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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_of_geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Laws of geography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_of_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Sub-disciplines </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sub-disciplines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sub-disciplines subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sub-disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Four_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Four_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Four traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Four_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Branches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Physical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Human </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Technical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Methods </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Methods subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quantitative_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Quantitative methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quantitative_cartography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_cartography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Quantitative cartography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_cartography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_information_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_information_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Geographic information systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_information_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_sensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Remote sensing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geostatistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geostatistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Geostatistics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geostatistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualitative_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualitative_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Qualitative methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualitative_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Qualitative_cartography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualitative_cartography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Qualitative cartography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualitative_cartography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Ethnography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geopoetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geopoetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Geopoetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geopoetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Interviews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Origin and history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_geographers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_geographers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Notable geographers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_geographers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions_and_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions_and_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Institutions and societies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutions_and_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Publications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Related fields </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Related fields subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Related_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Geology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planetary_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planetary_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Planetary science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planetary_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Geography</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 256 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-256" aria-hidden="true" > 256 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%85" title="Хэкумэтх – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Хэкумэтх" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardrykskunde" title="Aardrykskunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Aardrykskunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%98%E1%88%8D%E1%8A%AD%E1%8B%93_%E1%88%9D%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%AD" title="መልክዓ ምድር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="መልክዓ ምድር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landgem%C7%A3rung" title="Landgemǣrung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Landgemǣrung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="جغرافيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جغرافيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheograf%C3%ADa" title="Cheografía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cheografía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%93%DC%90%DC%98%DC%93%DC%AA%DC%A6%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܓܐܘܓܪܦܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܓܐܘܓܪܦܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2" title="ভূগোল – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভূগোল" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeograf%C3%ADa" title="Xeografía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xeografía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yvyapekuaa" title="Yvyapekuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Yvyapekuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraqita" title="Uraqita – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Uraqita" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafiya" title="Coğrafiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Coğrafiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جوغرافیا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جوغرافیا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ograpi" title="Géograpi – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Géograpi" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B9g%C3%B9k%C3%B2l%C3%B2k%C3%B9nn%C3%A0kalan" title="Dùgùkòlòkùnnàkalan – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Dùgùkòlòkùnnàkalan" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2" title="ভূগোল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূগোল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaji_banua" title="Kaji banua – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kaji banua" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93-l%C3%AD" title="Tē-lí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tē-lí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Геаграфія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Геаграфія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Геаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heograpiya" title="Heograpiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Heograpiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiografi" title="Jiografi – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Jiografi" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="ས་ཁམས་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ས་ཁམས་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douaroniezh" title="Douaroniezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Douaroniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Газар зүй – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Газар зүй" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Географи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Географи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyograpiya" title="Heyograpiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Heyograpiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograf%C3%ADa" title="Geografía – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Geografía" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarachisi" title="Tarachisi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Tarachisi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkhuzgo" title="Nkhuzgo – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Nkhuzgo" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograf%C3%ACa" title="Geografìa – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Geografìa" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daearyddiaeth" title="Daearyddiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Daearyddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="جغرافيا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="جغرافيا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographie" title="Geographie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geographie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%96%DE%AA%DE%A3%DE%AA%DE%83%DE%A7%DE%8A%DE%A9" title="ޖުޣުރާފީ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ޖުޣުރާފީ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograafia" title="Geograafia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geograafia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γεωγραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γεωγραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograf%C3%ADa" title="Geografía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geografía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografio" title="Geografio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Geografio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جغرافیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جغرافیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagha" title="Jagha – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Jagha" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landafr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Landafrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Landafrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie" title="Géographie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géographie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografy" title="Geografy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Geografy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeografie" title="Gjeografie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Gjeografie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADreola%C3%ADocht" title="Tíreolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tíreolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87heer-oaylleeaght" title="Çheer-oaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Çheer-oaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruinn-e%C3%B2las" title="Cruinn-eòlas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cruinn-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeograf%C3%ADa" title="Xeografía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xeografía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Географи – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Географи" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="地理學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AD%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B3" title="ભૂગોળ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ભૂગોળ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भुगोल – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="भुगोल" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi-l%C3%AE-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Thi-lî-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Thi-lî-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="지리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labarin_kasa" title="Labarin kasa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Labarin kasa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աշխարհագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աշխարհագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografio" title="Geografio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Geografio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cm%C3%BAm%C3%BA-%C3%A0l%C3%A0" title="Ọmúmú-àlà – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ọmúmú-àlà" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heograpia" title="Heograpia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Heograpia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographia" title="Geographia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Geographia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%93%84%E1%93%87%E1%90%85%E1%94%AA%E1%96%85" title="ᓄᓇᐅᔪᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᓄᓇᐅᔪᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Географи – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Географи" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJografi" title="IJografi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="IJografi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Landfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Landfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="גאוגרפיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאוגרפיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ografi" title="Géografi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Géografi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kede%C5%8Ba_t%CA%8B%CA%8Bz%CA%8B%CA%8B_l%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Kedeŋa tʋʋzʋʋ lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kedeŋa tʋʋzʋʋ lɛɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunalerineq" title="Nunalerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Nunalerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B3_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭೂಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭೂಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="გეოგრაფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8E%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%B2%D9%81%DB%8C" title="جَغرٲفی – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="جَغرٲفی" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C3%B2grafij%C3%B4" title="Geògrafijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Geògrafijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doronieth" title="Doronieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Doronieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiografia" title="Jiografia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jiografia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawavopa" title="Tawavopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Tawavopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewografi" title="Jewografi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Jewografi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9yografi" title="Jéyografi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Jéyografi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdn%C3%AEgar%C3%AE" title="Erdnîgarî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Erdnîgarî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeografiya" title="Jeografiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Jeografiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B9%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ພູມສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພູມສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographia" title="Geographia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Geographia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2eogr%C4%81fija" title="Ģeogrāfija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģeogrāfija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographie" title="Geographie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geographie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamb%C3%AD_ma_mabel%C3%A9" title="Mambí ma mabelé – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mambí ma mabelé" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeografia" title="Jeografia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Jeografia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muantiedo" title="Muantiedo – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Muantiedo" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/tutske" title="tutske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="tutske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essomansi" title="Essomansi – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Essomansi" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6ldrajztudom%C3%A1ny" title="Földrajztudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Földrajztudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Географија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Географија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Je%C3%B4grafia" title="Jeôgrafia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Jeôgrafia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A0eografija" title="Ġeografija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Ġeografija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="გეოგრაფია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გეოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="جغرافيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جغرافيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%B3%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ပထဝဳဝင် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ပထဝဳဝင်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C" title="جوغرافی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جوغرافی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AA-l%C4%AB" title="Dê-lī – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dê-lī" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Географиясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Географиясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Газар зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Газар зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ပထဝီဝင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပထဝီဝင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlalticpacmatiliztli" title="Tlalticpacmatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlalticpacmatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardrijkskunde" title="Aardrijkskunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aardrijkskunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giugrafia" title="Giugrafia – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Giugrafia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Географи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Географи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografii" title="Geografii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Geografii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiiografii" title="Jiiografii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Jiiografii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie" title="Géographie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Géographie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Географий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Географий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AD%E0%AD%82%E0%AC%97%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B3" title="ଭୂଗୋଳ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଭୂଗୋଳ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaasa" title="Hawaasa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Hawaasa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografiya" title="Geografiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geografiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2" title="ਭੂਗੋਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭੂਗੋਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جغرافیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جغرافیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B6%E1%82%8F%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%82%8F" title="ဟံႏပထဝီႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဟံႏပထဝီႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ځمکپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ځمکپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaagrafi" title="Jaagrafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Jaagrafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="ភូមិសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភូមិសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jografie" title="Jografie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Jografie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_long_giraun" title="Save long giraun – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Save long giraun" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD" title="Γεωγραφίαν – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Γεωγραφίαν" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografiya" title="Geografiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Geografiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafiya" title="Coğrafiya – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Coğrafiya" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phuvipen" title="Phuvipen – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Phuvipen" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allpa_saywachi" title="Allpa saywachi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Allpa saywachi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%B5%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ґеоґрафія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґеоґрафія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%8D" title="Киэгирээпийэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Киэгирээпийэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Geography" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="भूगोलम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="भूगोलम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9C" title="ᱚᱛᱱᱚᱜ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱚᱛᱱᱚᱜ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DB%81" title="جغرافیہ – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="جغرافیہ" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographie" title="Geographie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Geographie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutafase" title="Thutafase – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Thutafase" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeografia" title="Gjeografia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjeografia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giugraf%C3%ACa" title="Giugrafìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Giugrafìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%96%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BD_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="භූගෝල විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භූගෝල විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Geography" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A" title="جاگرافي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جاگرافي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temhlaba" title="Temhlaba – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Temhlaba" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografijo" title="Geografijo – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Geografijo" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juqraafi" title="Juqraafi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Juqraafi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جوگرافیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جوگرافیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Географија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Географија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ografi" title="Géografi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Géografi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maantiede" title="Maantiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Maantiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heograpiya" title="Heograpiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Heograpiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="புவியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புவியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarakal" title="Tarakal – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tarakal" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnamurt" title="Tasnamurt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnamurt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciugrafije" title="Sciugrafije – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Sciugrafije" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tarandíne</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B3_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="భూగోళ శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భూగోళ శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ภูมิศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภูมิศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D1%83%D2%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%91" title="Ҷуғрофиё – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷуғрофиё" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%95%E1%8F%B2%E1%8E%B2%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9_%E1%8E%A1%E1%8E%B6%E1%8E%AF" title="ᎠᏓᏕᏲᎲᏍᎩ ᎡᎶᎯ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏓᏕᏲᎲᏍᎩ ᎡᎶᎯ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B3_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭೂಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಭೂಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafya" title="Coğrafya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Coğrafya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi%C3%BDa" title="Geografiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Geografiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyeografi" title="Gyeografi – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Gyeografi" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Географія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Географія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DB%81" title="جغرافیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جغرافیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%87%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95" title="جۇغراپىيە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="جۇغراپىيە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deihleix" title="Deihleix – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Deihleix" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeografia" title="Zeografia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Zeografia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografii" title="Geografii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Geografii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_l%C3%BD" title="Địa lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taledav" title="Taledav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Taledav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maatiid%C3%BCs" title="Maatiidüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Maatiidüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djeyografeye" title="Djeyografeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Djeyografeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="地理學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eirdrykskunde" title="Eirdrykskunde – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Eirdrykskunde" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyograpiya" title="Heyograpiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Heyograpiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melosuuf" title="Melosuuf – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Melosuuf" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="地理學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-mbangu" title="Ntivo-mbangu – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-mbangu" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%90%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A2" title="געאגראפיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="געאגראפיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%E1%BA%B9%CC%81%E1%BB%8D%CC%81gr%C3%A1f%C3%AC" title="Jẹ́ọ́gráfì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Jẹ́ọ́gráfì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="地理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafya" title="Coğrafya – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Coğrafya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heografie" title="Heografie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Heografie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geuograp%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Geuograpėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Geuograpėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地理学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="地理学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bbc mw-list-item"><a href="https://bbc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograpi" title="Geograpi – Batak Toba" lang="bbc" hreflang="bbc" data-title="Geograpi" data-language-autonym="Batak Toba" data-language-local-name="Batak Toba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Toba</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograpi" title="Geograpi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Geograpi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidtana%27" title="Sidtana' – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Sidtana'" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kadazandusun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tdd mw-list-item"><a href="https://tdd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A5%99%E1%A5%A3%E1%A5%AD%E1%A5%B0_%E1%A5%99%E1%A5%A3%E1%A5%B3_%E1%A5%97%E1%A5%A3%E1%A5%B3_%E1%A5%9D%E1%A5%A4%E1%A5%B1" title="ᥙᥣᥭᥰ ᥙᥣᥳ ᥗᥣᥳ ᥝᥤᥱ – Tai Nuea" lang="tdd" hreflang="tdd" data-title="ᥙᥣᥭᥰ ᥙᥣᥳ ᥗᥣᥳ ᥝᥤᥱ" data-language-autonym="ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ" data-language-local-name="Tai Nuea" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Co%C7%A7rafij%C9%99" title="Čoǧrafijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Čoǧrafijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%94%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%BD%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8D%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1071#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum,_by_Abraham_Ortelius,_World,_1572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/175px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/263px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/350px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography#Greco-Roman_world" title="History of geography">Graeco-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;">Fields <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;">Fields <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (soil study)">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;">Fields <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;">Fields <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Theoretical Approaches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">Geographers</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_sidebar" title="Template talk:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Geography (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> γεωγραφία geōgraphía; combining gê 'Earth' and gráphō 'write') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-intro1-1">[1]</a> Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">its human and natural complexities</a>—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> can be applied more broadly to other <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">celestial bodies</a> in the field of <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">planetary science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Burt-2">[2]</a> Geography has been called "a bridge between <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> disciplines."<a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3">[3]</a> Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> of Cyrene, who may have coined the term "geographia" (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC).<a href="#cite_note-Roller-4">[4]</a> The first recorded use of the word <a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">γεωγραφία</a> was as the title of a book by Greek scholar <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Ptolemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> (100 – 170 AD).<a href="#cite_note-intro1-1">[1]</a> This work created the so-called "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography, which included "Ptolemaic cartographic theory."<a href="#cite_note-Brentjes2009-5">[5]</a> However, the concepts of geography (such as <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>) date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kurt-2009-6">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">history of geography</a> as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale.<a href="#cite_note-Thrift1-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kent1-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tuan2-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Castree1-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gregory1-12">[12]</a> Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches.<a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tambassi-14">[14]</a> Techniques employed can generally be broken down into <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">quantitative</a><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-15">[15]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">qualitative</a><a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16">[16]</a> approaches, with many studies taking <a href="/wiki/Mixed-methods_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-methods research">mixed-methods</a> approaches.<a href="#cite_note-Diriwächter1-17">[17]</a> Common techniques include <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interview" title="Interview">interviews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamentals">Fundamentals</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physical_World_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/390px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/585px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/780px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="973" /></a><figcaption>Physical map of Earth</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Map_(political).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/World_Map_%28political%29.svg/390px-World_Map_%28political%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/World_Map_%28political%29.svg/585px-World_Map_%28political%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/World_Map_%28political%29.svg/780px-World_Map_%28political%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="975" /></a><figcaption>Political map of Earth</figcaption></figure> Geography is a systematic study of the Earth (other celestial bodies are specified, such as "geography of Mars", or given another name, such as <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Mars">areography</a> in the case of Mars), its features, and phenomena that take place on it.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> For something to fall into the domain of geography, it generally needs some sort of spatial component that can be placed on a <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">map</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">coordinates</a>, place names, or <a href="/wiki/Address" title="Address">addresses</a>. This has led to geography being associated with <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> and place names. Although many geographers are trained in <a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">toponymy</a> and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. <a href="/wiki/Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographers">Geographers</a> study the Earth's spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes, and features as well as the interaction of humans and their <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes1-21">[21]</a> Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, plants, and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and their spatial patterns.<a href="#cite_note-Hornby11-22">[22]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Names of places...are not geography...To know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word, Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/William_Hughes_(geographer)" title="William Hughes (geographer)">William Hughes</a>, 1863</cite></div></blockquote> Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into three main branches: <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical geography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hough1-24">[24]</a> Human geography largely focuses on the <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built environment</a> and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.<a href="#cite_note-Hough1-24">[24]</a> Physical geography examines the natural environment and how <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, climate, <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, water, and <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a> produce and interact.<a href="#cite_note-Cotterill-25">[25]</a> The difference between these approaches led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated geography</a>, which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes1-21">[21]</a> Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools and techniques used by geographers, such as remote sensing, cartography, and geographic information system.<a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_concepts">Key concepts</h3></div> Narrowing down geography to a few key concepts is extremely challenging, and subject to tremendous debate within the discipline.<a href="#cite_note-KeyConcepts2014-27">[27]</a> In one attempt, the 1st edition of the book "Key Concepts in Geography" broke down this into chapters focusing on "Space," "Place," "Time," "Scale," and "Landscape."<a href="#cite_note-KeyConcepts2003-28">[28]</a> The 2nd edition of the book expanded on these key concepts by adding "Environmental systems," "Social Systems," "Nature," "<a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a>," "Development," and "Risk," demonstrating how challenging narrowing the field can be.<a href="#cite_note-KeyConcepts2014-27">[27]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg/220px-17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg/330px-17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg/440px-17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3204" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Maps, like this 17th Century depiction of <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire" title="Pembrokeshire">Pembrokeshire</a>, are a central element in the study of geography.</figcaption></figure>Another approach used extensively in teaching geography are the <a href="/wiki/Five_themes_of_geography" title="Five themes of geography">Five themes of geography</a> established by "Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools," published jointly by the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_American_Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of American Geographers">Association of American Geographers</a> in 1984.<a href="#cite_note-Guidelines1984-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Natoli1994-30">[30]</a> These themes are Location, place, relationships within places (often summarized as Human-Environment Interaction), movement, and regions.<a href="#cite_note-Natoli1994-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown2015-31">[31]</a> The five themes of geography have shaped how American education approaches the topic in the years since.<a href="#cite_note-Natoli1994-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown2015-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Space">Space</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_coordinate_system.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/220px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/330px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/440px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="487" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption>A right-handed three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Cartesian coordinate system</a> used to indicate positions in space</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography.<a href="#cite_note-GeographyPerspective1-32">[32]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">United States National Research Council</a>, 1997</cite></div></blockquote> For something to exist in the realm of geography, it must be able to be described spatially.<a href="#cite_note-GeographyPerspective1-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33">[33]</a> Thus, space is the most fundamental concept at the foundation of geography.<a href="#cite_note-Thrift1-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kent1-8">[8]</a> The concept is so basic, that geographers often have difficulty defining exactly what it is. <a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">Absolute space</a> is the exact site, or spatial coordinates, of objects, persons, places, or phenomena under investigation.<a href="#cite_note-Thrift1-7">[7]</a> We exist in space.<a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9">[9]</a> Absolute space leads to the view of the world as a photograph, with everything frozen in place when the coordinates were recorded. Today, geographers are trained to recognize the world as a dynamic space where all processes interact and take place, rather than a static image on a map.<a href="#cite_note-Thrift1-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chen1-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Place">Place</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg/220px-Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg/330px-Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg/440px-Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2194" data-file-height="2551" /></a><figcaption>Yi-Fu Tuan, geographer who foregrounded the importance of language in the making of place.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Location" title="Location">Location</a>, <a href="/wiki/Place_identity" title="Place identity">Place identity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_place" title="Sense of place">Sense of place</a></div> Place is one of the most complex and important terms in geography.<a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tuan2-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Castree1-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gregory1-12">[12]</a> In human geography, place is the synthesis of the coordinates on the Earth's surface, the activity and use that occurs, has occurred, and will occur at the coordinates, and the meaning ascribed to the space by human individuals and groups.<a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Castree1-11">[11]</a> This can be extraordinarily complex, as different spaces may have different uses at different times and mean different things to different people. In physical geography, a place includes all of the physical phenomena that occur in space, including the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory1-12">[12]</a> Places do not exist in a vacuum and instead have complex spatial relationships with each other, and place is concerned how a location is situated in relation to all other locations.<a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tobler2-37">[37]</a> As a discipline then, the term place in geography includes all spatial phenomena occurring at a location, the diverse uses and meanings humans ascribe to that location, and how that location impacts and is impacted by all other locations on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Castree1-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gregory1-12">[12]</a> In one of <a href="/wiki/Yi-Fu_Tuan" title="Yi-Fu Tuan">Yi-Fu Tuan</a>'s papers, he explains that in his view, geography is the study of Earth as a home for humanity, and thus place and the complex meaning behind the term is central to the discipline of geography.<a href="#cite_note-Tuan2-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Time">Time</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A space-time cube is a three-axis graph where one axis represents the time dimension and the other axes represent two spatial dimensions" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/220px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/330px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/440px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Examples of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_language" title="Visual language">visual language</a> of time geography: space-time cube, path, prism, bundle, and other concepts.</figcaption></figure> Time is usually thought to be within the domain of <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, however, it is of significant concern in the discipline of geography.<a href="#cite_note-Thrift2-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thornes1-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2-40">[40]</a> In physics, space and time are not separated, and are combined into the concept of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Galison-41">[41]</a> Geography is subject to the laws of physics, and in studying things that occur in space, time must be considered. Time in geography is more than just the historical record of events that occurred at various discrete coordinates; but also includes modeling the dynamic movement of people, organisms, and things through space.<a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9">[9]</a> Time facilitates movement through space, ultimately allowing things to flow through a system.<a href="#cite_note-Thrift2-38">[38]</a> The amount of time an individual, or group of people, spends in a place will often shape their attachment and perspective to that place.<a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9">[9]</a> Time constrains the possible paths that can be taken through space, given a starting point, possible routes, and rate of travel.<a href="#cite_note-Miller1-42">[42]</a> Visualizing time over space is challenging in terms of cartography, and includes Space-Prism, advanced 3D geovisualizations, and <a href="/wiki/Animated_mapping" title="Animated mapping">animated maps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Miller1-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chen1-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scale">Scale</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Scale_(geography)" title="Scale (geography)">Scale (geography)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scale_(ratio)" title="Scale (ratio)">Scale (ratio)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scale_(map)" title="Scale (map)">Scale (map)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_scale_-_8km,_5mi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Map_scale_-_8km%2C_5mi.png/290px-Map_scale_-_8km%2C_5mi.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Map_scale_-_8km%2C_5mi.png 1.5x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="125" /></a><figcaption>A graphical or bar scale. A map would also usually give its scale numerically ("1:50,000", for instance, means that one cm on the map represents 50,000 cm of real space, which is 500 meters).</figcaption></figure> Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a distance measured on the map and the corresponding distance as measured on the ground.<a href="#cite_note-Burt-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Herod-44">[44]</a> This concept is fundamental to the discipline of geography, not just cartography, in that phenomena being investigated appear different depending on the scale used.<a href="#cite_note-Arbia1-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-SmithLaws-46">[46]</a> Scale is the frame that geographers use to measure space, and ultimately to understand a place.<a href="#cite_note-Herod-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laws_of_geography">Laws of geography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography#Laws_of_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative geography § Laws of geography</a></div>During the quantitative revolution, geography shifted to an empirical law-making (<a href="/wiki/Nomothetic" title="Nomothetic">nomothetic</a>) approach.<a href="#cite_note-DeLyser1-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yano1-48">[48]</a> Several laws of geography have been proposed since then, most notably by <a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a> and can be viewed as a product of the quantitative revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Walker1-49">[49]</a> In general, some dispute the entire concept of laws in geography and the social sciences.<a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51">[51]</a> These criticisms have been addressed by Tobler and others, such as <a href="/wiki/Michael_Frank_Goodchild" title="Michael Frank Goodchild">Michael Frank Goodchild</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51">[51]</a> However, this is an ongoing source of debate in geography and is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon. Several laws have been proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most generally accepted in geography. Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a first invites a second, and many have proposed themselves as that. It has also been proposed that Tobler's first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another.<a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51">[51]</a> A few of the proposed laws of geography are below: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">Tobler's first law of geography</a>: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant."<a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51">[51]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_second_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's second law of geography">Tobler's second law of geography</a>: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."<a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tobler4-52">[52]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbia%27s_law_of_geography" title="Arbia's law of geography">Arbia's law of geography</a>: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."<a href="#cite_note-Arbia1-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-SmithLaws-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hecht1-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Otto1-54">[54]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_heterogeneity#Law_of_geography" title="Spatial heterogeneity">Spatial heterogeneity</a>: Geographic variables exhibit uncontrolled variance.<a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zou2022-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhang2023-56">[56]</a></li> <li>The uncertainty principle: "That the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."<a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51">[51]</a></li></ul> Additionally, several variations or amendments to these laws exist within the literature, although not as well supported. For example, one paper proposed an amended version of Tobler's first law of geography, referred to in the text as the Tobler–von Thünen law,<a href="#cite_note-Walker1-49">[49]</a> which states: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things, as a consequence of accessibility."<a href="#cite_note-Note01-57">[Note 1]</a> <a href="#cite_note-Walker1-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sub-disciplines">Sub-disciplines</h2></div> Geography is a branch of inquiry that focuses on spatial information on Earth. It is an extremely broad topic and can be broken down multiple ways.<a href="#cite_note-Tambassi-14">[14]</a> There have been several approaches to doing this spanning at least several centuries, including "four traditions of geography" and into distinct branches.<a href="#cite_note-cave1-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13">[13]</a> The Four traditions of geography are often used to divide the different historical approach theories geographers have taken to the discipline.<a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13">[13]</a> In contrast, geography's branches describe contemporary applied geographical approaches.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_traditions">Four traditions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Four_traditions_of_geography" title="Four traditions of geography">Four traditions of geography</a></div> Geography is an extremely broad field. Because of this, many view the various definitions of geography proposed over the decades as inadequate. To address this, <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_D._Pattison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William D. Pattison (page does not exist)">William D. Pattison</a> proposed the concept of the "Four traditions of Geography" in 1964.<a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traditions2-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traditions3-60">[59]</a> These traditions are the <a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial</a> or Locational Tradition, the Man-Land or Human-Environment Interaction Tradition (sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Area_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Area Studies">Area Studies</a> or <a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a> Tradition, and the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth Science">Earth Science</a> Tradition.<a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traditions2-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traditions3-60">[59]</a> These concepts are broad sets of geography philosophies bound together within the discipline. They are one of many ways geographers organize the major sets of thoughts and philosophies within the discipline.<a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traditions2-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traditions3-60">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Branches">Branches</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main page: <a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_geography" title="Category:Branches of geography">Category:Branches of geography</a></div> In another approach to the abovementioned four traditions, geography is organized into applied branches.<a href="#cite_note-Sala2-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dada1-62">[61]</a> The <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems" title="Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems">Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems</a> organizes geography into the three categories of <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical geography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ormeling1-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala2-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tambassi-14">[14]</a> Some publications limit the number of branches to physical and human, describing them as the principal branches.<a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33">[33]</a> Geographers rarely focus on just one of these topics, often using one as their primary focus and then incorporating data and methods from the other branches. Often, geographers are asked to describe what they do by individuals outside the discipline<a href="#cite_note-Tuan2-10">[10]</a> and are likely to identify closely with a specific branch, or sub-branch when describing themselves to lay people. Human geography studies people and their communities, cultures, economies, and environmental interactions by studying their relations with and across space and place.<a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33">[33]</a> Physical geography is concerned with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geosphere" title="Geosphere">geosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a> is interested in studying and applying techniques and methods to store, process, analyze, visualize, and use spatial data.<a href="#cite_note-Dada1-62">[61]</a> It is the newest of the branches, the most controversial, and often other terms are used in the literature to describe the emerging category. These branches use similar geographic philosophies, concepts, and tools and often overlap significantly. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Physical">Physical</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical geography</a></div> Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">pedosphere</a>, and global <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> patterns (<a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>). Physical geography is the study of earth's seasons, <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, streams, landforms, and oceans.<a href="#cite_note-Lockyer1-67">[66]</a> Physical geographers will often work in identifying and monitoring the use of natural resources. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerycaption">Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 181.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 179.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Biogeography"><img alt="Biogeography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg/269px-L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg/403px-L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg/537px-L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="488" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 160px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Climatology and meteorology"><img alt="Climatology and meteorology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/273px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG" decoding="async" width="182" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/409px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/545px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2004" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 162px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:90_mile_beach.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coastal geography"><img alt="Coastal geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/90_mile_beach.jpg/240px-90_mile_beach.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/90_mile_beach.jpg/360px-90_mile_beach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/90_mile_beach.jpg/480px-90_mile_beach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Environmental management"><img alt="Environmental management" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg/240px-Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg/360px-Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg/480px-Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental management">Environmental management</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 206px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 204px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geomorphology"><img alt="Geomorphology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/306px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/458px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/611px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="1812" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 184px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 258.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 256.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Receding_glacier-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Glaciology"><img alt="Glaciology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/385px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="257" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/577px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/769px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="562" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 237px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 216.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 214.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Meander-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hydrology and hydrography"><img alt="Hydrology and hydrography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/322px-Meander-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="215" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/483px-Meander-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/643px-Meander-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="280" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 195px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Khajuraho-landscape.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Landscape ecology"><img alt="Landscape ecology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Khajuraho-landscape.jpg/238px-Khajuraho-landscape.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Khajuraho-landscape.jpg/356px-Khajuraho-landscape.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Khajuraho-landscape.jpg/475px-Khajuraho-landscape.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 139px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:World11.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oceanography"><img alt="Oceanography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/World11.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="149" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 220px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 123.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pangea_interpretacion.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Palaeogeography"><img alt="a view of the supercontinent of pangea breaking up" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Pangea_interpretacion.png/185px-Pangea_interpretacion.png" decoding="async" width="124" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Pangea_interpretacion.png/277px-Pangea_interpretacion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Pangea_interpretacion.png/370px-Pangea_interpretacion.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="644" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 104px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 100px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 98px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_profile.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pedology"><img alt="Pedology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Soil_profile.jpg/147px-Soil_profile.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Soil_profile.jpg/221px-Soil_profile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Soil_profile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="288" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 78px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Quaternary science"><img alt="Quaternary science" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png/238px-Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png" decoding="async" width="159" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png/356px-Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png/475px-Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="363" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 139px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human">Human</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></div> Human geography (or anthropogeography) is a branch of geography that focuses on studying patterns and processes that shape human society.<a href="#cite_note-HGDICT-68">[67]</a> It encompasses the human, political, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a>, social, and economic aspects. In industry, human geographers often work in city planning, public health, or business analysis. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerycaption">Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 163.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 161.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Cognitive geography"><img alt="Cognitive geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png/242px-Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png" decoding="async" width="162" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png/363px-Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png/485px-Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="628" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 142px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Qichwa_conchucos_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cultural geography"><img alt="Cultural geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Qichwa_conchucos_01.jpg/240px-Qichwa_conchucos_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Qichwa_conchucos_01.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 180px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 178px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pepsi_in_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Development geography"><img alt="Development geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/267px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/400px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/534px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="471" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 158px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 127.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 125.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Christaller_model_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Economic geography"><img alt="Economic geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Christaller_model_1.jpg/188px-Christaller_model_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Christaller_model_1.jpg/281px-Christaller_model_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Christaller_model_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="288" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 106px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 126px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 124px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Star_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Health geography"><img alt="Health geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/186px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="124" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/278px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/371px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 104px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158px;"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Empire_1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Historical geography"><img alt="Historical geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/237px-British_Empire_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/355px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/473px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="849" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 138px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024_-_transparent,_inverted.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Internet geography"><img alt="Internet geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/180px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/270px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/360px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 100px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:UN_General_Assembly.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Political geography and Geopolitics"><img alt="Political geography and Geopolitics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_General_Assembly.jpg/244px-UN_General_Assembly.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_General_Assembly.jpg/366px-UN_General_Assembly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_General_Assembly.jpg/487px-UN_General_Assembly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="580" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 143px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyramide_Comores.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Population geography or Demography"><img alt="Population geography or Demography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pyramide_Comores.PNG/260px-Pyramide_Comores.PNG" decoding="async" width="174" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pyramide_Comores.PNG/390px-Pyramide_Comores.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pyramide_Comores.PNG/520px-Pyramide_Comores.PNG 2x" data-file-width="902" data-file-height="625" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 154px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population geography</a> or <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 117.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 115.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ReligionSymbol.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Religion geography"><img alt="Religion geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ReligionSymbol.svg/173px-ReligionSymbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="116" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ReligionSymbol.svg/259px-ReligionSymbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ReligionSymbol.svg/345px-ReligionSymbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="631" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 96px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Religion_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion geography">Religion geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:US-hoosier-family.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Social geography"><img alt="Social geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US-hoosier-family.jpg/240px-US-hoosier-family.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US-hoosier-family.jpg/360px-US-hoosier-family.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US-hoosier-family.jpg/480px-US-hoosier-family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2011" data-file-height="1509" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gare_du_Nord_USFRT_(Paris_Metro).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Transportation geography"><img alt="Transportation geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Gare_du_Nord_USFRT_%28Paris_Metro%29.png/196px-Gare_du_Nord_USFRT_%28Paris_Metro%29.png" decoding="async" width="131" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Gare_du_Nord_USFRT_%28Paris_Metro%29.png 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="230" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 111px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Transportation_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation geography">Transportation geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 99.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 97.333333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tourists-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tourism geography"><img alt="Tourism geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Tourists-2.jpg/146px-Tourists-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Tourists-2.jpg/219px-Tourists-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Tourists-2.jpg/292px-Tourists-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="1105" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 78px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 181.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 179.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Urban geography"><img alt="Urban geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg/269px-Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg/404px-Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg/538px-Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 160px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban geography</a></div> </div> </li> </ul> Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosophy" title="Geosophy">Geosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Technical">Technical</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></div> Technical geography concerns studying and developing tools, techniques, and statistical methods employed to collect, analyze, use, and understand spatial data.<a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala2-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ormeling1-63">[62]</a> Technical geography is the most recently recognized, and controversial, of the branches. Its use dates back to 1749, when a book published by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Cave" title="Edward Cave">Edward Cave</a> organized the discipline into a section containing content such as cartographic techniques and globes.<a href="#cite_note-cave1-58">[57]</a> There are several other terms, often used interchangeably with technical geography to subdivide the discipline, including "techniques of geographic analysis,"<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> "Geographic Information Technology,"<a href="#cite_note-intro1-1">[1]</a> "Geography method's and techniques,"<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Geographic_Information_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic Information Science">Geographic Information Science</a>,"<a href="#cite_note-Ron1-71">[70]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">geoinformatics</a>," "<a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">geomatics</a>," and "information geography". There are subtle differences to each concept and term; however, technical geography is one of the broadest, is consistent with the naming convention of the other two branches, has been in use since the 1700s, and has been used by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems" title="Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems">Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems</a> to divide geography into themes.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala2-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-cave1-58">[57]</a> As academic fields increasingly specialize in their nature, technical geography has emerged as a branch of geography specializing in geographic methods and thought.<a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26">[26]</a> The emergence of technical geography has brought new relevance to the broad discipline of geography by serving as a set of unique methods for managing the interdisciplinary nature of the phenomena under investigation. While human and physical geographers use the techniques employed by technical geographers, technical geography is more concerned with the fundamental spatial concepts and technologies than the nature of the data.<a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dada1-62">[61]</a> It is therefore closely associated with the spatial tradition of geography while being applied to the other two major branches. A technical geographer might work as a GIS analyst, a GIS developer working to make new software tools, or create general reference maps incorporating human and natural features.<a href="#cite_note-Kretzschmar1-72">[71]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerycaption">Technical geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geodesign"><img alt="Geodesign" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg/270px-Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg/405px-Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg/540px-Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 160px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 123.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geodesy"><img alt="Geodesy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png/185px-Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png" decoding="async" width="124" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png/278px-Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png/370px-Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="598" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 104px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Worldwind.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geoinformatics"><img alt="Geoinformatics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/240px-Worldwind.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/360px-Worldwind.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/480px-Worldwind.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 176.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 174.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig_4.4.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographic information science"><img alt="Geographic information science" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/262px-Fig_4.4.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/393px-Fig_4.4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/524px-Fig_4.4.png 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="640" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 155px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Survey_instruments-2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geomatics"><img alt="Geomatics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Survey_instruments-2.png/240px-Survey_instruments-2.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Survey_instruments-2.png/360px-Survey_instruments-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Survey_instruments-2.png/480px-Survey_instruments-2.png 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gislayers.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geovisualization"><img alt="Geovisualization" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/273px-Gislayers.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/410px-Gislayers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/547px-Gislayers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="657" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 162px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Statistical geography"><img alt="Statistical geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/180px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/270px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/360px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 100px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 173.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 171.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Example_krig.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Spatial analysis"><img alt="Spatial analysis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Example_krig.png/257px-Example_krig.png" decoding="async" width="172" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Example_krig.png/386px-Example_krig.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Example_krig.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="350" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 152px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 119.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 117.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Time geography"><img alt="Time geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/176px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/264px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/352px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="510" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 98px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Geography" title="Special:EditPage/Geography">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> All geographic research and analysis start with asking the question "where," followed by "why there." Geographers start with the fundamental assumption set forth in <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">Tobler's first law of geography</a>, that "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."<a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tobler2-37">[37]</a> As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, maps are a key tool. Classical <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a> (GIS). In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches: <ul><li>Analytical – Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.</li> <li>Descriptive – Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.</li> <li>Regional – Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.</li> <li>Systematic – Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantitative_methods">Quantitative methods</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative geography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg/220px-Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg/330px-Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg/440px-Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1093" data-file-height="1508" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>'s 1770 chart of New Zealand</figcaption></figure> Quantitative methods in geography became particularly influential in the discipline during the quantitative revolution of the 1950s and 60s.<a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-15">[15]</a> These methods revitalized the discipline in many ways, allowing scientific testing of hypotheses and proposing scientific geographic theories and laws.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> The quantitative revolution heavily influenced and revitalized technical geography, and lead to the development of the subfield of quantitative geography.<a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quantitative_cartography">Quantitative cartography</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></div> Cartography is the art, science, and technology of making maps.<a href="#cite_note-Kainz1-74">[73]</a> Cartographers study the Earth's surface representation with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately.<a href="#cite_note-Jenks1-75">[74]</a> Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">ergonomics</a> to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively and <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behavioural psychology</a> to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a> and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">shape of the Earth</a> affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geographic_information_systems">Geographic information systems</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></div> Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with storing information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose.<a href="#cite_note-Demers1-76">[75]</a> In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of <a href="/wiki/List_of_GIS_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of GIS software">GIS software</a>. The science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyse, and predict the spatial relationships is called <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">geographic information science</a> (GISc).<a href="#cite_note-Monmonier1-77">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Death-valley-sar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Death-valley-sar.jpg/170px-Death-valley-sar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Death-valley-sar.jpg/255px-Death-valley-sar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Death-valley-sar.jpg/340px-Death-valley-sar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="2501" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_aperture_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic aperture radar">Synthetic aperture radar</a> image of <a href="/wiki/Death_Valley" title="Death Valley">Death Valley</a> colored using <a href="/wiki/Polarimetry" title="Polarimetry">polarimetry</a></figcaption></figure> Remote sensing is the art, science, and technology of obtaining information about Earth's features from measurements made at a distance.<a href="#cite_note-Jensen1-78">[77]</a> Remotely sensed data can be either passive, such as traditional <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>, or active, such as <a href="/wiki/LiDAR" class="mw-redirect" title="LiDAR">LiDAR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jensen1-78">[77]</a> A variety of platforms can be used for remote sensing, including <a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">satellite imagery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">aerial photography</a> (including consumer drones), and data obtained from hand-held sensors.<a href="#cite_note-Jensen1-78">[77]</a> Products from remote sensing include <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">Digital elevation model</a> and cartographic base maps. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Land_surface" class="mw-redirect" title="Land surface">land surface</a>, ocean, and atmosphere, because it: (a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), (b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, (c) allows access to distant and inaccessible sites, (d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, and (e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed independently or in conjunction with other digital data layers (e.g., in a geographic information system). Remote sensing aids in land use, land cover (LULC) mapping, by helping to determine both what is naturally occurring on a piece of land and what human activities are taking place on it.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a> deal with <a href="/wiki/Numerical_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Numerical data">quantitative data</a> analysis, specifically the application of a statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, logistics, and <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from <a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">cluster analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linear_discriminant_analysis" title="Linear discriminant analysis">linear discriminant analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-parametric_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-parametric statistics">non-parametric statistical tests</a>, and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a>, particularly for the <a href="/wiki/Interpolation" title="Interpolation">interpolation</a> (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualitative_methods">Qualitative methods</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative geography</a></div> Qualitative methods in geography are descriptive rather than numerical or statistical in nature.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeLyser1-47">[47]</a> They add context to concepts, and explore human concepts like beliefs and perspective that are difficult or impossible to quantify.<a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16">[16]</a> Human geography is much more likely to employ qualitative methods than physical geography. Increasingly, technical geographers are attempting to employ GIS methods to qualitative datasets.<a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Suchan1-82">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qualitative_cartography">Qualitative cartography</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg/300px-Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg/450px-Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg/600px-Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1630" /></a><figcaption>A compound chorochromatic map of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan (Indic) languages</a></figcaption></figure> Qualitative cartography employs many of the same software and techniques as quantitative cartography.<a href="#cite_note-Suchan1-82">[81]</a> It may be employed to inform on map practices, or to visualize perspectives and ideas that are not strictly quantitative in nature.<a href="#cite_note-Suchan1-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16">[16]</a> An example of a form of qualitative cartography is a <a href="/wiki/Chorochromatic_map" title="Chorochromatic map">Chorochromatic map</a> of nominal data, such as land cover or dominant language group in an area.<a href="#cite_note-Brewer1994-83">[82]</a> Another example is a <a href="/wiki/Deep_map" title="Deep map">deep map</a>, or maps that combine geography and storytelling to produce a product with greater information than a two-dimensional image of places, names, and topography.<a href="#cite_note-Bodenhamer1-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Butts1-85">[84]</a> This approach offers more inclusive strategies than more traditional cartographic approaches for connecting the complex layers that makeup places.<a href="#cite_note-Butts1-85">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethnography">Ethnography</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></div> Ethnographical research techniques are used by human geographers.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">cultural geography</a>, there is a tradition of employing <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a> techniques, also used in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and sociology. <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a> and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></div> Geopoetics is an interdisciplinary approach that combines geography and <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> to explore the interconnectedness between humans, space, place, and the environment.<a href="#cite_note-Magrane1-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russo1-88">[87]</a> Geopoetics is employed as a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed methods">mixed methods</a> tool to explain the implications of geographic research.<a href="#cite_note-Magrane2-89">[88]</a> It is often employed to address and communicate the implications of complex topics, such as the <a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">anthropocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dialogs1-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs2-91">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs3-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs4-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs5-94">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interviews">Interviews</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></div> Geographers employ interviews to gather data and acquire valuable understandings from individuals or groups regarding their encounters, outlooks, and opinions concerning spatial phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-Dixon1-95">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dixon2-96">[95]</a> Interviews can be carried out through various mediums, including face-to-face interactions, phone conversations, online platforms, or written exchanges.<a href="#cite_note-DeLyser1-47">[47]</a> Geographers typically adopt a structured or semi-structured approach during interviews involving specific questions or discussion points when utilized for research purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Dixon1-95">[94]</a> These questions are designed to extract focused information about the research topic while being flexible enough to allow participants to express their experiences and viewpoints, such as through open-ended questions.<a href="#cite_note-Dixon1-95">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_history">Origin and history</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div> The concept of geography is present in all cultures, and therefore the history of the discipline is a series of competing narratives, with concepts emerging at various points across space and time.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> The oldest known <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world maps</a> date back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Babylon">ancient Babylon</a> from the 9th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-Raaflaub1-98">[97]</a> The best known <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> world map, however, is the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Map_of_the_World" title="Babylonian Map of the World">Imago Mundi</a> of 600 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Siebold1-99">[98]</a> The map as reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Eckhard_Unger" title="Eckhard Unger">Eckhard Unger</a> shows <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, surrounded by a circular landmass showing <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a>, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (<a href="/wiki/Oceanus" title="Oceanus">Oceanus</a>), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.<a href="#cite_note-Delano1-100">[99]</a> The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.<a href="#cite_note-Finkel1-101">[100]</a> In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world map</a> dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.<a href="#cite_note-Raaflaub1-98">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eratosthenes_profile.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Eratosthenes_profile.png" decoding="async" width="278" height="275" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="275" /></a><figcaption>Etching of an ancient seal identified as Eratosthenes. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philipp_Daniel_Lippert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philipp Daniel Lippert (page does not exist)">Philipp Daniel Lippert</a>, Dactyliothec, 1767.</figcaption></figure> The ideas of <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> (c. 610–545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors.<a href="#cite_note-Kish1-102">[101]</a> Anaximander is credited with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kish1-102">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a> is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>, who were the first to explore geography as both art and science, achieved this through <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a>, or through <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">Mathematics</a>. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Earth is spherical</a> in shape, with the credit going either to <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a>. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tassoul1-103">[102]</a> The first rigorous system of <a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">latitude and longitude</a> lines is credited to <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>. He employed a <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> system that was derived from <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a>. The meridians were subdivided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (<a href="/wiki/Minute_of_arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Minute of arc">minutes</a>). To measure the longitude at different locations on Earth, he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time.<a href="#cite_note-Smith1-104">[103]</a> The extensive mapping by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> to construct detailed <a href="/wiki/Atlas" title="Atlas">atlases</a>. He extended the work of <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan1-105">[104]</a> From the 3rd century onwards, <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese</a> methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more comprehensive than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century).<a href="#cite_note-Needham1-106">[105]</a> Chinese geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pei_Xiu" title="Pei Xiu">Pei Xiu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jia_Dan" title="Jia Dan">Jia Dan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fan_Chengda" title="Fan Chengda">Fan Chengda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Daguan" title="Zhou Daguan">Zhou Daguan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xu_Xiake" title="Xu Xiake">Xu Xiake</a> wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PtolemyWorldMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/PtolemyWorldMap.jpg/220px-PtolemyWorldMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/PtolemyWorldMap.jpg/330px-PtolemyWorldMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/PtolemyWorldMap.jpg/440px-PtolemyWorldMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1026" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_world_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy world map">Ptolemy world map</a>, reconstituted from <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s Geographia, written <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">fall of the Roman empire</a> led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Needham1-106">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Geography_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography in medieval Islam">Muslim geographers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> produced detailed world maps (such as <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a>), while other geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut al-Hamawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan Biruni">Abu Rayhan Biruni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. Turkish geographer <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari" title="Mahmud al-Kashgari">Mahmud al-Kashgari</a> drew a world map on a linguistic basis, and later so did <a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis_map" title="Piri Reis map">Piri Reis map</a>). Further, Islamic scholars translated and <a href="/wiki/Interpreting" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreting">interpreted</a> the earlier works of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> and established the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> for this purpose.<a href="#cite_note-Nawwab1-107">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_ibn_Sahl_al-Balkhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi">Abū Zayd al-Balkhī</a>, originally from <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>, founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Edson1-108">[107]</a> Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer accompanied a book of geographical coordinates, with instructions for making a rectangular world map with <a href="/wiki/Equirectangular_projection" title="Equirectangular projection">equirectangular projection</a> or cylindrical equidistant projection.<a href="#cite_note-Tibbetts1-109">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan Biruni">Abu Rayhan Biruni</a> (976–1048) first described a polar equi-<a href="/wiki/Azimuthal_equidistant_projection" title="Azimuthal equidistant projection">azimuthal equidistant projection</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-King1-110">[109]</a> He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the <a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">valleys</a>, and expanse of the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a>. He also discussed <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">planetary habitability</a> of the Earth. He also calculated the <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> of Kath, <a href="/wiki/Khwarezm" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarezm">Khwarezm</a>, using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesic</a> equation to accurately compute the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_circumference" title="Earth's circumference">Earth's circumference</a>, which was close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.<a href="#cite_note-Aber1-111">[110]</a> His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the <a href="/wiki/Earth_radius" title="Earth radius">Earth radius</a> was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a> developed a new method of using <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometric</a> calculations based on the angle between a <a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plain</a> and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.<a href="#cite_note-Goodman1-112">[111]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg/220px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg/330px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg/440px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2412" data-file-height="1206" /></a><figcaption> Map of southern Atlantic ocean from 1733 edition of the <a href="/wiki/Geographia_Generalis" title="Geographia Generalis">Geographia Generalis</a></figcaption></figure> The European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> during the 16th and the 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. In 1650, the first edition of the <a href="/wiki/Geographia_Generalis" title="Geographia Generalis">Geographia Generalis</a> was published by <a href="/wiki/Bernhardus_Varenius" title="Bernhardus Varenius">Bernhardus Varenius</a>, which was later edited and republished by others including <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Baker1955-113">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-114">[113]</a> This textbook sought to integrate new scientific discoveries and principles into classical geography and approach the discipline like the other sciences emerging, and is seen by some as the division between ancient and modern geography in the West.<a href="#cite_note-Baker1955-113">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-114">[113]</a> The Geographia Generalis contained both theoretical background and practical applications related to ship navigation.<a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-114">[113]</a> The remaining problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. While the problem of latitude was solved long ago, but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridians should be was only part of the problem. It was left to <a href="/wiki/John_Harrison" title="John Harrison">John Harrison</a> to solve it by inventing the chronometer <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Number_Four" class="mw-redirect" title="Harrison Number Four">H-4</a> in 1760, and later in 1884 for the <a href="/wiki/International_Meridian_Conference" title="International Meridian Conference">International Meridian Conference</a> to adopt by convention the <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_meridian" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwich meridian">Greenwich meridian</a> as zero meridians.<a href="#cite_note-Aber1-111">[110]</a> The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete <a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">academic discipline</a>, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century, with the foundations of the <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_de_G%C3%A9ographie" title="Société de Géographie">Société de Géographie</a> in 1821, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> in 1830, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Geographical_Society" title="Russian Geographical Society">Russian Geographical Society</a> in 1845, <a href="/wiki/American_Geographical_Society" title="American Geographical Society">American Geographical Society</a> in 1851, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Danish_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Danish Geographical Society">Royal Danish Geographical Society</a> in 1876 and the <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a> in 1888.<a href="#cite_note-t118-115">[114]</a> The influence of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ritter" title="Carl Ritter">Carl Ritter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Vidal_de_la_Blache" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Vidal de la Blache">Paul Vidal de la Blache</a> can be seen as a major turning point in geography from philosophy to an academic subject.<a href="#cite_note-Societe1-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> Geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hartshorne" title="Richard Hartshorne">Richard Hartshorne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kerski" title="Joseph Kerski">Joseph Kerski</a> have regarded both Humboldt and Ritter as the founders of modern geography, as Humboldt and Ritter were the first to establish geography as an independent scientific discipline.<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/170px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/255px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/340px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007</figcaption></figure> Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">geomatics</a> and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">environmental determinism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">regional geography</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">quantitative revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">critical geography</a>. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, as well as economics, sociology, and <a href="/wiki/Demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics">demographics</a>, have also grown greatly, especially as a result of <a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">earth system science</a> that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view. New concepts and philosophies have emerged from the rapid advancement of computers, quantitative methods, and interdisciplinary approaches. In 1970, <a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">first law of geography</a>, "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."<a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tobler2-37">[37]</a> This law summarizes the first assumption geographers make about the world. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_geographers">Notable geographers</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">List of geographers</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">List of Graeco-Roman geographers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg/170px-Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg/255px-Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg/340px-Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="832" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KwanMeiPo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/KwanMeiPo.jpg/170px-KwanMeiPo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/KwanMeiPo.jpg/255px-KwanMeiPo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/KwanMeiPo.jpg/340px-KwanMeiPo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4400" data-file-height="4789" /></a><figcaption>Mei-Po Kwan</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (1769–1859) – published <a href="/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos (Humboldt)">Cosmos</a>, founder of the subfield <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, and established geography as an independent scientific discipline.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Kelly_Knowles" title="Anne Kelly Knowles">Anne Kelly Knowles</a> (Born 1957) – influential in the use of GIS and geographic methods in History.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernhardus_Varenius" title="Bernhardus Varenius">Bernhardus Varenius</a> (1622–1650)– German geographer and author of <a href="/wiki/Geographia_Generalis" title="Geographia Generalis">Geographia Generalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_O._Sauer" title="Carl O. Sauer">Carl O. Sauer</a> (1889–1975) – cultural geographer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Ritter" title="Carl Ritter">Carl Ritter</a> (1779–1859) – occupied the first chair of geography, at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>, and established geography as an independent scientific discipline.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Brewer" title="Cynthia Brewer">Cynthia Brewer</a>  – cartographic theorist that created the web application <a href="/wiki/ColorBrewer" title="ColorBrewer">ColorBrewer</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dana_Tomlin" title="Dana Tomlin">Dana Tomlin</a>  – originator of map algebra</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doreen_Massey_(geographer)" title="Doreen Massey (geographer)">Doreen Massey</a> (1944–2016) – scholar in the space and places of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and its pluralities; winner of the <a href="/wiki/Laur%C3%A9at_Prix_International_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Vautrin_Lud" class="mw-redirect" title="Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud">Vautrin Lud Prize</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Churchill_Semple" title="Ellen Churchill Semple">Ellen Churchill Semple</a> (1863–1932) – first female president of the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_American_Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of American Geographers">Association of American Geographers</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 276–c. 195/194 BC) – calculated the size of the Earth.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Burgess" title="Ernest Burgess">Ernest Burgess</a> (1886–1966) – creator of the <a href="/wiki/Concentric_zone_model" title="Concentric zone model">concentric zone model</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Jenks" title="George F. Jenks">George F. Jenks</a> (1916–1996) – influential in computer cartography and thematic mapping</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a> (1512–1594) – <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographer</a> who produced the <a href="/wiki/Mercator_projection" title="Mercator projection">mercator projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Monmonier" title="Mark Monmonier">Mark Monmonier</a> (born 1943) – cartographic theorist who wrote numerous books contributing to Geographic Information Systems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mei-Po_Kwan" title="Mei-Po Kwan">Mei-Po Kwan</a> (born 1962) – contributed significantly to the use of GPS and real-time mapping within GIS</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Frank_Goodchild" title="Michael Frank Goodchild">Michael Frank Goodchild</a> (born 1944) – GIScience scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> (Arabic: أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي; Latin: Dreses) (1100–1165) – author of Nuzhatul Mushtaq.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Thrift" title="Nigel Thrift">Nigel Thrift</a> (born 1949) – originator of <a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">non-representational theory</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Vidal_de_La_Blache" title="Paul Vidal de La Blache">Paul Vidal de La Blache</a> (1845–1918) – founder of the French school of geopolitics, wrote the principles of human geography.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> (c. 100–c. 170) – compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book <a href="/wiki/Geographia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographia">Geographia</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Tomlinson" title="Roger Tomlinson">Roger Tomlinson</a> (1933 – 2014) – the primary originator of modern <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic information systems">geographic information systems</a>.</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Halford_Mackinder" title="Halford Mackinder">Halford Mackinder</a> (1861–1947) – co-founder of the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">LSE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geographical_Association" title="Geographical Association">Geographical Association</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (64/63 BC – c. AD 24) – wrote <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>, one of the first books outlining the study of geography.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a> (1930–2018) – coined the <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">first law of geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_second_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's second law of geography">second law of geography</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Christaller" title="Walter Christaller">Walter Christaller</a> (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of <a href="/wiki/Central_place_theory" title="Central place theory">Central place theory</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morris_Davis" title="William Morris Davis">William Morris Davis</a> (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cycle of erosion</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi-Fu_Tuan" title="Yi-Fu Tuan">Yi-Fu Tuan</a> (1930–2022) – Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic Geography as a discipline.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions_and_societies">Institutions and societies</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_organizations" title="Category:Geography organizations">Geography organizations</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Geographers" title="American Association of Geographers">American Association of Geographers</a> (AAG)<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Geographical_Society" title="American Geographical Society">American Geographical Society</a> (US) <a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Melik_Geographical_Institute" title="Anton Melik Geographical Institute">Anton Melik Geographical Institute</a> (Slovenia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_Theta_Upsilon" title="Gamma Theta Upsilon">Gamma Theta Upsilon</a> (international)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Geographical_Information_Systems" title="Institute of Geographical Information Systems">Institute of Geographical Information Systems</a> (Pakistan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geographical_Union" title="International Geographical Union">International Geographical Union</a> (International)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a> (United States) <a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Canadian Geographical Society">Royal Canadian Geographical Society</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Danish_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Danish Geographical Society">Royal Danish Geographical Society</a> (Denmark)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> (UK) <a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Geographical_Society" title="Russian Geographical Society">Russian Geographical Society</a> (Russia)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_literature" title="Category:Geographic literature">Geographic literature</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_American_Association_of_Geographers" title="Annals of the American Association of Geographers">Annals of the American Association of Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipode_(journal)" title="Antipode (journal)">Antipode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_Geography" title="Applied Geography">Applied Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_in_Human_Geography" title="Dialogues in Human Geography">Dialogues in Human Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Geography_(journal)" title="Economic Geography (journal)">Economic Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographia_Technica" title="Geographia Technica">Geographia Technica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_Review" title="Geographical Review">Geographical Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_Bulletin" title="Geographical Bulletin">Geographical Bulletin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GeoHumanities" class="mw-redirect" title="GeoHumanities">GeoHumanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Geographical_Information_Science" title="International Journal of Geographical Information Science">International Journal of Geographical Information Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISPRS_International_Journal_of_Geo-Information" title="ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information">ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Maps" title="Journal of Maps">Journal of Maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Rural_Studies" title="Journal of Rural Studies">Journal of Rural Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Transport_Geography" title="Journal of Transport Geography">Journal of Transport Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Geographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional Geographer">Professional Geographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_Human_Geography" title="Progress in Human Geography">Progress in Human Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Geographical_Journal" title="The Geographical Journal">The Geographical Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Professional_Geographer" title="The Professional Geographer">The Professional Geographer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_fields">Related fields</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geology">Geology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cycle_of_rocks_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cycle_of_rocks_2.png/220px-Cycle_of_rocks_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cycle_of_rocks_2.png/330px-Cycle_of_rocks_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cycle_of_rocks_2.png/440px-Cycle_of_rocks_2.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2300" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rock_cycle" title="Rock cycle">rock cycle</a> shows the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic">metamorphic</a> <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a>.</figcaption></figure> The discipline of geography, especially physical geography, and geology have significant overlap. In the past, the two have often shared academic departments at universities, a point that has led to conflict over resources.<a href="#cite_note-Smith2-127">[126]</a> Both disciplines do seek to understand the <a href="/wiki/Rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocks">rocks</a> on the Earth's surface and the processes that change them over time. Geology employs many of the tools and techniques of technical geographers, such as GIS and remote sensing to aid in <a href="/wiki/Geological_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological mapping">geological mapping</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Compton1-128">[127]</a> However, geology includes research that goes beyond the spatial component, such as the chemical analysis of rocks and <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">biogeochemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gorham_1-129">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></div> The discipline of History has significant overlap with geography, especially human geography.<a href="#cite_note-Bryce1-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Darby1-131">[130]</a> Like geology, history and geography have shared university departments. Geography provides the spatial context within which historical events unfold.<a href="#cite_note-Bryce1-130">[129]</a> The physical geographic features of a region, such as its landforms, climate, and resources, shape human settlements, trade routes, and economic activities, which in turn influence the course of historical events.<a href="#cite_note-Bryce1-130">[129]</a> Thus, a historian must have a strong foundation in geography.<a href="#cite_note-Bryce1-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Darby1-131">[130]</a> Historians employ the techniques of technical geographers to create <a href="/wiki/Historical_atlas" title="Historical atlas">historical atlases</a> and maps. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planetary_science">Planetary science</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Geography" title="Special:EditPage/Geography">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (January 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg/300px-Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg/450px-Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg/600px-Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption>Photograph from <a href="/wiki/Apollo_15" title="Apollo 15">Apollo 15</a> command module. Endeavour of the <a href="/wiki/Rille" title="Rille">rilles</a> in the vicinity of the crater <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_(crater)" title="Aristarchus (crater)">Aristarchus</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>.</figcaption></figure> While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth, the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and even beyond. The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a>. The study of other planets is usually called <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">planetary science</a>. Alternative terms such as <a href="/wiki/Areography_(geography_of_Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Areography (geography of Mars)">areography (geography of Mars)</a> have been employed to describe the study of other celestial objects. Ultimately, geography may be considered a subdiscipline within planetary science. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a> – Planet with environment similar to Earth's</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a> – System that relates geologic strata to time</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> – Physics of the Earth and its vicinity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">Terrestrial planet</a> – Planet that is composed primarily of silicate rocks or metals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_planetology" title="Theoretical planetology">Theoretical planetology</a> – Scientific modeling of planets</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Note01-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Note01_57-0">^</a> Emphasis added. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-intro1-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-intro1_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro1_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro1_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDahlmanRenwick2014" class="citation book cs1">Dahlman, Carl; Renwick, William (2014). Introduction to Geography: People, Places & Environment (6th ed.). Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0137504510" title="Special:BookSources/978-0137504510"><bdi>978-0137504510</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Geography%3A+People%2C+Places+%26+Environment&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0137504510&rft.aulast=Dahlman&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Renwick%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burt-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burt_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burt_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurt2009" class="citation book cs1">Burt, Tim (2009). Key Concepts in Geography: Scale, Resolution, Analysis, and Synthesis in Physical Geography (2nd ed.). 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Geography Volume I. Oxford, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems" title="Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems">EOLSS</a> UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84826-960-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84826-960-6"><bdi>978-1-84826-960-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geography+Volume+I&rft.place=Oxford%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=EOLSS+UNESCO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84826-960-6&rft.aulast=Sala&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roller-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Roller_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoller2010" class="citation book cs1">Roller, Duane W. 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Geographical Review. 81 (1): 99–107. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991GeoRv..81...99T">1991GeoRv..81...99T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F215179">10.2307/215179</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/215179">215179</a>. 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Key Concepts in Geography: Place, Connections and Boundaries in an Interdependent World (2nd ed.). 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Dialogues in Human Geography. 11: 31–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2043820620986398">10.1177/2043820620986398</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232162320">232162320</a>. Retrieved 22 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Human+Geography&rft.atitle=Geopoetics%3A+On+organising%2C+mourning%2C+and+the+incalculable&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=31-35&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2043820620986398&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232162320%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Engelmann&rft.aufirst=Sasha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%2F2043820620986398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dialogs4-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Dialogs4_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcker2021" class="citation journal cs1">Acker, Maleea (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2043820620986396">"Gesturing toward the common and the desperation: Climate geopoetics' potential"</a>. Dialogues in Human Geography. 11 (1): 23–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2043820620986396">10.1177/2043820620986396</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232162312">232162312</a>. Retrieved 22 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Human+Geography&rft.atitle=Gesturing+toward+the+common+and+the+desperation%3A+Climate+geopoetics%27+potential&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-26&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2043820620986396&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232162312%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Acker&rft.aufirst=Maleea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1177%2F2043820620986396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dialogs5-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Dialogs5_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCresswell2021" class="citation journal cs1">Cresswell, Tim (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2043820620986399">"Beyond geopoetics: For hybrid texts"</a>. Dialogues in Human Geography. 11: 36–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2043820620986399">10.1177/2043820620986399</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2Fb64b3dd4-c959-4a8e-877f-85d3058ce4b1">20.500.11820/b64b3dd4-c959-4a8e-877f-85d3058ce4b1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232162314">232162314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Human+Geography&rft.atitle=Beyond+geopoetics%3A+For+hybrid+texts&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=36-39&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11820%2Fb64b3dd4-c959-4a8e-877f-85d3058ce4b1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232162314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2043820620986399&rft.aulast=Cresswell&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F2043820620986399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dixon1-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon1_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon1_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon1_95-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixonLeach1977" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, C.; Leach, B. 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Geo Abstracts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-902246-97-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-902246-97-6"><bdi>0-902246-97-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Questionnaires+and+Interviews+in+Geographical+Research&rft.pub=Geo+Abstracts&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-902246-97-6&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Leach%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falexsingleton.files.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F09%2F18-questionnaires-and-interviews.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dixon2-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Dixon2_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixonLeach1984" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, Chris; Leach, Bridget (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/39-survey-research-in-underdeveloped-countries.pdf">Survey Research in Underdeveloped Countries</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86094-135-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-86094-135-3"><bdi>0-86094-135-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Survey+Research+in+Underdeveloped+Countries&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-86094-135-3&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Leach%2C+Bridget&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falexsingleton.files.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F09%2F39-survey-research-in-underdeveloped-countries.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeffernan2009" class="citation book cs1">Heffernan, Mike (2009). 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Henry Davis Consulting Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161109193653/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/103.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 10 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=henry-davis.com&rft.atitle=Babylonian+clay+tablet%2C+600+B.C.&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Siebold&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.henry-davis.com%2FMAPS%2FAncient%2520Web%2520Pages%2F103.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Delano1-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Delano1_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelano_Smith1996" class="citation journal cs1">Delano Smith, Catherine (1996). "Imago Mundi's Logo the Babylonian Map of the World". 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Vol. 2nd. London: Taylor and Walton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416171118/https://books.google.com/books?id=AvcGAAAAQAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Biography+and+Mythology%3A+Earinus-Nyx&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Walton&rft.date=1846&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Sir+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAvcGAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sullivan1-105"><a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan1_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2000" class="citation web cs1">Sullivan, Dan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~cherlin/History/Papers2000/sullivan.html">"Mapmaking and its History"</a>. rutgers.edu. <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054812/http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~cherlin/History/Papers2000/sullivan.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rutgers.edu&rft.atitle=Mapmaking+and+its+History&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.rutgers.edu%2F~cherlin%2FHistory%2FPapers2000%2Fsullivan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham1-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Needham1_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Needham1_106-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1959" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC">Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth</a>. Vol. 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05801-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05801-8"><bdi>978-0-521-05801-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160925055940/https://books.google.com/books/about/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Volume.html?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+and+the+Sciences+of+the+Heavens+and+the+Earth&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pub=Caves+Books%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-521-05801-8&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjfQ9E0u4pLAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Nawwab1-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Nawwab1_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNawwabHoyeSpeers2018" class="citation web cs1">Nawwab, Ismail I.; Hoye, Paul F.; Speers, Peter C. (5 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.islamicity.org/5898/islam-and-islamic-history-and-the-middle-east/">"Islam and Islamic History and The Middle East"</a>. islamicity.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617153237/http://www.islamicity.com/education/ihame/default.asp?Destination=%2Feducation%2Fihame%2F20.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 10 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=islamicity.com&rft.atitle=Islam+and+Islamic+History+and+The+Middle+East&rft.date=2018-09-05&rft.aulast=Nawwab&rft.aufirst=Ismail+I.&rft.au=Hoye%2C+Paul+F.&rft.au=Speers%2C+Peter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamicity.org%2F5898%2Fislam-and-islamic-history-and-the-middle-east%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edson1-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Edson1_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdsonSavage-Smith2007" class="citation journal cs1">Edson, Evelyn; <a href="/wiki/Emilie_Savage-Smith" title="Emilie Savage-Smith">Savage-Smith, Emilie</a> (2007). "Medieval Views of the Cosmos". International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 13 (3): 61–63. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30222166">30222166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+the+Classical+Tradition&rft.atitle=Medieval+Views+of+the+Cosmos&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=61-63&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30222166%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Edson&rft.aufirst=Evelyn&rft.au=Savage-Smith%2C+Emilie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tibbetts1-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Tibbetts1_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTibbetts1997" class="citation book cs1">Tibbetts, Gerald R. (1997). "The Beginnings of a Cartographic Tradition". In <a href="/wiki/John_Brian_Harley" title="John Brian Harley">Harley, John Brian</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Woodward_(cartographer)" title="David Woodward (cartographer)">Woodward, David</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/Volume2_Book1.html">The history of cartography</a>. Vol. 2. Chicago: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-31633-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-31633-5"><bdi>0-226-31633-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200512094904/https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/Volume2_Book1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Beginnings+of+a+Cartographic+Tradition&rft.btitle=The+history+of+cartography&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-226-31633-5&rft.aulast=Tibbetts&rft.aufirst=Gerald+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.uchicago.edu%2Fbooks%2FHOC%2FHOC_V2_B1%2FVolume2_Book1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-King1-110"><a href="#cite_ref-King1_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1996" class="citation book cs1">King, David A. (1996). Rashed, Roshdi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://qisar.fssr.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf">Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, genomics and timekeeping</a> (PDF). Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-71184-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-71184-2"><bdi>978-0-203-71184-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161111191313/http://qisar.fssr.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomy+and+Islamic+society%3A+Qibla%2C+genomics+and+timekeeping&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-203-71184-2&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fqisar.fssr.uns.ac.id%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F04%2FQisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Aber1-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aber1_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aber1_111-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAber2003" class="citation web cs1">Aber, James Sandusky (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm">"Abu Rayhan al-Biruni"</a>. academic.emporia.edu. <a href="/wiki/Emporia_State_University" title="Emporia State University">Emporia State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811024630/http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=academic.emporia.edu&rft.atitle=Abu+Rayhan+al-Biruni&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Aber&rft.aufirst=James+Sandusky&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademic.emporia.edu%2Faberjame%2Fhistgeol%2Fbiruni%2Fbiruni.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodman1-112"><a href="#cite_ref-Goodman1_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1992" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Lenn Evan (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6x-pcqMicC">Avicenna</a>. Great Britain: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01929-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01929-3"><bdi>978-0-415-01929-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416171106/https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6x-pcqMicC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2020. <q>It was Biruni, not Avicenna, who found a way for a single man, at a single moment, to measure the earth's circumference, by trigonometric calculations based on angles measured from a mountaintop and the plain beneath it – thus improving on Eratosthenes' method of sighting the sun simultaneously from two different sites, applied in the ninth century by astronomers of the Khalif al-Ma'mun.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avicenna&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-415-01929-3&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Lenn+Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVJ6x-pcqMicC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baker1955-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baker1955_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baker1955_113-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker1955" class="citation journal cs1">Baker, J. N. L. (1955). "The Geography of Bernhard Varenius". Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers). 21 (21): 51–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F621272">10.2307/621272</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/621272">621272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+and+Papers+%28Institute+of+British+Geographers%29&rft.atitle=The+Geography+of+Bernhard+Varenius&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=51-60&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F621272&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F621272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=J.+N.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warntz1989-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarntz1989" class="citation journal cs1">Warntz, William (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2563251">"Newton, the Newtonians, and the Geographia Generalis Varenii"</a>. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 79 (2): 165–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F621272">10.2307/621272</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/621272">621272</a>. Retrieved 9 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=Newton%2C+the+Newtonians%2C+and+the+Geographia+Generalis+Varenii&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-191&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F621272&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F621272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Warntz&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2563251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-t118-115"><a href="#cite_ref-t118_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivingstoneWithers2011" class="citation book cs1">Livingstone, David N.; Withers, Charles W. J. (15 July 2011). Geographies of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago ; London: University of Chicago Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48726-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48726-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48726-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geographies+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago+%3B+London&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011-07-15&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48726-7&rft.aulast=Livingstone&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft.au=Withers%2C+Charles+W.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Societe1-116"><a href="#cite_ref-Societe1_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSociété_de_Géographie2016" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Société de Géographie (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.socgeo.org/la-societe/qui-sommes-nous">"Société de Géographie, Paris, France"</a> [Who are we ? – Society of Geography]. socgeo.com (in French). 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Retrieved 10 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rgo.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%28%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE+%D0%B2+1845+%D0%B3.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rgo.ru%2Fru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161017130118/http://americangeo.org/history/">"History"</a>. amergeog.org. The American Geographical Society. 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Retrieved 18 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=%22Academic+War+Over+the+Field+of+Geography%22%3A+The+Elimination+of+Geography+at+Harvard%2C+1947-1951&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=155-172&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145064363%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2562763%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1987.tb00151.x&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2562763&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Compton1-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Compton1_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompton,_Robert_R.1985" class="citation book cs1">Compton, Robert R. (1985). 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Biogeochemistry. 13 (3): 199–239. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Biogc..13..199G">1991Biogc..13..199G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00002942">10.1007/BF00002942</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-515X">1573-515X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128563314">128563314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biogeochemistry&rft.atitle=Biogeochemistry%3A+its+origins+and+development&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=199-239&rft.date=1991-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00002942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128563314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1573-515X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991Biogc..13..199G&rft.aulast=Gorham&rft.aufirst=Eville&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2FBF00002942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bryce1-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce1_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce1_130-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce1_130-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce1_130-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryce1902" class="citation journal cs1">Bryce, James (1902). "The Importance of Geography in Education". The Geographical Journal. 23 (3): 29–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1775737">10.2307/1775737</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1775737">1775737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Geographical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Importance+of+Geography+in+Education&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=29-32&rft.date=1902&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1775737&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1775737%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Darby1-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Darby1_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Darby1_131-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarby2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Darby" title="Clifford Darby">Darby, Henry Clifford</a> (2002). The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France, and the United States. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0859896993" title="Special:BookSources/978-0859896993"><bdi>978-0859896993</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Relations+of+History+and+Geography%3A+Studies+in+England%2C+France%2C+and+the+United+States&rft.place=Exeter&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=University+of+Exeter+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0859896993&rft.aulast=Darby&rft.aufirst=Henry+Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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#aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right mw-collapsible sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow" style="clear: both"> Geography at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Geography" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Geography">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Geography" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Geography">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Geography" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Geography">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Geography" class="extiw" title="q:Geography">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Geography" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Geography">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Geography" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Geography">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Geography" class="extiw" title="v:Geography">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071" class="extiw" title="d:Q1071">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/geography">Geography</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Britannica">Encyclopaedia Britannica</a> website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/geography">Definition of geography at Dictionary.com</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416161729/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geography">Definition of geography by Lexico</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/geography">Origin and meaning of geography by Online Etymology Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/topic/geography">Topic Dictionaries at Oxford Learner's Dictionaries</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of geography terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_data_and_information_organizations" title="Category:Geographic data and information organizations">Geographic data and information organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Geographical societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" title="List of geoscience organizations">Geoscience societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_mapping_agency" title="National mapping agency">National mapping agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_education" title="Category:Geography education">Geography education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographers_on_Film" title="Geographers on Film">Geographers on Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geography_Olympiad" title="International Geography Olympiad">International Geography Olympiad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_citizenship" title="Spatial citizenship">Spatial citizenship</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Geography" title="Category:Geography">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Geography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Geography">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Geography" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Geography">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" title="Template:Glossaries of science and engineering"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" title="Template talk:Glossaries of science and engineering"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Glossaries of science and engineering"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Glossaries of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" title="Glossary of agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" title="Glossary of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Glossary of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_calculus" title="Glossary of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cell_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Clinical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_hardware_terms" title="Glossary of computer hardware terms">Computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_developmental_biology" title="Glossary of developmental biology">Developmental and reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_entomology_terms" title="Glossary of entomology terms">Entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics_and_evolutionary_biology" title="Glossary of genetics and evolutionary biology">Genetics and evolutionary biology</a></li> <li>Cellular and molecular biology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cellular_and_molecular_biology_(0%E2%80%93L)" title="Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (0–L)">0–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cellular_and_molecular_biology_(M%E2%80%93Z)" title="Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z)">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li>Geography <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A%E2%80%93M)" title="Glossary of geography terms (A–M)">A–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N%E2%80%93Z)" title="Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)">N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms" title="Glossary of Arabic toponyms">Arabic toponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms" title="Glossary of Hebrew toponyms">Hebrew toponyms</a></li> <li><a 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