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<li id="toc-First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>First World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Between_World_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Between_World_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Between World wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Between_World_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Second World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Postwar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postwar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alloys_for_airframe_components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alloys_for_airframe_components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Alloys for airframe components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alloys_for_airframe_components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light_aircraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_aircraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Light aircraft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_aircraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="هيكل الطائرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هيكل الطائرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estructura_d%27una_aeronau" title="Estructura d'una aeronau – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Estructura d'una aeronau" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%C4%95%C3%A7%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%C4%95%D1%80%C4%95" title="Вĕçев аппарачĕн планĕрĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вĕçев аппарачĕн планĕрĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drak_letadla" title="Drak letadla – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Drak letadla" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flystel" title="Flystel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Flystel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estructura_de_aeronave" title="Estructura de aeronave – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estructura de aeronave" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%87_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="بدنه هواگرد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بدنه هواگرد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellule_(a%C3%A9ronautique)" title="Cellule (aéronautique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cellule (aéronautique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EC%B2%B4_(%ED%95%AD%EA%B3%B5)" title="기체 (항공) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기체 (항공)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%99_%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A1" title="מבנה כלי טיס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מבנה כלי טיס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B0%D1%88%D1%83_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Ұшу аппараты планері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ұшу аппараты планері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1rk%C3%A1ny_(rep%C3%BCl%C3%A9s)" title="Sárkány (repülés) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sárkány (repülés)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E4%BD%93" title="機体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="機体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%82atowiec" title="Płatowiec – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Płatowiec" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Планер летательного аппарата – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Планер летательного аппарата" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drak_lietadla" title="Drak lietadla – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Drak lietadla" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C3%A7u_apparat%C4%B1_planer%C4%B1" title="Oçu apparatı planerı – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Oçu apparatı planerı" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6vde_(havac%C4%B1l%C4%B1k)" title="Gövde (havacılık) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gövde (havacılık)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80_(%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0)" title="Планер (літального апарата) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Планер (літального апарата)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%BA%E4%BD%93" title="机体 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="机体" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Airframe" title="Special:EditPage/Airframe">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Airframe%22">"Airframe"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Airframe%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Airframe%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Airframe%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Airframe%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Airframe%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/RV-14_Cutaway_TD_-_small.jpg/220px-RV-14_Cutaway_TD_-_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/RV-14_Cutaway_TD_-_small.jpg/330px-RV-14_Cutaway_TD_-_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/RV-14_Cutaway_TD_-_small.jpg/440px-RV-14_Cutaway_TD_-_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="937" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Van%27s_RV-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Van's RV-14">Van's RV-14</a> cutaway showing its airframe</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering#Mechanical_structures" title="Structural engineering">mechanical structure</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> is known as the <b>airframe</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This structure is typically considered to include the <a href="/wiki/Fuselage" title="Fuselage">fuselage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landing_gear" title="Landing gear">undercarriage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empennage" title="Empennage">empennage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a>, and excludes the <a href="/wiki/Air_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Air propulsion">propulsion system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_design_process" title="Aircraft design process">Airframe design</a> is a field of <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a> that combines <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials technology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> methods with a focus on weight, strength and <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic drag">aerodynamic drag</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">reliability</a> and cost. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Airframe_(4_types).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Airframe_%284_types%29.PNG/520px-Airframe_%284_types%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="520" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Airframe_%284_types%29.PNG/780px-Airframe_%284_types%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Airframe_%284_types%29.PNG/1040px-Airframe_%284_types%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2140" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Four types of airframe construction: (1) Truss with canvas, (2) Truss with corrugate plate, (3) <a href="/wiki/Monocoque" title="Monocoque">Monocoque</a> construction, (4) <a href="/wiki/Semi-monocoque" title="Semi-monocoque">Semi-monocoque</a> construction.</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern airframe history began in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer's</a> maiden flight, showing the potential of <a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">fixed-wing designs</a> in aircraft. </p><p>In 1912 the <a href="/wiki/Deperdussin_Monocoque" title="Deperdussin Monocoque">Deperdussin Monocoque</a> pioneered the light, strong and streamlined <a href="/wiki/Monocoque" title="Monocoque">monocoque</a> fuselage formed of thin <a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a> layers over a circular frame, achieving 210 km/h (130 mph).<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ASM0807_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASM0807-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War">First World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many early developments were spurred by <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> needs during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Well known <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> from that era include the Dutch designer <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fokker" title="Anthony Fokker">Anthony Fokker</a>'s combat aircraft for the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>'s <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Luftstreitkr%C3%A4fte" title="Luftstreitkräfte">Luftstreitkräfte</a></i></span>, and U.S. <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Curtiss" title="Glenn Curtiss">Curtiss</a> <a href="/wiki/Flying_boat" title="Flying boat">flying boats</a> and the German/Austrian Taube <a href="/wiki/Monoplanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoplanes">monoplanes</a>. These used hybrid wood and metal structures. </p><p>By the 1915/16 timeframe, the German <a href="/wiki/Luft-Fahrzeug-Gesellschaft" title="Luft-Fahrzeug-Gesellschaft">Luft-Fahrzeug-Gesellschaft</a> firm had devised a fully <a href="/wiki/Monocoque" title="Monocoque">monocoque</a> all-wood structure with only a skeletal internal frame, using strips of plywood laboriously "wrapped" in a diagonal fashion in up to four layers, around concrete male molds in "left" and "right" halves, known as <i>Wickelrumpf</i> (wrapped-body) construction<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> - this first appeared on the 1916 <a href="/wiki/LFG_Roland_C.II" title="LFG Roland C.II">LFG Roland C.II</a>, and would later be licensed to <a href="/wiki/Pfalz_Flugzeugwerke" title="Pfalz Flugzeugwerke">Pfalz Flugzeugwerke</a> for its D-series biplane fighters. </p><p>In 1916 the German <a href="/wiki/Albatros_D.III" title="Albatros D.III">Albatros D.III</a> biplane fighters featured <a href="/wiki/Semi-monocoque" title="Semi-monocoque">semi-monocoque</a> fuselages with load-bearing plywood skin panels glued to longitudinal <a href="/wiki/Longeron" title="Longeron">longerons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulkhead_(partition)" title="Bulkhead (partition)">bulkheads</a>; it was replaced by the prevalent <a href="/wiki/Stressed_skin" title="Stressed skin">stressed skin</a> structural configuration as <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> replaced wood.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar methods to the Albatros firm's concept were used by both <a href="/wiki/Hannoversche_Waggonfabrik" title="Hannoversche Waggonfabrik">Hannoversche Waggonfabrik</a> for their light two-seat <a href="/wiki/Hannover_CL.II" title="Hannover CL.II">CL.II</a> through <a href="/wiki/Hannover_CL.V" title="Hannover CL.V">CL.V</a> designs, and by <a href="/wiki/Siemens-Schuckert" title="Siemens-Schuckert">Siemens-Schuckert</a> for their later <a href="/wiki/Siemens-Schuckert_D.III" title="Siemens-Schuckert D.III">Siemens-Schuckert D.III</a> and higher-performance <a href="/wiki/Siemens-Schuckert_D.IV" title="Siemens-Schuckert D.IV">D.IV</a> biplane fighter designs. The Albatros D.III construction was of much less complexity than the patented LFG <i>Wickelrumpf</i> concept for their outer skinning.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (May 2018)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>German engineer <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Junkers" title="Hugo Junkers">Hugo Junkers</a> first flew all-metal airframes in 1915 with the all-metal, <a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilever</a>-wing, stressed-skin monoplane <a href="/wiki/Junkers_J_1" title="Junkers J 1">Junkers J 1</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It developed further with lighter weight <a href="/wiki/Duralumin" title="Duralumin">duralumin</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wilm" title="Alfred Wilm">Alfred Wilm</a> in Germany before the war; in the airframe of the <a href="/wiki/Junkers_D.I" title="Junkers D.I">Junkers D.I</a> of 1918, whose techniques were adopted almost unchanged after the war by both American engineer <a href="/wiki/William_Bushnell_Stout" title="William Bushnell Stout">William Bushnell Stout</a> and Soviet aerospace engineer <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Tupolev" title="Andrei Tupolev">Andrei Tupolev</a>, proving to be useful for aircraft <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_ANT-20" title="Tupolev ANT-20">up to 60 meters in wingspan</a> by the 1930s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Between_World_wars">Between World wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Between World wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The J 1 of 1915, and the D.I fighter of 1918, were followed in 1919 by the first all-metal transport aircraft, the <a href="/wiki/Junkers_F.13" class="mw-redirect" title="Junkers F.13">Junkers F.13</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Duralumin" title="Duralumin">Duralumin</a> as the D.I had been; 300 were built, along with the first four-<a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">engine</a>, all-metal <a href="/wiki/Passenger_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger aircraft">passenger aircraft</a>, the sole <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin-Staaken_E-4/20" title="Zeppelin-Staaken E-4/20">Zeppelin-Staaken E-4/20</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ASM0807_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASM0807-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Commercial_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial aircraft">Commercial aircraft</a> development during the 1920s and 1930s focused on monoplane designs using <a href="/wiki/Radial_engine" title="Radial engine">Radial engines</a>. Some were produced as single copies or in small quantity such as the <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_St._Louis" title="Spirit of St. Louis">Spirit of St. Louis</a> flown across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> in 1927. William Stout designed the all-metal <a href="/wiki/Ford_Trimotor" title="Ford Trimotor">Ford Trimotors</a> in 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hall_XFH" title="Hall XFH">Hall XFH</a> naval fighter <a href="/wiki/Prototype" title="Prototype">prototype</a> flown in 1929 was the first aircraft with a <a href="/wiki/Rivet" title="Rivet">riveted</a> metal fuselage : an aluminium skin over steel tubing, Hall also pioneered <a href="/wiki/Flush_rivet" class="mw-redirect" title="Flush rivet">flush rivets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Butt_joint" title="Butt joint">butt joints</a> between skin panels in the <a href="/wiki/Hall_PH" title="Hall PH">Hall PH</a> <a href="/wiki/Flying_boat" title="Flying boat">flying boat</a> also flying in 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on the Italian <a href="/wiki/Savoia-Marchetti_S.56" title="Savoia-Marchetti S.56">Savoia-Marchetti S.56</a>, the 1931 <a href="/wiki/Budd_BB-1_Pioneer" title="Budd BB-1 Pioneer">Budd BB-1 Pioneer</a> experimental flying boat was constructed of corrosion-resistant <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a> assembled with newly developed <a href="/wiki/Spot_welding" title="Spot welding">spot welding</a> by U.S. railcar maker <a href="/wiki/Budd_Company" title="Budd Company">Budd Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original Junkers corrugated duralumin-covered airframe philosophy culminated in the 1932-origin <a href="/wiki/Junkers_Ju_52" title="Junkers Ju 52">Junkers Ju 52</a> trimotor airliner, used throughout World War II by the Nazi German <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> for transport and paratroop needs. Andrei Tupolev's designs in <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s Soviet Union designed a series of all-metal aircraft of steadily increasing size culminating in the largest aircraft of its era, the eight-engined <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_ANT-20" title="Tupolev ANT-20">Tupolev ANT-20</a> in 1934, and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Wills_Douglas,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Wills Douglas, Sr.">Donald Douglas</a>' firms developed the iconic <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-3" title="Douglas DC-3">Douglas DC-3</a> twin-engined airliner in 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were among the most successful designs to emerge from the era through the use of all-metal airframes. </p><p>In 1937, the <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_XC-35" title="Lockheed XC-35">Lockheed XC-35</a> was specifically constructed with <a href="/wiki/Cabin_pressurization" title="Cabin pressurization">cabin pressurization</a> to undergo extensive high-altitude flight tests, paving the way for the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_307_Stratoliner" title="Boeing 307 Stratoliner">Boeing 307 Stratoliner</a>, which would be the first aircraft with a pressurized cabin to enter commercial service.<sup id="cite_ref-ASM0807_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASM0807-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X,_HE239_%27NA-Y%27,_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_(April_1943).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png/220px-Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png/330px-Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png/440px-Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vickers_Wellington" title="Vickers Wellington">Wellington Mark X</a> showing the <a href="/wiki/Geodesic_airframe" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodesic airframe">geodesic airframe</a> construction and the level of punishment it could withstand while maintaining airworthiness</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, military needs again dominated airframe designs. Among the best known were the US <a href="/wiki/C-47_Skytrain" class="mw-redirect" title="C-47 Skytrain">C-47 Skytrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-17 Flying Fortress">B-17 Flying Fortress</a>, <a href="/wiki/B-25_Mitchell" class="mw-redirect" title="B-25 Mitchell">B-25 Mitchell</a> and <a href="/wiki/P-38_Lightning" class="mw-redirect" title="P-38 Lightning">P-38 Lightning</a>, and British <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Wellington" title="Vickers Wellington">Vickers Wellington</a> that used a geodesic construction method, and <a href="/wiki/Avro_Lancaster" title="Avro Lancaster">Avro Lancaster</a>, all revamps of original designs from the 1930s. The first <a href="/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft">jets</a> were produced during the war but not made in large quantity. </p><p>Due to wartime scarcity of aluminium, the <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Mosquito" title="De Havilland Mosquito">de Havilland Mosquito</a> fighter-bomber was built from wood—plywood facings <a href="/wiki/Wood_glue" title="Wood glue">bonded</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Balsawood" class="mw-redirect" title="Balsawood">balsawood</a> core and formed using <a href="/wiki/Molding_(process)" title="Molding (process)">molds</a> to produce monocoque structures, leading to the development of metal-to-metal <a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">bonding</a> used later for the <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">de Havilland Comet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fokker_F27" class="mw-redirect" title="Fokker F27">Fokker F27</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fokker_F28" class="mw-redirect" title="Fokker F28">F28</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postwar">Postwar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Postwar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Postwar commercial airframe design focused on <a href="/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">airliners</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> engines, and then on <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engines</a>. The generally higher speeds and <a href="/wiki/Tensile_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile stress">tensile stresses</a> of turboprops and jets were major challenges.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newly developed <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> with <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> were critical to these designs.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flown in 1952 and designed to cruise at Mach 2 where <a href="/wiki/Skin_friction" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin friction">skin friction</a> required its <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> resistance, the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_X-3_Stiletto" title="Douglas X-3 Stiletto">Douglas X-3 Stiletto</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a> aircraft but it was underpowered and barely <a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a>; the Mach 3.2 <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_A-12" title="Lockheed A-12">Lockheed A-12</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockheed SR-71">SR-71</a> were also mainly titanium, as was the cancelled <a href="/wiki/Boeing_2707" title="Boeing 2707">Boeing 2707</a> Mach 2.7 <a href="/wiki/Supersonic_transport" title="Supersonic transport">supersonic transport</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because heat-resistant titanium is hard to weld and difficult to work with, welded <a href="/wiki/Nickel_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel steel">nickel steel</a> was used for the Mach 2.8 <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-25" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25">Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25</a> fighter, first flown in 1964; and the Mach 3.1 <a href="/wiki/North_American_XB-70_Valkyrie" title="North American XB-70 Valkyrie">North American XB-70 Valkyrie</a> used brazed <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a> <a href="/wiki/Honeycomb_structure" title="Honeycomb structure">honeycomb</a> panels and titanium but was cancelled by the time it flew in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">computer-aided design</a> system was developed in 1969 for the <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle" title="McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle">McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle</a>, which first flew in 1974 alongside the <a href="/wiki/Grumman_F-14_Tomcat" title="Grumman F-14 Tomcat">Grumman F-14 Tomcat</a> and both used <a href="/wiki/Boron_fiber" title="Boron fiber">boron fiber</a> composites in the tails; less expensive <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fiber_reinforced_polymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fiber reinforced polymer">carbon fiber reinforced polymer</a> were used for wing skins on the <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_AV-8B_Harrier_II" title="McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II">McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F/A-18_Hornet" title="McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet">F/A-18 Hornet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit">Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft_interior_bulkhead.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft_interior_bulkhead.jpg/220px-Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft_interior_bulkhead.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft_interior_bulkhead.jpg/330px-Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft_interior_bulkhead.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft_interior_bulkhead.jpg/440px-Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft_interior_bulkhead.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Rough interior of a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747" title="Boeing 747">Boeing 747</a> airframe</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wing_with_one_spar.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Wing_with_one_spar.JPG/220px-Wing_with_one_spar.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Wing_with_one_spar.JPG/330px-Wing_with_one_spar.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Wing_with_one_spar.JPG/440px-Wing_with_one_spar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>Wing structure with <a href="/wiki/Rib_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rib (aircraft)">ribs</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Spar_(aviation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spar (aviation)">spar</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Airbus" title="Airbus">Airbus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a> are the dominant assemblers of large <a href="/wiki/Jet_airliners" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet airliners">jet airliners</a> while <a href="/wiki/ATR_(aircraft_manufacturer)" title="ATR (aircraft manufacturer)">ATR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bombardier_Aerospace" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardier Aerospace">Bombardier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Embraer" title="Embraer">Embraer</a> lead the <a href="/wiki/Regional_airliner" title="Regional airliner">regional airliner</a> market; many manufacturers produce airframe components.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles"><span title="The material near this tag may contain information that is not relevant to the article's main topic. (April 2017)">relevant?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The vertical stabilizer of the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A310" title="Airbus A310">Airbus A310</a>-300, first flown in 1985, was the first carbon-fiber primary structure used in a <a href="/wiki/Commercial_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial aircraft">commercial aircraft</a>; composites are increasingly used since in Airbus airliners: the horizontal stabilizer of the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus A320">A320</a> in 1987 and <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A330" title="Airbus A330">A330</a>/<a href="/wiki/Airbus_A340" title="Airbus A340">A340</a> in 1994, and the center wing-box and aft fuselage of the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">A380</a> in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cirrus_SR20" title="Cirrus SR20">Cirrus SR20</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_certificate" title="Type certificate">type certificated</a> in 1998, was the first widely produced <a href="/wiki/General_aviation" title="General aviation">general aviation</a> aircraft manufactured with all-composite construction, followed by several other <a href="/wiki/Light_aircraft" title="Light aircraft">light aircraft</a> in the 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Boeing_787" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing 787">Boeing 787</a>, first flown in 2009, was the first commercial aircraft with 50% of its structure weight made of carbon-fiber composites, along with 20% aluminium and 15% titanium: the material allows for a lower-drag, higher <a href="/wiki/Wing_aspect_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Wing aspect ratio">wing aspect ratio</a> and higher cabin pressurization; the competing <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A350" title="Airbus A350">Airbus A350</a>, flown in 2013, is 53% carbon-fiber by structure weight.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has a one-piece carbon fiber fuselage, said to replace "1,200 sheets of aluminium and 40,000 rivets."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2013 <a href="/wiki/Bombardier_CSeries" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardier CSeries">Bombardier CSeries</a> have a dry-fiber resin transfer infusion wing with a lightweight <a href="/wiki/Aluminium-lithium_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminium-lithium alloy">aluminium-lithium alloy</a> fuselage for damage resistance and repairability, a combination which could be used for future <a href="/wiki/Narrow-body_aircraft" title="Narrow-body aircraft">narrow-body aircraft</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AW161121_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, the <a href="/wiki/Cirrus_Vision_SF50" title="Cirrus Vision SF50">Cirrus Vision SF50</a> became the first certified <a href="/wiki/Business_jet" title="Business jet">light jet</a> made entirely from carbon-fiber composites. </p><p>In February 2017, Airbus installed a <a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a> machine for titanium aircraft structural parts using <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_additive_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam additive manufacturing">electron beam additive manufacturing</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sciaky,_Inc." title="Sciaky, Inc.">Sciaky, Inc.</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Airliner composition by mass<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Material </th> <th>B747</th> <th>B767</th> <th>B757</th> <th>B777</th> <th>B787</th> <th>A300B4 </th></tr> <tr> <th>Aluminium </th> <td>81%</td> <td>80%</td> <td>78%</td> <td>70%</td> <td>20%</td> <td>77% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Steel </th> <td>13%</td> <td>14%</td> <td>12%</td> <td>11%</td> <td>10%</td> <td>12% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Titanium </th> <td>4%</td> <td>2%</td> <td>6%</td> <td>7%</td> <td>15%</td> <td>4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Composites </th> <td>1%</td> <td>3%</td> <td>3%</td> <td>11%</td> <td>50%</td> <td>4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Other </th> <td>1%</td> <td>1%</td> <td>1%</td> <td>1%</td> <td>5%</td> <td>3% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Airframe production has become an exacting process. Manufacturers operate under strict quality control and government regulations. Departures from established standards become objects of major concern.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DH106_Comet_3_G-ANLO_FAR_1954.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/DH106_Comet_3_G-ANLO_FAR_1954.jpg/220px-DH106_Comet_3_G-ANLO_FAR_1954.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/DH106_Comet_3_G-ANLO_FAR_1954.jpg/330px-DH106_Comet_3_G-ANLO_FAR_1954.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/DH106_Comet_3_G-ANLO_FAR_1954.jpg/440px-DH106_Comet_3_G-ANLO_FAR_1954.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>DH106 Comet 3 G-ANLO demonstrating at the 1954 <a href="/wiki/Farnborough_Airshow" class="mw-redirect" title="Farnborough Airshow">Farnborough Airshow</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A landmark in aeronautical design, the world's first <a href="/wiki/Jet_airliner" title="Jet airliner">jet airliner</a>, the <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">de Havilland Comet</a>, first flew in 1949. Early models suffered from catastrophic airframe <a href="/wiki/Metal_fatigue" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal fatigue">metal fatigue</a>, causing a series of widely publicised accidents. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment" title="Royal Aircraft Establishment">Royal Aircraft Establishment</a> investigation at <a href="/wiki/Farnborough_Airport" title="Farnborough Airport">Farnborough Airport</a> founded the science of aircraft crash reconstruction. After 3000 pressurisation cycles in a specially constructed pressure chamber, airframe failure was found to be due to stress concentration, a consequence of the square shaped windows. The windows had been engineered to be glued and riveted, but had been punch riveted only. Unlike drill riveting, the imperfect nature of the hole created by punch riveting may cause the start of fatigue cracks around the rivet. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_L-188_Electra" title="Lockheed L-188 Electra">Lockheed L-188 Electra</a> turboprop, first flown in 1957 became a costly lesson in controlling <a href="/wiki/Oscillation" title="Oscillation">oscillation</a> and planning around <a href="/wiki/Metal_fatigue" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal fatigue">metal fatigue</a>. Its 1959 crash of <a href="/wiki/Braniff_Flight_542" class="mw-redirect" title="Braniff Flight 542">Braniff Flight 542</a> showed the difficulties that the airframe industry and its <a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">airline</a> customers can experience when adopting new <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. </p><p>The incident bears comparison with the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A300" title="Airbus A300">Airbus A300</a> crash on takeoff of the <a href="/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_587" title="American Airlines Flight 587">American Airlines Flight 587</a> in 2001, after its <a href="/wiki/Vertical_stabilizer" title="Vertical stabilizer">vertical stabilizer</a> broke away from the <a href="/wiki/Fuselage" title="Fuselage">fuselage</a>, called attention to operation, maintenance and design issues involving <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite materials</a> that are used in many recent airframes.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The A300 had experienced other structural problems but none of this magnitude. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alloys_for_airframe_components">Alloys for airframe components</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Alloys for airframe components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the twentieth century progressed, aluminum became an essential metal in aircraft. The cylinder block of the engine that powered the Wright brothers’ plane at Kitty Hawk in 1903 was a one-piece casting in an aluminum alloy containing 8% copper; aluminum propeller blades appeared as early as 1907; and aluminum covers, seats, cowlings, cast brackets, and similar parts were common by the beginning of the First World War. In 1916, L. Brequet designed a reconnaissance bomber that marked the initial use of aluminum in the working structure of an airplane. By war’s end, the Allies and Germany employed aluminum alloys for the structural framework of fuselage and wing assemblies.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The aircraft <a class="mw-selflink selflink">airframe</a> has been the most demanding application for aluminum alloys; to chronicle the development of the high-strength alloys is also to record the development of airframes. <a href="/wiki/Duralumin" title="Duralumin">Duralumin</a>, the first high-strength, heat treatable aluminum alloy, was employed initially for the framework of <a href="/wiki/Rigid_airships" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigid airships">rigid airships</a>, by Germany and the Allies during World War I. Duralumin was an aluminum-copper-magnesium alloy; it was originated in Germany and developed in the United States as Alloy 17S-T (2017-T4). It was utilized primarily as sheet and plate. </p><p>Alloy 7075-T6 (70,000-psi yield strength), an Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy, was introduced in 1943. Since then, most aircraft structures have been specified in alloys of this type. The first aircraft designed in 7075-T6 was the Navy’s <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_P-2_Neptune" title="Lockheed P-2 Neptune">P2V patrol bomber</a>. A higher-strength alloy in the same series, 7178-T6 (78,000-psi yield strength), was developed in 1951; it has not generally displaced 7075-T6, which has superior fracture toughness. </p><p>Alloy 7178-T6 is used primarily in structural members where performance is critical under <a href="/wiki/Compression_(physics)" title="Compression (physics)">compressive loading</a>. </p><p>Alloy 7079-T6 was introduced in the United States in 1954. In forged sections over 3 in. thick, it provides higher strength and greater transverse <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a> than 7075-T6. It now is available in sheet, plate, extrusions, and forgings. </p><p>Alloy X7080-T7, with higher resistance to <a href="/wiki/Stress_corrosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress corrosion">stress corrosion</a> than 7079-T6, is being developed for thick parts. Because it is relatively insensitive to <a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">quenching</a> rate, good strengths with low quenching stresses can be produced in thick sections. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cladding_(construction)" title="Cladding (construction)">Cladding</a> of aluminum alloys was developed initially to increase the corrosion resistance of 2017-T4 sheet and thus to reduce aluminum aircraft maintenance requirements. The coating on 2017 sheet - and later on 2024-T3 - consisted of commercial-purity aluminum metallurgically bonded to one or both surfaces of the sheet. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrolytic_protection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electrolytic protection (page does not exist)">Electrolytic protection</a>, present under wet or moist conditions, is based on the appreciably higher <a href="/wiki/Electrode_potential" title="Electrode potential">electrode potential</a> of commercial-purity aluminum compared to alloy 2017 or 2024 in the T3 or T4 temper. When 7075-T6 and other Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys appeared, an aluminum-zinc cladding alloy 7072 was developed to provide a relative electrode potential sufficient to protect the new strong alloys. </p><p>However, the high-performance aircraft designed since 1945 have made extensive use of skin structures machined from thick plate and extrusions, precluding the use of <a href="/wiki/Alclad" title="Alclad">alclad</a> exterior skins. Maintenance requirements increased as a result, and these stimulated research and development programs seeking higher-strength alloys with improved resistance to corrosion without cladding. </p><p>Aluminum alloy <a href="/wiki/Castings" class="mw-redirect" title="Castings">castings</a> traditionally have been used in nonstructural airplane hardware, such as <a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">pulley</a> brackets, quadrants, doublers, clips and ducts. They also have been employed extensively in complex <a href="/wiki/Valve#components" title="Valve">valve bodies</a> of hydraulic control systems. The philosophy of some aircraft manufacturers still is to specify castings only in places where failure of the part cannot cause loss of the airplane. <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">Redundancy</a> in cable and hydraulic control systems permits the use of castings. </p><p>Casting technology has made great advances in the last decade. Time-honored alloys such as 355 and 356 have been modified to produce higher levels of strength and ductility. New alloys such as 354, A356, A357, 359 and Tens 50 were developed for premium-strength castings. The high strength is accompanied by enhanced structural integrity and performance reliability. </p><p>Electric resistance <a href="/wiki/Spot_welding" title="Spot welding">spot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seam_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Seam welding">seam welding</a> are used to join secondary structures, such as fairings, engine cowls, and doublers, to bulkheads and skins. Difficulties in quality control have resulted in low utilization of electric resistance welding for primary structure. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ultrasonic_welding" title="Ultrasonic welding">Ultrasonic welding</a> offers some economic and quality-control advantages for production joining, particularly for thin sheet. However, the method has not yet been developed extensively in the aerospace industry. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Adhesive_bonding" title="Adhesive bonding">Adhesive bonding</a> is a common method of joining in both primary and secondary structures. Its selection is dependent on the design philosophy of the aircraft manufacturer. It has proven satisfactory in attaching stiffeners, such as hat sections to sheet, and face sheets to <a href="/wiki/Sandwich-structured_composite" title="Sandwich-structured composite">honeycomb cores</a>. Also, adhesive bonding has withstood adverse exposures such as sea-water immersion and atmospheres. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fusion_welding" title="Fusion welding">Fusion welded</a> aluminum primary structures in airplanes are virtually nonexistent, because the high-strength alloys utilized have low <a href="/wiki/Weldability" title="Weldability">weldability</a> and low weld-joint efficiencies. Some of the alloys, such as 2024-T4, also have their corrosion resistance lowered in the heat-affected zone if left in the as-welded condition. </p><p>The improved welding processes and higher-strength weldable alloys developed during the past decade offer new possibilities for welded primary structures. For example, the weldability and strength of alloys 2219 and 7039, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brazeability&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brazeability (page does not exist)">brazeability</a> and strength of X7005, open new avenues for design and manufacture of aircraft structures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Light_aircraft">Light aircraft</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Light aircraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Light aircraft have airframes primarily of all-aluminum semi-monocoque construction, however, a few light planes have tubular truss load-carrying construction with fabric or aluminum skin, or both. Aluminum skin is normally of the minimum practical thickness: 0.015 to 0.025 in. Although design strength requirements are relatively low, the skin needs moderately high yield strength and hardness to minimize ground damage from stones, debris, mechanics’ tools, and general handling. Other primary factors involved in selecting an alloy for this application are corrosion resistance, cost, and appearance. Alloys 6061-T6 and alclad 2024-T3 are the primary choices. </p><p>Skin sheet on light airplanes of recent design and construction generally is alclad 2024-T3. The internal structure comprises stringers, spars, bulkheads, chord members, and various attaching fittings made of aluminum extrusions, formed sheet, forgings, and castings. </p><p>The alloys most used for extruded members are 2024-T4 for sections less than 0.125 in. thick and for general application, and 2014-T6 for thicker, more highly stressed sections. Alloy 6061-T6 has considerable application for extrusions requiring thin sections and excellent corrosion resistance. Alloy 2014-T6 is the primary forging alloy, especially for landing gear and hydraulic cylinders. Alloy 6061-T6 and its forging counterpart 6151-T6 often are utilized in miscellaneous fittings for reasons of economy and increased corrosion performance, when the parts are not highly stressed. </p><p>Alloys 356-T6 and A356-T6 are the primary casting alloys employed for brackets, bellcranks, pulleys, and various fittings. Wheels are produced in these alloys as permanent mold or sand castings. Die castings in alloy A380 also are satisfactory for wheels for light aircraft. </p><p>For low-stressed structure in light aircraft, alloys 3003-H12, H14, and H16; 5052-O, H32, H34, and H36; and 6061-T4 and T6 are sometimes employed. These alloys are also primary selections for fuel, lubricating oil, and hydraulic oil tanks, piping, and instrument tubing and brackets, especially where welding is required. Alloys 3003, 6061, and 6951 are utilized extensively in brazed heat exchangers and hydraulic accessories. Recently developed alloys, such as 5086, 5454, 5456, 6070, and the new weldable aluminum-magnesium-zinc alloys, offer strength advantages over those previously mentioned. </p><p>Sheet assembly of light aircraft is accomplished predominantly with rivets of alloys 2017-T4, 2117-T4, or 2024-T4. Self-tapping sheet metal screws are available in aluminum alloys, but cadmium-plated steel screws are employed more commonly to obtain higher shear strength and driveability. Alloy 2024-T4 with an anodic coating is standard for aluminum screws, bolts, and nuts made to military specifications. Alloy 6262-T9, however, is superior for nuts, because of its virtual immunity to stress-corrosion cracking.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longeron" title="Longeron">Longeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former" title="Former">Former</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chord_(aeronautics)" title="Chord (aeronautics)">Chord (aeronautics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_fairing" title="Aircraft fairing">Aircraft fairing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_stabilizer" title="Vertical stabilizer">Vertical stabilizer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWragg1974" class="citation book cs1">Wragg, David W. (1974). <i>A Dictionary of Aviation</i> (1st American ed.). New York: Frederick Fell, Inc. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85045-163-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-85045-163-9"><bdi>0-85045-163-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Aviation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=22&rft.edition=1st+American&rft.pub=Frederick+Fell%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-85045-163-9&rft.aulast=Wragg&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faa-aircraft-certification.com/faa-definitions.html">"FAA Definitions"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FAA+Definitions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa-aircraft-certification.com%2Ffaa-definitions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AW161121-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AW161121_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham_Warwick2016" class="citation news cs1">Graham Warwick (Nov 21, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aviationweek.com/commercial-aviation/designs-changed-way-aircraft-are-built">"Designs That Changed The Way Aircraft Are Built"</a>. <i>Aviation Week & Space Technology</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aviation+Week+%26+Space+Technology&rft.atitle=Designs+That+Changed+The+Way+Aircraft+Are+Built&rft.date=2016-11-21&rft.au=Graham+Warwick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faviationweek.com%2Fcommercial-aviation%2Fdesigns-changed-way-aircraft-are-built&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ASM0807-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ASM0807_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASM0807_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASM0807_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_P._Hallion2008" class="citation news cs1">Richard P. 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New York: Doubleday. pp. 75 & 76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Combat+Planes%3A+A+Comprehensive+Survey+and+History+of+the+Development+of+German+Military+Aircraft+from+1914+to+1945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=75+%26+76&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1971&rft.au=Wagner%2C+Ray&rft.au=Nowarra%2C+Heinz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_A._Weiss1996" class="citation book cs1">David A. Weiss (1996). <i>The Saga of the Tin Goose</i>. 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Goo (Apr 17, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/16/AR2006041600803.html">"Boeing Parts and Rules Bent, Whistle-Blowers Say"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 23,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Boeing+Parts+and+Rules+Bent%2C+Whistle-Blowers+Say&rft.date=2006-04-17&rft.au=Florence+Graves+and+Sara+K.+Goo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F04%2F16%2FAR2006041600803.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd_Curtis2002" class="citation web cs1">Todd Curtis (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airsafe.com/events/aa587.htm">"Investigation of the Crash of American Airlines Flight 587"</a>. <i>AirSafe.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AirSafe.com&rft.atitle=Investigation+of+the+Crash+of+American+Airlines+Flight+587&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Todd+Curtis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airsafe.com%2Fevents%2Faa587.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_H._Williams_Jr.2002" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_H._Williams,_Jr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James H. 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Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flight+587&rft.pub=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=2002&rft.au=James+H.+Williams+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fjhwill%2Fwww%2FFlight587.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSara_Kehaulani_Goo2004" class="citation news cs1">Sara Kehaulani Goo (Oct 27, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A63850-2004Oct26.html">"NTSB Cites Pilot Error in 2001 N.Y. Crash"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 23,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=NTSB+Cites+Pilot+Error+in+2001+N.Y.+Crash&rft.date=2004-10-27&rft.au=Sara+Kehaulani+Goo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Farticles%2FA63850-2004Oct26.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4407543.pdf">"download"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>core.ac.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=core.ac.uk&rft.atitle=download&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F4407543.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.keytometals.com/Article95.htm">Aircraft and Aerospace Applications: Part One</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airframe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Gubisch2018" class="citation news cs1">Michael Gubisch (9 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/analysis-are-composite-airframes-feasible-for-narro-449415/">"Analysis: Are composite airframes feasible for narrowbodies?"</a>. <i>Flightglobal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Flightglobal&rft.atitle=Analysis%3A+Are+composite+airframes+feasible+for+narrowbodies%3F&rft.date=2018-07-09&rft.au=Michael+Gubisch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.flightglobal.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2Fanalysis-are-composite-airframes-feasible-for-narro-449415%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirframe" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Former" title="Former">Former</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuselage" title="Fuselage">Fuselage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardpoint" title="Hardpoint">Hardpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplane_strut" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplane strut">Interplane strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_strut" class="mw-redirect" title="Jury strut">Jury strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading_edge" title="Leading edge">Leading edge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_strut" class="mw-redirect" title="Lift strut">Lift strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longeron" title="Longeron">Longeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nacelle" title="Nacelle">Nacelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib_(aeronautics)" title="Rib (aeronautics)">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spar_(aeronautics)" title="Spar (aeronautics)">Spar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabilizer_(aeronautics)" title="Stabilizer (aeronautics)">Stabilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stressed_skin" title="Stressed skin">Stressed skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strut" title="Strut">Strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-tail" title="T-tail">T-tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailplane" title="Tailplane">Tailplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailing_edge" title="Trailing edge">Trailing edge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_tail#Variations" title="Twin tail">Triple tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_tail" title="Twin tail">Twin tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-tail" title="V-tail">V-tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_stabilizer" title="Vertical stabilizer">Vertical stabilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing_root" title="Wing root">Wing root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing_tip" title="Wing tip">Wing tip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wingbox" title="Wingbox">Wingbox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_flight_control_system" title="Aircraft flight control system">Flight controls</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aileron" title="Aileron">Aileron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_brake_(aeronautics)" title="Air brake (aeronautics)">Airbrake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_flight_control_system#Artificial_feel_devices" title="Aircraft flight control system">Artificial feel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopilot" title="Autopilot">Autopilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canard_(aeronautics)" title="Canard (aeronautics)">Canard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_stick" title="Centre stick">Centre stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deceleron" title="Deceleron">Deceleron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_brake" title="Dive brake">Dive brake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_control_(aviation)" title="Dual control (aviation)">Dual control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electro-hydraulic_actuator" title="Electro-hydraulic actuator">Electro-hydraulic actuator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevator_(aeronautics)" title="Elevator (aeronautics)">Elevator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevon" title="Elevon">Elevon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flaperon" title="Flaperon">Flaperon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_control_modes" title="Flight control modes">Flight control modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly-by-wire" title="Fly-by-wire">Fly-by-wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gust_lock" title="Gust lock">Gust lock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HOTAS" title="HOTAS">HOTAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#Aircraft_rudders" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder_pedal" title="Rudder pedal">Rudder pedals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servo_tab" title="Servo tab">Servo tab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side-stick" title="Side-stick">Side-stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoiler_(aeronautics)" title="Spoiler (aeronautics)">Spoiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoileron" title="Spoileron">Spoileron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabilator" title="Stabilator">Stabilator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stick_pusher" title="Stick pusher">Stick pusher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stick_shaker" title="Stick shaker">Stick shaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trim_tab" title="Trim tab">Trim tab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing_warping" title="Wing warping">Wing warping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaw_damper" title="Yaw damper">Yaw damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoke_(aeronautics)" title="Yoke (aeronautics)">Yoke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">Aerodynamic</a> and <a href="/wiki/High-lift_device" title="High-lift device">high-lift</a><br />devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-53_Active_Aeroelastic_Wing" title="Boeing X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing">Active Aeroelastic Wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_compliant_wing" title="Adaptive compliant wing">Adaptive compliant wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-shock_body" title="Anti-shock body">Anti-shock body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blown_flap" title="Blown flap">Blown flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_wing" title="Channel wing">Channel wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_extension#Dogtooth_extension" title="Leading-edge extension">Dog-tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drag-reducing_aerospike" title="Drag-reducing aerospike">Drag-reducing aerospike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flap_(aeronautics)" title="Flap (aeronautics)">Flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouge_flap" title="Gouge flap">Gouge flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurney_flap" title="Gurney flap">Gurney flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krueger_flap" title="Krueger flap">Krueger flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_cuff" title="Leading-edge cuff">Leading-edge cuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_droop_flap" title="Leading-edge droop flap">Leading-edge droop flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_extension" title="Leading-edge extension">LEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_slat" title="Leading-edge slat">Slats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_slot" title="Leading-edge slot">Slot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stall_strips" title="Stall strips">Stall strips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake_(aeronautics)" title="Strake (aeronautics)">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable-sweep_wing" title="Variable-sweep wing">Variable-sweep wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortex_generator" title="Vortex generator">Vortex generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortilon" title="Vortilon">Vortilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing_fence" title="Wing fence">Wing fence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wingtip_device" title="Wingtip device">Winglet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics">Avionic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flight_instruments" title="Flight instruments">flight<br />instrument</a> systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_collision_avoidance_system" title="Airborne collision avoidance system">ACAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_data_boom" title="Air data boom">Air data boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_data_computer" title="Air data computer">Air data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_periscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft periscope">Aircraft periscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airspeed_indicator" title="Airspeed indicator">Airspeed indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altimeter" title="Altimeter">Altimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annunciator_panel" title="Annunciator panel">Annunciator panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrodome_(aeronautics)" title="Astrodome (aeronautics)">Astrodome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_indicator" title="Attitude indicator">Attitude indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Course_deviation_indicator" title="Course deviation indicator">Course deviation indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_flight_instrument_system" title="Electronic flight instrument system">EFIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine-indicating_and_crew-alerting_system" title="Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system">EICAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_management_system" title="Flight management system">Flight management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cockpit" title="Glass cockpit">Glass cockpit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head-up_display" title="Head-up display">Head-up display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heading_indicator" title="Heading indicator">Heading indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_situation_indicator" title="Horizontal situation indicator">Horizontal situation indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system" title="Inertial navigation system">INS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_standby_instrument_system" title="Integrated standby instrument system">ISIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-function_display" title="Multi-function display">Multi-function display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitot%E2%80%93static_system" title="Pitot–static system">Pitot–static system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar_altimeter" title="Radar altimeter">Radar altimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_collision_avoidance_system" title="Traffic collision avoidance system">TCAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transponder_(aeronautics)" title="Transponder (aeronautics)">Transponder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turn_and_slip_indicator" title="Turn and slip indicator">Turn and slip indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variometer" title="Variometer">Variometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaw_string" title="Yaw string">Yaw string</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">Propulsion</a> controls,<br /> devices and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_fuel_system" title="Aircraft fuel system">fuel systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autothrottle" title="Autothrottle">Autothrottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drop_tank" title="Drop tank">Drop tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FADEC" title="FADEC">FADEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_tank#Aircraft" title="Fuel tank">Fuel tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gascolator" title="Gascolator">Gascolator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inlet_cone" title="Inlet cone">Inlet cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intake_ramp" title="Intake ramp">Intake ramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NACA_cowling" title="NACA cowling">NACA cowling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NACA_duct" title="NACA duct">NACA duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-sealing_fuel_tank" title="Self-sealing fuel tank">Self-sealing fuel tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splitter_plate_(aeronautics)" title="Splitter plate (aeronautics)">Splitter plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throttle" title="Throttle">Throttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_lever" title="Thrust lever">Thrust lever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_reversal" title="Thrust reversal">Thrust reversal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Townend_ring" title="Townend ring">Townend ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_emergency_power" title="War emergency power">War emergency power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_wing" title="Wet wing">Wet wing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landing_gear" title="Landing gear">Landing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arresting_gear" title="Arresting gear">arresting gear</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_tire" title="Aircraft tire">Aircraft tire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailhook" title="Tailhook">Arrestor hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobrake" title="Autobrake">Autobrake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_landing_gear" title="Conventional landing gear">Conventional landing gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drogue_parachute" title="Drogue parachute">Drogue parachute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_gear" title="Landing gear">Landing gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_gear_extender" title="Landing gear extender">Landing gear extender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleo_strut" title="Oleo strut">Oleo strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricycle_landing_gear" title="Tricycle landing gear">Tricycle landing gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundra_tire" title="Tundra tire">Tundra tire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Escape systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">Ejection seat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_crew_capsule" title="Escape crew capsule">Escape crew capsule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_lavatory" title="Aircraft lavatory">Aircraft lavatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">Auxiliary power unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleed_air" title="Bleed air">Bleed air system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deicing_boot" title="Deicing boot">Deicing boot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_oxygen_system" title="Emergency oxygen system">Emergency oxygen system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_control_system" title="Environmental control system">Environmental control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_recorder" title="Flight recorder">Flight recorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid#Aircraft_hydraulic_systems" title="Hydraulic fluid">Hydraulic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_protection_system" title="Ice protection system">Ice protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-flight_entertainment" title="In-flight entertainment">In-flight entertainment system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_lights" title="Landing lights">Landing lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation_light" title="Navigation light">Navigation light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_service_unit" title="Passenger service unit">Passenger service unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_air_turbine" title="Ram air turbine">Ram air turbine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airframe&oldid=1254569747">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airframe&oldid=1254569747</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aircraft_components" title="Category:Aircraft components">Aircraft components</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Structural_system" title="Category:Structural system">Structural system</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: 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