BC+-+AD+1300&rft.date=2014-02&rft.aulast=Z%C3%A1ho%C5%99%C3%AD&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fotik.uk.zcu.cz%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F11025%2F15553%2FZahorik.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWybrew" class="citation web cs1">Wybrew, Hugh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140203152710/http://www.jmeca.org.uk/christianity-middle-east/history-christianity-middle-east-north-africa">"A History of Christianity in the Middle East & North Africa"</a>. Jerusalem & Middle East Church Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jmeca.org.uk/christianity-middle-east/history-christianity-middle-east-north-africa">the original</a> on 3 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christianity+in+the+Middle+East+%26+North+Africa&rft.pub=Jerusalem+%26+Middle+East+Church+Association&rft.aulast=Wybrew&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jmeca.org.uk%2Fchristianity-middle-east%2Fhistory-christianity-middle-east-north-africa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trimingham, Spencer, <i>Islam in Ethiopia</i>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Butzer_471–495-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Butzer_471–495_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButzer1981" class="citation journal cs1">Butzer, Karl W. (July 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/abs/rise-and-fall-of-axum-ethiopia-a-geoarchaeological-interpretation/B5B3D127F93D1C975C3D3C0CCD3BF773">"Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation"</a>. <i>American Antiquity</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 471–495. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F280596">10.2307/280596</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7316">0002-7316</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/280596">280596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162374800">162374800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Rise+and+Fall+of+Axum%2C+Ethiopia%3A+A+Geo-Archaeological+Interpretation&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=471-495&rft.date=1981-07&rft.issn=0002-7316&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162374800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F280596%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F280596&rft.aulast=Butzer&rft.aufirst=Karl+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Famerican-antiquity%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Frise-and-fall-of-axum-ethiopia-a-geoarchaeological-interpretation%2FB5B3D127F93D1C975C3D3C0CCD3BF773&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSergew_Hable1972" class="citation book cs1">Sergew Hable, Sellassie (1972). <i>Ancient and medieval Ethiopian history to 1270</i>. Addis Ababa. p. 79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+and+medieval+Ethiopian+history+to+1270&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Addis+Ababa&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Sergew+Hable&rft.aufirst=Sellassie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnfray1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Anfray, Francis (1965). <i>Maṭarā. — Deuxième, troisième et quatrième campagnes de fouilles. In: Annales d'Ethiopie. Volume 6</i> (in French). p. 69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ma%E1%B9%ADar%C4%81.+%E2%80%94+Deuxi%C3%A8me%2C+troisi%C3%A8me+et+quatri%C3%A8me+campagnes+de+fouilles.+In%3A+Annales+d%27Ethiopie.+Volume+6&rft.pages=69&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Anfray&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The effect of the Indian Ocean trading system on the rise of Aksum is described in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/interactions/burstein.html">State Formation in Ancient Northeast Africa and the Indian Ocean Trade</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090114074953/http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/interactions/burstein.html">Archived</a> 2009-01-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Stanley M. Burstein.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-butzer1981-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-butzer1981_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButzer1981" class="citation journal cs1">Butzer, Karl W. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sites.utexas.edu/butzer/files/2017/03/Butzer-1981-Axum.pdf">"Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Antiquity</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 471–495. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F280596">10.2307/280596</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/280596">280596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162374800">162374800</a> – via University of Texas at Austin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Rise+and+Fall+of+Axum%2C+Ethiopia%3A+A+Geo-Archaeological+Interpretation&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=471-495&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162374800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F280596%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F280596&rft.aulast=Butzer&rft.aufirst=Karl+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsites.utexas.edu%2Fbutzer%2Ffiles%2F2017%2F03%2FButzer-1981-Axum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBausi2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bausi, Alessandro (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180904192037/https://www.openstarts.units.it/bitstream/10077/21835/1/%CE%94%CE%99%CE%91%CE%9B%CE%9F%CE%93%CE%9F%CE%99%201%20online.pdf#page=69&zoom=125(0,0)">"Translations in Late Antique Ethiopia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Egitto Crocevia di Traduzioni</i>. <b>1</b>. EUT Edizioni Università di Trieste: 69–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8303-937-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8303-937-9"><bdi>978-88-8303-937-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.openstarts.units.it/bitstream/10077/21835/1/%CE%94%CE%99%CE%91%CE%9B%CE%9F%CE%93%CE%9F%CE%99%201%20online.pdf#page=69&zoom=125(0,0)">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Egitto+Crocevia+di+Traduzioni&rft.atitle=Translations+in+Late+Antique+Ethiopia&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=69-100&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-88-8303-937-9&rft.aulast=Bausi&rft.aufirst=Alessandro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.openstarts.units.it%2Fbitstream%2F10077%2F21835%2F1%2F%25CE%2594%25CE%2599%25CE%2591%25CE%259B%25CE%259F%25CE%2593%25CE%259F%25CE%2599%25201%2520online.pdf%23page%3D69%26zoom%3D125%280%2C0%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillipson1998" class="citation book cs1">Phillipson, David W. (1998). <i>Ancient Ethiopia. Aksum: Its Antecedents and Successors</i>. The British Museum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2763-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2763-7"><bdi>978-0-7141-2763-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Ethiopia.+Aksum%3A+Its+Antecedents+and+Successors&rft.pub=The+British+Museum+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-2763-7&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillipson2012" class="citation book cs1">Phillipson, David W. (2012). <i>Foundations of an African civilization: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300</i>. Woodbridge, Suffolk: James Currey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84701-088-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84701-088-9"><bdi>978-1-84701-088-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+an+African+civilization%3A+Aksum+%26+the+Northern+Horn%2C+1000+BC+-+AD+1300&rft.place=Woodbridge%2C+Suffolk&rft.pub=James+Currey&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84701-088-9&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYule2013" class="citation book cs1">Yule, Paul A., ed. (2013). <i>Late Antique Arabia Ẓafār, Capital of Ḥimyar, Rehabilitation of a 'Decadent' Society, Excavations of the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg 1998–2010 in the Highlands of the Yemen</i>. Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 29, Wiesbaden, pp. 251–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-06935-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-06935-9"><bdi>978-3-447-06935-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Antique+Arabia+%E1%BA%92af%C4%81r%2C+Capital+of+%E1%B8%A4imyar%2C+Rehabilitation+of+a+%27Decadent%27+Society%2C+Excavations+of+the+Ruprecht-Karls-Universit%C3%A4t+Heidelberg+1998%E2%80%932010+in+the+Highlands+of+the+Yemen&rft.pub=Abhandlungen+Deutsche+Orient-Gesellschaft%2C+vol.+29%2C+Wiesbaden%2C+pp.+251%E2%80%9354&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-447-06935-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Aksum" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Aksum" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Axum/">World History Encyclopedia – Kingdom of Axum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf">East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived February 22, 2007)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethiopiantreasures.co.uk/pages/aksum.htm">Ethiopian Treasures – Queen of Sheba, Aksumite Kingdom – Aksum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/nubia1.html">Ancient History Sourcebook: Accounts of Meröe, Kush, and Axum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/15">Aksum: UNESCO World Heritage Site</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139377#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139377#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139377#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/132712036">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/234309559">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4357441-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n99038042">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000297450&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007494124405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&oldid=1259978254">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&oldid=1259978254</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Category:Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_empires_in_Africa" title="Category:Former empires in Africa">Former empires in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_monarchies_of_Africa" title="Category:Former monarchies of Africa">Former monarchies of Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_history_of_Eritrea" title="Category:Political history of Eritrea">Political history of Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Countries_in_ancient_Africa" title="Category:Countries in ancient Africa">Countries in ancient Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Countries_in_medieval_Africa" title="Category:Countries in medieval Africa">Countries in medieval Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_the_1st_century" title="Category:States and territories established in the 1st century">States and territories established in the 1st century</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_960s" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in the 960s">States and territories disestablished in the 960s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_Christian_states" title="Category:Former Christian states">Former Christian states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_kingdoms" title="Category:Former kingdoms">Former kingdoms</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_August_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from August 2023">Use dmy dates from August 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ge%27ez-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ge'ez-language text">Articles containing Ge'ez-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Sabaean-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Sabaean-language text">Articles containing Sabaean-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_infobox_country_or_infobox_former_country_with_the_symbol_caption_or_type_parameters" title="Category:Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters">Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2019" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 28 November 2024, at 03:36<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Aksum&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-78f4c97c5d-kqlp8","wgBackendResponseTime":166,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.882","walltime":"2.220","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9962,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":302266,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":14891,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":16,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":344166,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1874.198 1 -total"," 36.02% 675.092 2 Template:Reflist"," 25.13% 471.000 1 Template:Infobox_country"," 23.75% 445.113 60 Template:Cite_book"," 7.03% 131.727 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 7.03% 131.670 3 Template:Native_name"," 6.41% 120.152 1 Template:History_of_Eritrea"," 4.22% 79.100 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.56% 66.782 1 Template:ISO_3166_code"," 3.53% 66.237 1 Template:Commons_category"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.139","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20432935,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","400","29.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","20.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","11.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","8.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","4.4"],["type","60","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","40","2.9"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","40","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","20","1.5"],["pairsfunc \u003Cmw.lua:676\u003E","20","1.5"],["[others]","160","11.8"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-7jr5t","timestamp":"20241128193913","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Kingdom of Aksum","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kingdom_of_Aksum","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q139377","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q139377","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-04-25T22:59:09Z","dateModified":"2024-11-28T03:36:22Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d2\/Endubis.jpg","headline":"trading nation in the area of Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia"}</script> </body> </html>