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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Grid_strength&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid strength">Grid strength</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Term in electrical engineering</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit_ratio_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Short circuit ratio (disambiguation)">Short circuit ratio (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p>In an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grid</a>, the <b>short circuit ratio</b> (or <b>SCR</b>) is the ratio of: the short circuit <a href="/wiki/Apparent_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Apparent power">apparent power</a> (SCMVA) in the case of a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_fault#Symmetric_fault" title="Electrical fault">line-line-line-ground (3LG) fault</a> at the location in the grid where some generator is connected, to: the power rating of the generator itself (GMW). </p><p>Since the power that can be delivered by the grid varies by location, frequently a location is indicated, for example, at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Point_of_interconnection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Point of interconnection (page does not exist)">point of interconnection</a> (POI): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle SCR_{POI}={\frac {SCMVA_{POI}}{GMW}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>O</mi> <mi>I</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mi>V</mi> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>O</mi> <mi>I</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>G</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mi>W</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle SCR_{POI}={\frac {SCMVA_{POI}}{GMW}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d4278134c8ad3e64444258ed0a8cb98faf169df3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:25.3ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle SCR_{POI}={\frac {SCMVA_{POI}}{GMW}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>SCR is used to quantify the system strength of the grid (its ability to deal with changes in <a href="/wiki/Active_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Active power">active</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reactive_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactive power">reactive</a> power injection and consumption).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC20171_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC20171-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a simplified level, a high SCR indicates that the particular generator represents a small portion of the power available at the point of its connection to the grid, and therefore the generator problems cannot affect the grid in a significant way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamasubramanian20196_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamasubramanian20196-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SCMVA is defined as a product of the voltage before the 3LG fault and the current that would flow after the fault (this worst-case combination will not happen in practice, but provides a useful estimation of the capacity of the circuit). SCMVA is also called a <b>short circuit level</b> (<b>SCL</b>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurtonSharpeJenkinsBossanyi2001572_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurtonSharpeJenkinsBossanyi2001572-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although sometimes the term SCL is used to designate just the short-circuit current.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grid_strength">Grid strength</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_circuit_ratio_(electrical_grid)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Grid strength"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <b>grid strength</b> (also <b>system strength</b>) is used to describe the resiliency of the grid to the small changes in the vicinity of the grid location (“<b>grid stiffness</b>”).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the side of an electrical generator, the system strength is related to the changes of voltage the generator encounters on its <a href="/wiki/Terminal_(electronics)" title="Terminal (electronics)">terminals</a> as the generator's current injection varies. Therefore, the quantification of the system strength can be done through finding the equivalent (<a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9venin%27s_theorem" title="Thévenin's theorem">Thévenin</a>) <a href="/wiki/Electrical_impedance" title="Electrical impedance">electrical impedance</a> of the system as observed from these terminals (the strength is inversely proportional to the resistance<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>). SCR and its variations provide a convenient way to calculate this impedance under normal or <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(electrical_grid)" title="Contingency (electrical grid)">contingency</a> conditions (these estimates are not intended for the actual short-circuit state).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC20171_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC20171-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strong grids provide a reliable reference for power sources to synchronize.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a very stiff system the voltage does not change with variations of the power injected by a particular generator, making its control simpler.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In a traditional grid dominated by <a href="/wiki/Synchronous_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronous generator">synchronous generators</a>, a strong grid with SCR greater than 3.0 will have the desired voltage stability and active power reserves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <b>weak grid</b> (with SCR values between 2.0 and 3.0<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) can exhibit <a href="/wiki/Voltage_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage control">voltage instability</a> and control problems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A grid with SCR below 2.0 is <i>very weak</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Importance_of_overcurrent">Importance of overcurrent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_circuit_ratio_(electrical_grid)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Importance of overcurrent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Grid strength is also important for its <a href="/wiki/Overcurrent" title="Overcurrent">overcurrent</a> capabilities that are essential for the <a href="/wiki/Power_system_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Power system operations">power system operations</a>. Lack of overcurrent capability (low SCR) in a weak grid creates a multitude of problems, including:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>transients during the large load changes will cause large variations of the grid voltage, causing problems with the loads (e.g., some motors might not be able to start in the <a href="/wiki/Undervoltage" class="mw-redirect" title="Undervoltage">undervoltage</a> condition);</li> <li>the grid protection devices are designed to be triggered by a sufficient level of overcurrent. In a weak system the short circuit current might be hard to distinguish from a normal transient overcurrent encountered during the load changes;</li> <li>during a <a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">black start</a> operation after a <a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">power outage</a>, large <a href="/wiki/Inrush_current" title="Inrush current">inrush current</a> might be needed to energize the system components. For example, if some loads in a weak system remain connected, an <a href="/wiki/Inverter-based_resource" title="Inverter-based resource">inverter-based resource</a> might not be able to start.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presence_of_inverter-based_resources">Presence of inverter-based resources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_circuit_ratio_(electrical_grid)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Presence of inverter-based resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Large penetration of the <a href="/wiki/Inverter-based_resource" title="Inverter-based resource">inverter-based resources</a> (IBRs) reduces the short circuit level: a typical synchronous generator can deliver a significant <a href="/wiki/Overcurrent" title="Overcurrent">overcurrent</a>, 2-5<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Per-unit_system" title="Per-unit system">p.u.</a>, for a relatively long time (minutes), while the component limitations of the IBRs result in overcurrent limits of less than 2<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> p.u. (usually 1.1-1.2 p.u.).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original SCR definition above was intended for a system with predominantly synchronous generation,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC20171_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC20171-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so multiple alternative metrics, including <i>weighted short circuit ratio</i> (WSCR), <i>composite short circuit ratio</i> (CSCR), <i>equivalent circuit short circuit ratio</i> (ESCR), and <i>short circuit ratio with interaction factors</i> (SCRIF), have been proposed for the grids with multiple adjacent IBRs to avoid an overestimation of the grid strength<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC20172_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC20172-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (an IBR relies on grid strength to synchronize its operation and does not have much overcurrent capacity<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>Henderson et al. argue that in case of IBRs the SCR and system strength are in fact decoupled and propose a new metric, <i>grid strength impedance</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Integrating renewable energy sources often raises concerns about the system's strength. The ability of different components in a <a href="/wiki/Power_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Power system">power system</a> to perform effectively depends on the system's strength, which measures the system variables' sensitivity to disturbances. The short circuit ratio (SCR) is an indicator of the strength of a network bus about the rated power of a device and is frequently used as a measure of system strength. A higher SCR value indicates a stronger system, meaning that the impact of disturbances on voltage and other variables will be minimized. A strong system is defined as having an SCR above three, and the SCRs of weak and very weak systems range between three and two and below two, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto2014_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Power_electronic_applications" class="mw-redirect" title="Power electronic applications">Power electronic applications</a> often encounter issues related to SCR, particularly in renewable energy systems that use power converters to connect to power grids. When connecting HVDC/FACTs devices based on <a href="/wiki/Current_source_converters" class="mw-redirect" title="Current source converters">current source converters</a> to <a href="/wiki/Weak_AC_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak AC systems">weak AC systems</a>, particular technologies must be employed to overcome SCR of less than three. For <a href="/wiki/HVDC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVDC">HVDC</a>, voltage-source-based converters or capacitor-commutated converters are utilized in applications with SCR near one. Failing to use these technologies will require special studies to determine the impact and take measures to prevent or minimize the adverse effects, as low levels of SCR can cause problems such as high over-voltages, low-frequency resonances, and instability in <a href="/wiki/Control_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Control systems">control systems</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wind_farms" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind farms">Wind farms</a> are commonly linked to less robust network sections away from the main power consumption areas. Problems with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Voltage_stability&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Voltage stability (page does not exist)">voltage stability</a> that arise from incorporating large-scale wind power into vulnerable systems are crucial issues that require attention. Some wind turbines have specific minimum system strength criteria. GE indicates that the standard parameters of their wind turbine model are appropriate for systems with a Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) of five or higher. However, if connecting to weaker systems, it is necessary to carry out further analysis to guarantee that the model parameters are adequately adjusted. Specifically designed control methods for wind turbines or dynamic reactive compensation devices, such as <a href="/wiki/STATCOM" class="mw-redirect" title="STATCOM">STATCOM</a>, are required to ensure optimal performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto2014_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Example">Example</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_circuit_ratio_(electrical_grid)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An experience at <a href="/wiki/ERCOT" class="mw-redirect" title="ERCOT">ERCOT</a> in early 21st century provides a prime example of how the wind turbine's performance is affected by a weak system strength. The wind power plant, linked to the ERCOT grid through two 69kV transmission lines, worked efficiently when the SCR was around 4 during normal operations. However, when one of the 69kV lines was disconnected, the SCR dropped to 2 or less, leading to unfavorable, poorly damped, or un-damped voltage oscillations that were documented by PMUs at the Point of Interconnection (POI) of the wind plant. After a thorough investigation, it was determined that the aggressive voltage control used by the WPP was not appropriate for a weak grid environment and was the primary cause of the oscillatory response. Due to the low short circuit level detected by the wind generator voltage controller and the high voltage control gain, the oscillation occurred. When compared to the normal grid with high SCR, the closed loop voltage control would have a faster response under weak grid conditions. To replicate the oscillatory response, the event was simulated using a detailed dynamic model representing the WPP.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_grid">Impact on grid</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_circuit_ratio_(electrical_grid)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Impact on grid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The SCR can be calculated for each point on an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grid</a>. A point on a grid having a number of machines with an SCR above a number between 1 and 1.5 has less vulnerability to voltage instability. Hence, such a grid is known strong grid or power system. A power system (grid) having a lower SCR has more vulnerability to grid voltage instability. Hence such a grid or system is known as a weak grid or a weak power system. </p><p>Grid strength can be increased by installing <a href="/wiki/Synchronous_condenser" title="Synchronous condenser">synchronous condensers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_circuit_ratio_(electrical_grid)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC20171-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC20171_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC20171_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC20171_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNERC2017">NERC 2017</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamasubramanian20196-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamasubramanian20196_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRamasubramanian2019">Ramasubramanian 2019</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurtonSharpeJenkinsBossanyi2001572-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurtonSharpeJenkinsBossanyi2001572_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurtonSharpeJenkinsBossanyi2001">Burton et al. 2001</a>, p. 572.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang20231_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang2023">Henderson et al. 2023</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC2017vii_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNERC2017">NERC 2017</a>, p. vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto20141_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhangHuangSchmallConto2014">Zhang et al. 2014</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiNieWang2022536_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiNieWang2022">Li, Nie & Wang 2022</a>, p. 536.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENERC20172-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENERC20172_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNERC2017">NERC 2017</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto2014-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto2014_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangSchmallConto2014_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhangHuangSchmallConto2014">Zhang et al. 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJang2019" class="citation book cs1">Jang, Gilsoo (2019-11-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1cW-DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22grid%20strength%22&pg=PA5"><i>HVDC for Grid Services in Electric Power Systems</i></a>. MDPI. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03921-762-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03921-762-5"><bdi>978-3-03921-762-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=HVDC+for+Grid+Services+in+Electric+Power+Systems&rft.pub=MDPI&rft.date=2019-11-18&rft.isbn=978-3-03921-762-5&rft.aulast=Jang&rft.aufirst=Gilsoo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1cW-DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522grid%2520strength%2522%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShort+circuit+ratio+%28electrical+grid%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_circuit_ratio_(electrical_grid)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKundurBaluLauby1994" class="citation book cs1">Kundur, P.; Balu, N.J.; Lauby, M.G. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wOlSAAAAMAAJ"><i>Power System Stability and Control</i></a>. EPRI power system engineering series. McGraw-Hill Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-035958-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-035958-1"><bdi>978-0-07-035958-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+System+Stability+and+Control&rft.series=EPRI+power+system+engineering+series&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-07-035958-1&rft.aulast=Kundur&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Balu%2C+N.J.&rft.au=Lauby%2C+M.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwOlSAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShort+circuit+ratio+%28electrical+grid%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNERC2018" class="citation book cs1">NERC (February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nerc.com/pa/RAPA/ra/Reliability%20Assessments%20DL/Short_Circuit_whitepaper_Final_1_26_18.pdf"><i>Short-Circuit Modeling and System Strength</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Atlanta, GA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Short-Circuit+Modeling+and+System+Strength&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+GA&rft.date=2018-02&rft.au=NERC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nerc.com%2Fpa%2FRAPA%2Fra%2FReliability%2520Assessments%2520DL%2FShort_Circuit_whitepaper_Final_1_26_18.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShort+circuit+ratio+%28electrical+grid%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNERC2017" class="citation book cs1">NERC (December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nerc.com/pa/RAPA/ra/Reliability%20Assessments%20DL/Short_Circuit_whitepaper_Final_1_26_18.pdf"><i>Integrating Inverter-Based Resources into Low Short Circuit Strength Systems</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Atlanta, GA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Integrating+Inverter-Based+Resources+into+Low+Short+Circuit+Strength+Systems&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+GA&rft.date=2017-12&rft.au=NERC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nerc.com%2Fpa%2FRAPA%2Fra%2FReliability%2520Assessments%2520DL%2FShort_Circuit_whitepaper_Final_1_26_18.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShort+circuit+ratio+%28electrical+grid%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendersonEgea-AlvarezKneuppelYang2023" class="citation journal cs1">Henderson, Callum; Egea-Alvarez, Agusti; Kneuppel, Thyge; Yang, Guangya; Xu, Lie (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/304326476/BERAT_Grid_Strength_Impedance_Metric_An_Alternative_to_SCR_for_Evaluating_System_Strength_in_Converter_Dominated_Systems.pdf">"Grid Strength Impedance Metric: An Alternative to SCR for Evaluating System Strength in Converter Dominated Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery</i>. <b>39</b>. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 386–396. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ftpwrd.2022.3233455">10.1109/tpwrd.2022.3233455</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0885-8977">0885-8977</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255660560">255660560</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Power+Delivery&rft.atitle=Grid+Strength+Impedance+Metric%3A+An+Alternative+to+SCR+for+Evaluating+System+Strength+in+Converter+Dominated+Systems&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=386-396&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255660560%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0885-8977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ftpwrd.2022.3233455&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Callum&rft.au=Egea-Alvarez%2C+Agusti&rft.au=Kneuppel%2C+Thyge&rft.au=Yang%2C+Guangya&rft.au=Xu%2C+Lie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbackend.orbit.dtu.dk%2Fws%2Fportalfiles%2Fportal%2F304326476%2FBERAT_Grid_Strength_Impedance_Metric_An_Alternative_to_SCR_for_Evaluating_System_Strength_in_Converter_Dominated_Systems.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShort+circuit+ratio+%28electrical+grid%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurtonSharpeJenkinsBossanyi2001" class="citation book cs1">Burton, T.; Sharpe, D.; Jenkins, N.; Bossanyi, E. 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Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 535–548. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fojpel.2022.3194849">10.1109/ojpel.2022.3194849</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2644-1314">2644-1314</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251194445">251194445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Open+Journal+of+Power+Electronics&rft.atitle=Grid+Strengthening+IBR%3A+An+Inverter-Based+Resource+Enhanced+by+a+Co-Located+Synchronous+Condenser+for+High+Overcurrent+Capability&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=535-548&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251194445%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2644-1314&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fojpel.2022.3194849&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Haiguo&rft.au=Nie%2C+Cheng&rft.au=Wang%2C+Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1109%252Fojpel.2022.3194849&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShort+circuit+ratio+%28electrical+grid%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamasubramanian2019" class="citation web cs1">Ramasubramanian, Deepak (November 8, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cigre-usnc.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Deepak_Ramasubramanian_presentation.pdf">"Challenges and Possible Solutions for the Power System of the Future"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>cigre-usnc.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/CIGRE" class="mw-redirect" title="CIGRE">CIGRE</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="/wiki/Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">Home energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load-following_power_plant" title="Load-following power plant">Load-following</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_order" title="Merit order">Merit order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">Nameplate capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_demand" title="Peak demand">Peak demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_factor" title="Power factor">Power factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power-flow_study" title="Power-flow study">Power-flow study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repowering" title="Repowering">Repowering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_frequency" title="Utility frequency">Utility frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle-to-grid" title="Vehicle-to-grid">Vehicle-to-grid</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Abspannportal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt"><img alt="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/120px-Abspannportal.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/180px-Abspannportal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/240px-Abspannportal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology" title="Category:Power station technology">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_power_plant" title="Combined cycle power plant">Combined cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">Induction generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro CHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_power_plant" title="Virtual power plant">Virtual power plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Transmission</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)" title="Dynamic demand (electric power)">Dynamic demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">Electric power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_system" title="Electric power system">Electric power system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_busbar_system" title="Electrical busbar system">Electrical busbar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical substation">Electrical substation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_retailing" title="Electricity retailing">Electricity retailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_shore_connection" title="High-voltage shore connection">High-voltage shore connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interconnector" title="Interconnector">Interconnector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_management" title="Load management">Load management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country" title="Mains electricity by country">Mains electricity by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">Power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-wire_earth_return" title="Single-wire earth return">Single-wire earth return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">Super grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_system_operator" title="Transmission system operator">Transmission system operator</a> (TSO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">Transmission tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">Utility pole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Failure modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">Brownout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascading_failure" title="Cascading failure">Cascading failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Power outage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_blackout" title="Rolling blackout">Rolling blackout</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Protective<br />devices</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupter" title="Arc-fault circuit interrupter">Arc-fault circuit interrupter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth-leakage_circuit_breaker" title="Earth-leakage circuit breaker">Earth-leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride_circuit_breaker" title="Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker">Sulfur hexafluoride</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generator_interlock_kit" title="Generator interlock kit">Generator interlock kit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_relay" title="Numerical relay">Numerical relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_system_protection" title="Power system protection">Power system protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_relay" title="Protective relay">Protective relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual-current_device" title="Residual-current device">Residual-current device</a> (GFI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Economics<br />and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">Availability factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">Energy subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_tax" title="Environmental tax">Environmental tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_factor_(electrical)" title="Load factor (electrical)">Load factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigouvian tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificate_(United_States)" title="Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)">Renewable Energy Certificates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Payments" title="Renewable Energy Payments">Renewable Energy Payments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_spread" title="Spark spread">Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Statistics and<br />production</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">Electric energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_sectors" title="List of electricity sectors">List of electricity sectors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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