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<span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Historical development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historical_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historical development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_attempts_to_break_Jim_Crow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_attempts_to_break_Jim_Crow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early attempts to break Jim Crow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_attempts_to_break_Jim_Crow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racism_in_the_United_States_and_defenses_of_Jim_Crow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racism_in_the_United_States_and_defenses_of_Jim_Crow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Racism in the United States and defenses of Jim Crow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racism_in_the_United_States_and_defenses_of_Jim_Crow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_post-war_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_post-war_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>World War II and post-war era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_post-war_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_and_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_and_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Decline and removal</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decline_and_removal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Decline and removal subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Decline_and_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brown_v._Board_of_Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown_v._Board_of_Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown_v._Board_of_Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integrating_collegiate_sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integrating_collegiate_sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Integrating collegiate sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integrating_collegiate_sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_arena" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_arena"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Public arena</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_arena-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_legal_segregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_legal_segregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>End of legal segregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_legal_segregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Influence and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence_and_aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influence and aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influence_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-African_American_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_American_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>African American life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_American_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interracial_marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interracial_marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Interracial marriage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interracial_marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jury_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jury_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Jury trials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jury_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_court_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_court_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Later court cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_court_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Felony_disenfranchisement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Felony_disenfranchisement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Felony disenfranchisement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Felony_disenfranchisement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>International</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remembrance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remembrance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Remembrance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remembrance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Jim Crow laws</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow-wette" title="Jim Crow-wette – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Jim Crow-wette" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85_%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%88" title="قوانين جيم كرو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قوانين جيم كرو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cim_Krou_qanunlar%C4%B1" title="Cim Krou qanunları – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cim Krou qanunları" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8" title="জিম ক্রো আইন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জিম ক্রো আইন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleis_Jim_Crow" title="Lleis Jim Crow – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lleis Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1kony_Jima_Crowa" title="Zákony Jima Crowa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zákony Jima Crowa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deddfau_Jim_Crow" title="Deddfau Jim Crow – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Deddfau Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow-lovene" title="Jim Crow-lovene – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jim Crow-lovene" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim-Crow-Gesetze" title="Jim-Crow-Gesetze – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jim-Crow-Gesetze" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BC_%CE%9A%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Νόμοι του Τζιμ Κρόου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νόμοι του Τζιμ Κρόου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyes_Jim_Crow" title="Leyes Jim Crow – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Leyes Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C4%9Doj_Jim_Crow" title="Leĝoj Jim Crow – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Leĝoj Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_legeak" title="Jim Crow legeak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jim Crow legeak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88" title="قوانین جیم کرو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قوانین جیم کرو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois_Jim_Crow" title="Lois Jim Crow – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lois Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%91%AB%C2%B7%E5%91%B5%E5%98%8D%E6%B3%95" title="呫·呵嘍法 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="呫·呵嘍法" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%90%ED%81%AC%EB%A1%9C_%EB%B2%95" title="짐크로 법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="짐크로 법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%AB%D5%B4_%D5%94%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AB_%D6%85%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ջիմ Քրոուի օրենքներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջիմ Քրոուի օրենքներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_Jim_Crow" title="Hukum Jim Crow – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukum Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leggi_Jim_Crow" title="Leggi Jim Crow – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Leggi Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%99_%D7%92%27%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%90%D7%95" title="חוקי ג'ים קרואו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חוקי ג'ים קרואו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Джимкроуизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джимкроуизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEima_Krova_likumi" title="Džima Krova likumi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džima Krova likumi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEimo_Krou_%C4%AFstatymai" title="Džimo Krou įstatymai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Džimo Krou įstatymai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow-t%C3%B6rv%C3%A9nyek" title="Jim Crow-törvények – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jim Crow-törvények" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow-wetten" title="Jim Crow-wetten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jim Crow-wetten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AD%E3%82%A6%E6%B3%95" title="ジム・クロウ法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジム・クロウ法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow-lovene" title="Jim Crow-lovene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jim Crow-lovene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow-lovane" title="Jim Crow-lovane – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jim Crow-lovane" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="جم کرو دا قانون – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جم کرو دا قانون" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86" title="د جيم کرو قوانين – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جيم کرو قوانين" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawa_Jima_Crowa" title="Prawa Jima Crowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawa Jima Crowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leis_de_Jim_Crow" title="Leis de Jim Crow – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Leis de Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legile_Jim_Crow" title="Legile Jim Crow – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Legile Jim Crow" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%83" title="Законы Джима Кроу – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Законы Джима Кроу" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jim Crow laws" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%8F%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%B0" title="Закони Џима Кроуа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Закони Џима Кроуа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_-lait" title="Jim Crow -lait – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jim Crow -lait" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow-lagar" title="Jim Crow-lagar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jim Crow-lagar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜிம் குரோ சட்டங்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜிம் குரோ சட்டங்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_yasalar%C4%B1" title="Jim Crow yasaları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jim Crow yasaları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%83" title="Закони Джима Кроу – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Jim Crow" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Jim Crow (disambiguation)">Jim Crow (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> of articles on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial and ethnic segregation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/150px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/225px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/300px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="609" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Overview</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_apartheid_by_country" title="Allegations of apartheid by country">Allegations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental</a> / <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_zoning" title="Exclusionary zoning">Exclusionary zoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Historical examples</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">Australia</a></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pass_system_(Canadian_history)" title="Pass system (Canadian history)">Pass system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_separate_schools_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial separate schools (Canada)">Separate schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_hospital" title="Indian hospital">Indian hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_racial_laws" title="Italian racial laws">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li>French colonial empire <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indig%C3%A9nat" title="Indigénat">Indigénat</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey" title="Population exchange between Greece and Turkey">Greek–Turkish<wbr /> population exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_Europe" title="Jewish ghettos in Europe">Jewish ghettos<wbr /> in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal & Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Zimbabwe#Legal_situation_in_Southern_Rhodesia" title="Land reform in Zimbabwe">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">South Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">Pass laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racial segregation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span class="nowrap">Contemporary examples</span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Anti-Romanyism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy#Environmental_racism" title="Racism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Romania#Segregation" title="Romani people in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Erased" title="The Erased">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roma_wall" title="Roma wall">Roma walls</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina#Ethnic_and_religious_discrimination" title="Human rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia–Herzegovina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_schools_under_one_roof" title="Two schools under one roof">Schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_problem" title="Cyprus problem">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafala_system" title="Kafala system">Gulf states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_workers_in_Saudi_Arabia#Abuse_and_scandals" title="Foreign workers in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_workers_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates#Human_rights" title="Migrant workers in the United Arab Emirates">UAE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_South_Asian_labourers_in_the_Gulf_Cooperation_Council_region" title="Treatment of South Asian labourers in the Gulf Cooperation Council region">South Asian labourers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uthapuram_caste_wall" title="Uthapuram caste wall">Uthapuram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_(Amendment)_Act,_2019" title="Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019">Muslims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_apartheid" title="Israeli apartheid">Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_enclaves" title="Palestinian enclaves">Palestinian enclaves</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hafrada" title="Hafrada">Hafrada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_law_in_the_West_Bank_settlements" title="Israeli law in the West Bank settlements">West Bank settlement law</a> / <a href="/wiki/West_Bank_barrier" title="West Bank barrier">barriers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuanan_Melayu" title="Ketuanan Melayu">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Western_Sahara_Wall" title="Moroccan Western Sahara Wall">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_apartheid_by_country#Myanmar" title="Allegations of apartheid by country">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Darfur#Allegations_of_apartheid" title="War in Darfur">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Academies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Housing segregation in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">Residential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhamash%C4%ABn" title="Al-Muhamashīn">Yemen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Statelessness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_apartheid" title="Gender apartheid">Gender apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">Racial discrimination</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Segregation" title="Category:Segregation">Category</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Segregation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Segregation">Commons</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li>Jim Crow laws</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Racism in the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;;font-size:150%;; padding:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American<br />race relations</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/232px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/348px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/464px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3129" data-file-height="3605" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Violence in the <a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a> <hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Historical background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:1px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">Voter suppression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jim Crow laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <dl><dt>Common actions</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">Expulsions of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynchings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_postcard" title="Lynching postcard">Lynching postcards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitecapping" title="Whitecapping">Whitecapping</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Vigilante groups</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legion_(political_movement)" title="Black Legion (political movement)">Black Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps" title="Indiana White Caps">Indiana White Caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lynchings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Andrew_Richards" title="Lynching of Andrew Richards">Andrew Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Green" title="Lynching of Michael Green">Michael Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Eliza_Woods" title="Lynching of Eliza Woods">Eliza Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Amos_Miller" title="Lynching of Amos Miller">Amos Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Meadows" title="Lynching of George Meadows">George Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Vermillion" title="Lynching of Joseph Vermillion">Joe Vermillion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_Taylor" title="Lynching of Jim Taylor">Jim Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Coe" title="Lynching of Joe Coe">Joe Coe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Grocery_lynchings" title="People's Grocery lynchings">People's Grocery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ephraim_Grizzard" title="Lynching of Ephraim Grizzard">Ephraim Grizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Alfred_Blount" title="Lynching of Alfred Blount">Alfred Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_J._Bush" title="Lynching of Samuel J. Bush">Samuel J. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Stephen_Williams" title="Lynching of Stephen Williams">Stephen Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Frazier_B._Baker_and_Julia_Baker" title="Lynching of Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker">Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Henry_James" title="Lynching of John Henry James">John Henry James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">Sam Hose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Ward" title="Lynching of George Ward">George Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Wyatt" title="Lynching of David Wyatt">David Wyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Marie_Thompson" title="Lynching of Marie Thompson">Marie Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Burns" title="Lynching of William Burns">William Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Walker_family" title="Lynching of the Walker family">Walker family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L. D. Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_King_Johnson" title="Lynching of King Johnson">King Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Evans" title="Lynching of John Evans">John Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Jesse Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Anthony_Crawford" title="Lynching of Anthony Crawford">Anthony Crawford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ell_Persons" title="Lynching of Ell Persons">Ell Persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_McIlherron" title="Lynching of Jim McIlherron">Jim McIlherron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Taylor" title="Lynching of George Taylor">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hartfield" title="John Hartfield">John Hartfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_lynchings" title="Duluth lynchings">1920 Duluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_James_Harvey_and_Joe_Jordan" title="Lynching of James Harvey and Joe Jordan">James Harvey and Joe Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Pullen" title="Joe Pullen">Joe Pullen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Massacres and riots</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodaux massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_Valley_Race_Riot_of_1895" title="Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895">Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_election_riot" title="Phoenix election riot">Phoenix election riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pana_riot" title="Pana riot">Pana riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_riots" title="Robert Charles riots">Robert Charles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evansville_race_riot" title="Evansville race riot">Evansville race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">Atlanta Massacre of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Jeffries_riots" title="Johnson–Jeffries riots">Johnson–Jeffries riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_racial_conflict_in_Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia">1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Chester_race_riot" title="1917 Chester race riot">1917 Chester race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">Elaine massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_race_riot_of_1919" title="Washington race riot of 1919">Washington race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry race riot">Perry race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Reactions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">Anti-lynching movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_to_Africa_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Back to Africa movement">Back to Africa movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template talk:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Jim Crow laws</b> were <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> and local laws introduced in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_(character)" title="Jim Crow (character)">Jim Crow</a>" being a pejorative term for an <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fremon_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fremon-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last of the Jim Crow laws were overturned <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">in 1965</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmermund2016_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmermund2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Formal and informal racial segregation policies were present in other areas of the United States as well, even as several states outside the South had banned discrimination in public accommodations and voting.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern laws were enacted by white-dominated state legislatures (<a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a>) to disenfranchise and remove political and economic gains made by African Americans during the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartlett2008_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartlett2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such continuing racial segregation was also supported by the successful <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">Lily-white movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In practice, Jim Crow laws mandated racial segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> and in some others, beginning in the 1870s. Jim Crow laws were upheld in 1896 in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> laid out its "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" legal doctrine concerning facilities for African Americans. Moreover, <a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">public education</a> had essentially been segregated since its establishment in most of the South after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> in 1861–1865. Companion laws excluded almost all African Americans from the vote in the South and deprived them of any representative government. </p><p>Although in theory, the "equal" segregation doctrine governed public facilities and transportation too, facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to facilities for <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">white Americans</a>; sometimes, there were no facilities for the black community at all.<sup id="cite_ref-tperd_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tperd-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jimlu_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimlu-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Far from equality, as a body of law, Jim Crow institutionalized economic, educational, political and social disadvantages and <a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class citizenship</a> for most African Americans living in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-tperd_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tperd-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jimlu_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimlu-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jewolf_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jewolf-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) was founded in 1909, it became involved in a sustained public protest and campaigns against the Jim Crow laws, and the so-called "separate but equal" doctrine. </p><p>In 1954, segregation of public schools (state-sponsored) was declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in the landmark case <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some states, it took many years to implement this decision, while the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> continued to rule against Jim Crow legislation in other cases such as <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i> (1964).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overturned by the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The earliest known use of the phrase "Jim Crow law" can be dated to 1884 in a newspaper article summarizing congressional debate.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term appears in 1892 in the title of a <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i> article about Louisiana requiring segregated railroad cars.<sup id="cite_ref-scjc7_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scjc7-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The origin of the phrase "Jim Crow" has often been attributed to "<a href="/wiki/Jump_Jim_Crow" title="Jump Jim Crow">Jump Jim Crow</a>", a song-and-dance caricature of black people performed by white actor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_D._Rice" title="Thomas D. Rice">Thomas D. Rice</a> in <a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">blackface</a>, first performed in 1828. As a result of Rice's fame, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_(character)" title="Jim Crow (character)">Jim Crow</a> had become by 1838 a pejorative expression meaning "Negro". When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation directed against African Americans at the end of the 19th century, these statutes became known as Jim Crow laws.<sup id="cite_ref-scjc7_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scjc7-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era</a></div> <p>In January 1865, an amendment to the Constitution abolishing slavery in the United States was proposed by Congress and ratified as the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> on December 18, 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-Jaynes2005_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jaynes2005-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jimcrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Jimcrow.jpg/220px-Jimcrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Jimcrow.jpg/330px-Jimcrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Jimcrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption>Cover of an early edition of "<a href="/wiki/Jump_Jim_Crow" title="Jump Jim Crow">Jump Jim Crow</a>" sheet music (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1832</span>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/220px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/330px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/440px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="537" /></a><figcaption>Freedmen voting in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, 1867</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">U.S. South</a> for <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedmen</a>, African Americans who were former slaves, and the minority of black people who had been free before the war. In the 1870s, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">Democrats</a> gradually regained power in the Southern legislatures<sup id="cite_ref-Milewski2017_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milewski2017-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as violent <a href="/wiki/Insurgent" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurgent">insurgent</a> <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(Southern_United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Shirts (Southern United States)">Red Shirts</a> disrupted Republican organizing, ran Republican officeholders out of town, and lynched black voters as an intimidation tactic to suppress the black vote.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extensive voter fraud was also used. In one instance, an outright coup or <a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">insurrection in coastal North Carolina</a> led to the violent removal of democratically elected Republican party executive and representative officials, who were either hunted down or hounded out. <a href="/wiki/Gubernatorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Gubernatorial">Gubernatorial</a> elections were close and had been disputed in <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> for years, with increasing violence against black Americans during campaigns from 1868 onward.<sup id="cite_ref-Perman2009_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perman2009-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a> to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the government withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained political power in every Southern state.<sup id="cite_ref-scjc6_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scjc6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Southern, white, "<a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemer</a>" governments legislated Jim Crow laws, officially segregating the country's population. Jim Crow laws were a manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> rule specifically directed at one racial group.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Black people were still elected to local offices throughout the 1880s in local areas with large black populations, but their voting was suppressed for state and national elections. States passed laws to make voter registration and electoral rules more restrictive, with the result that political participation by most black people and many poor <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white people</a> began to decrease.<sup id="cite_ref-Michael_Perman_2001_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michael_Perman_2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1890 and 1910, ten of the eleven former <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate states</a>, beginning with <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disenfranchised</a> most black people and tens of thousands of poor white people through a combination of <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literacy_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy tests">literacy</a> and comprehension tests, and residency and record-keeping requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-Michael_Perman_2001_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michael_Perman_2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">Grandfather clauses</a> temporarily permitted some illiterate white people to vote but gave no relief to most black people. </p><p>Voter turnout dropped dramatically through the South as a result of these measures. In Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the state's population. By 1910, only 730 black people were registered, less than 0.5% of eligible black men. "In 27 of the state's 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer; in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was."<sup id="cite_ref-Pildes_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pildes-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cumulative effect in <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a> meant that black voters were eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896 to 1904. The growth of their thriving middle class was slowed. In North Carolina and other Southern states, black people suffered from being made invisible in the political system: "[W]ithin a decade of disfranchisement, the <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> campaign had erased the image of the <a href="/wiki/Black_middle_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Black middle class">black middle class</a> from the minds of white North Carolinians."<sup id="cite_ref-Pildes_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pildes-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, tens of thousands of poor whites were also disenfranchised, although initially legislators had promised them they would not be affected adversely by the new restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-Glenn_Feldman_2004,_pp._135–136_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glenn_Feldman_2004,_pp._135–136-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, and their interests were overlooked. While public schools had been established by Reconstruction legislatures for the first time in most Southern states, those for black children were consistently underfunded compared to schools for white children, even when considered within the strained finances of the postwar South where the decreasing price of cotton kept the agricultural economy at a low.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like schools, public libraries for black people were underfunded, if they existed at all, and they were often stocked with secondhand books and other resources.<sup id="cite_ref-jimlu_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jimlu-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These facilities were not introduced for African Americans in the South until the first decade of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Battles,_D._M._2009_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Battles,_D._M._2009-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the Jim Crow era, libraries were only available sporadically.<sup id="cite_ref-fultz2006_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fultz2006-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the 20th century, most libraries established for African Americans were school-library combinations.<sup id="cite_ref-fultz2006_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fultz2006-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many public libraries for both European-American and African-American patrons in this period were founded as the result of middle-class activism aided by matching grants from the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Corporation_of_New_York" title="Carnegie Corporation of New York">Carnegie Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fultz2006_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fultz2006-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some cases, progressive measures intended to reduce election fraud, such as the <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era#Eight_Box_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">Eight Box Law</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, acted against black and white voters who were illiterate, as they could not follow the directions.<sup id="cite_ref-Holt_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holt-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the separation of African Americans from the white general population was becoming legalized and formalized during the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> (1890s–1920s), it was also becoming customary. Even in cases in which Jim Crow laws did not expressly forbid black people from participating in sports or recreation, a segregated culture had become common.<sup id="cite_ref-scjc7_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scjc7-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Jim Crow context, the <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">presidential election of 1912</a> was steeply slanted against the interests of African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-Dittmer1980_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dittmer1980-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most black Americans still lived in the South, where they had been effectively disfranchised, so they could not vote at all. While <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a> and literacy requirements banned many poor or illiterate people from voting, these stipulations frequently had loopholes that exempted European Americans from meeting the requirements. In <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, for instance, anyone qualified to vote before 1866, or related to someone qualified to vote before 1866 (a kind of "<a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clause</a>"), was exempted from the literacy requirement; but the only men who had the franchise before that year were white or European-American. European Americans were effectively exempted from the literacy testing, whereas black Americans were effectively singled out by the law.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> was a Democrat elected from New Jersey, but he was born and raised in the South, and was the first Southern-born president of the post-<a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> period. He appointed Southerners to his <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a>. Some quickly began to press for segregated workplaces, although the city of Washington, D.C., and federal offices had been integrated since after the Civil War. In 1913, <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Treasury" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">William Gibbs McAdoo</a> – an appointee of the President – was heard to express his opinion of black and white women working together in one government office: "I feel sure that this must go against the grain of the white women. Is there any reason why the white women should not have only white women working across from them on the machines?"<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Wilson administration introduced segregation in federal offices, despite much protest from African-American leaders and white progressive groups in the north and midwest.<sup id="cite_ref-BerkinMiller2011_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BerkinMiller2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He appointed segregationist Southern politicians because of his own firm belief that racial segregation was in the best interest of black and European Americans alike.<sup id="cite_ref-wilson_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wilson-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/Great_Reunion_of_1913" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Reunion of 1913">Great Reunion of 1913</a> at <a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_Battlefield" title="Gettysburg Battlefield">Gettysburg</a>, Wilson addressed the crowd on July 4, the semi-centennial of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>'s declaration that "<a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_Address" title="Gettysburg Address">all men are created equal</a>": </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>How complete the union has become and how dear to all of us, how unquestioned, how benign and majestic, as state after state has been added to this, our great family of free men!<sup id="cite_ref-blight_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blight-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In sharp contrast to Wilson, a <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Bee" title="Washington Bee">Washington Bee</a></i> editorial wondered if the "reunion" of 1913 was a reunion of those who fought for "the extinction of slavery" or a reunion of those who fought to "perpetuate slavery and who are now employing every artifice and argument known to deceit" to present emancipation as a failed venture.<sup id="cite_ref-blight_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blight-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">David W. Blight</a> observed that the "Peace Jubilee" at which Wilson presided at Gettysburg in 1913 "was a Jim Crow reunion, and <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> might be said to have been the silent, invisible master of ceremonies".<sup id="cite_ref-blight_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blight-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">In Texas</a>, several towns adopted residential segregation laws between 1910 and the 1920s. Legal strictures called for segregated water fountains and restrooms.<sup id="cite_ref-blight_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blight-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exclusion of African Americans also found support in the <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">Republican lily-white movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Heersink_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heersink-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_development">Historical development</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_attempts_to_break_Jim_Crow">Early attempts to break Jim Crow</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg/220px-JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg/330px-JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg/440px-JimCrowInDurhamNC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1878" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in <a href="/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina" title="Durham, North Carolina">Durham, North Carolina</a>, May 1940</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a>, introduced by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_F._Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin F. Butler">Benjamin F. Butler</a>, stipulated a guarantee that everyone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment in public accommodations, such as inns, public transportation, theaters, and other places of recreation. This Act had little effect in practice.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An 1883 Supreme Court decision ruled that the act was unconstitutional in some respects, saying Congress was not afforded control over private persons or corporations. With white southern Democrats forming a solid voting bloc in Congress, due to having outsize power from keeping seats apportioned for the total population in the South (although hundreds of thousands had been disenfranchised), Congress did not pass another civil rights law until 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-usgov_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgov-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1887, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Heard_(ambassador)" class="mw-redirect" title="William H. Heard (ambassador)">Rev. W. H. Heard</a> lodged a complaint with the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Railroad_and_Banking_Company" title="Georgia Railroad and Banking Company">Georgia Railroad</a> company for discrimination, citing its provision of different cars for white and black/colored passengers. The company successfully appealed for relief on the grounds it offered "separate but equal" accommodation.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white", "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixed European and African ancestry). The law had already specified that black people could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with white people before 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> formed an association dedicated to rescinding the law. The group persuaded <a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a> to test it; he was a man of color who was of fair complexion and one-eighth "Negro" in ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-lou_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket from New Orleans on the East Louisiana Railway. Once he had boarded the train, he informed the train conductor of his racial lineage and took a seat in the whites-only car. He was directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only" car. Plessy refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the United States Supreme Court. They lost in <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896), in which the Court ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were constitutional. The finding contributed to 58 more years of legalized discrimination against black and colored people in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-lou_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1908, Congress defeated an attempt to introduce segregated streetcars into the capital.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racism_in_the_United_States_and_defenses_of_Jim_Crow">Racism in the United States and defenses of Jim Crow</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JimCrowCar2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/JimCrowCar2.jpg/220px-JimCrowCar2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/JimCrowCar2.jpg/330px-JimCrowCar2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/JimCrowCar2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="196" /></a><figcaption>1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by <a href="/wiki/John_T._McCutcheon" title="John T. McCutcheon">John T. McCutcheon</a>. Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>White Southerners encountered problems in learning free labor management after the end of slavery, and they resented African Americans, who represented the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Civil War">Civil War</a> defeat: "With <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> being challenged throughout the South, many whites sought to protect their former status by threatening African Americans who exercised their new rights."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White Southerners used their power to segregate public spaces and facilities in law and reestablish social dominance over black people in the South. </p><p>One rationale for the systematic exclusion of African Americans from southern public society was that it was for their own protection. An early 20th-century scholar suggested that allowing black people to attend white schools would mean "constantly subjecting them to adverse feeling and opinion", which might lead to "a morbid race consciousness".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This perspective took anti-black sentiment for granted, because <a href="/wiki/Bigotry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bigotry">bigotry</a> was widespread in the South after slavery became a racial <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> system. </p><p>Justifications for white supremacy were provided by <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> and negative <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">stereotypes of African Americans</a>. Social segregation, from housing to laws against interracial chess games, was justified as a way to prevent black men from having sex with white women and in particular the rapacious <a href="/wiki/Black_Buck" title="Black Buck">Black Buck</a> stereotype.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_and_post-war_era">World War II and post-war era</h3></div> <p>In 1944, <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Associate Justice">Associate Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a> introduced the word "<a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>" into the lexicon of U.S. Supreme Court opinions in <i><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">323 U.S. 214</a> (1944).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his dissenting opinion, Murphy stated that by upholding the forced relocation of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese American">Japanese Americans</a> during World War II, the Court was sinking into "the ugly abyss of racism". This was the first time that "racism" was used in Supreme Court opinion (Murphy used it twice in a concurring opinion in <i><a href="/wiki/Steele_v_Louisville_%26_Nashville_Railway_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="Steele v Louisville & Nashville Railway Co">Steele v Louisville & Nashville Railway Co</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">323 192</a> (1944) issued that day).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Murphy used the word in five separate opinions, but after he left the court, "racism" was not used again in an opinion for two decades. It next appeared in the landmark decision of <i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_388" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 388">388</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/388/1/">1</a> (1967). </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg/350px-Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg/525px-Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg/700px-Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>Educational segregation in the US prior to <i>Brown</i>. All the states of the "South" or with the longest histories of slavery (in red) segregated schools by law statewide.</figcaption></figure> <p>Numerous boycotts and demonstrations against segregation had occurred throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) had been engaged in a series of litigation cases since the early 20th century in efforts to combat laws that disenfranchised black voters across the South. Some of the early demonstrations achieved positive results, strengthening political activism, especially in the post-World War II years. Black veterans were impatient with social oppression after having fought for the United States and freedom across the world. In 1947 <a href="/wiki/K._Leroy_Irvis" title="K. Leroy Irvis">K. Leroy Irvis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>'s Urban League, for instance, led a demonstration against employment discrimination by the city's department stores. It was the beginning of his own influential political career.<sup id="cite_ref-pg_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pg-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After World War II, people of color increasingly challenged segregation, as they believed they had more than earned the right to be treated as full citizens because of their military service and sacrifices. The <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">civil rights movement</a> was energized by a number of flashpoints, including the 1946 police beating and blinding of World War II veteran <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Woodard" title="Isaac Woodard">Isaac Woodard</a> while he was in U.S. Army uniform. In 1948 President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> issued <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a>, ending racial discrimination in the armed services.<sup id="cite_ref-Truman9881_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Truman9881-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same year, <a href="/wiki/Silas_Herbert_Hunt" title="Silas Herbert Hunt">Silas Herbert Hunt</a> enrolled in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arkansas" title="University of Arkansas">University of Arkansas</a>, effectively starting the desegregation of education in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-Buckelew_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buckelew-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the civil rights movement gained momentum and used federal courts to attack Jim Crow statutes, the white-dominated governments of many of the southern states countered by passing alternative forms of resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline_and_removal">Decline and removal</h2></div> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/William_Chafe" title="William Chafe">William Chafe</a> has explored the defensive techniques developed inside the African American community to avoid the worst features of Jim Crow as expressed in the legal system, unbalanced economic power, and intimidation and psychological pressure. Chafe says "protective socialization by black people themselves" was created inside the community in order to accommodate white-imposed sanctions while subtly encouraging challenges to those sanctions. Known as "walking the tightrope", such efforts at bringing about change were only slightly effective before the 1920s. </p><p>However, this did build the foundation for later generations to advance racial equality and de-segregation. Chafe argued that the places essential for change to begin were institutions, particularly black churches, which functioned as centers for community-building and discussion of politics. Additionally, some all-black communities, such as Mound Bayou, Mississippi and Ruthville, Virginia served as sources of pride and inspiration for black society as a whole. Over time, pushback and open defiance of the oppressive existing laws grew, until it reached a boiling point in the aggressive, large-scale activism of the 1950s civil rights movement.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brown_v._Board_of_Education"><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/220px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/330px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/440px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>In the landmark case <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954), the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> under Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> ruled unanimously that public school segregation was unconstitutional.</figcaption></figure> <p>The NAACP Legal Defense Committee (a group that became independent of the NAACP) – and its lawyer, <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> – brought the landmark case <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/483/">483</a> (1954) before the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> under Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its pivotal 1954 decision, the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> unanimously (9–0) overturned the 1896 <i>Plessy</i> decision.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court found that legally mandated (<i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i>) public school segregation was unconstitutional. The decision had far-reaching social ramifications.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrating_collegiate_sports">Integrating collegiate sports</h3></div> <p>Racial integration of all-white collegiate sports teams was high on the Southern agenda in the 1950s and 1960s. Involved were issues of equality, racism, and the alumni demand for the top players needed to win high-profile games. The <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Coast_Conference" title="Atlantic Coast Conference">Atlantic Coast Conference</a> (ACC) of flagship state universities in the Southeast took the lead. First they started to schedule integrated teams from the North. Finally, ACC schools – typically under pressure from boosters and civil rights groups – integrated their teams.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With an alumni base that dominated local and state politics, society and business, the ACC schools were successful in their endeavor – as Pamela Grundy argues, they had learned how to win: </p> <dl><dd>The widespread admiration that athletic ability inspired would help transform athletic fields from grounds of symbolic play to forces for social change, places where a wide range of citizens could publicly and at times effectively challenge the assumptions that cast them as unworthy of full participation in U.S. society. While athletic successes would not rid society of prejudice or stereotype – black athletes would continue to confront racial slurs...[minority star players demonstrated] the discipline, intelligence, and poise to contend for position or influence in every arena of national life.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_arena">Public arena</h3></div> <p>In 1955, <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> refused to give up her seat on a city bus to a white man in <a href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery, Alabama</a>. This was not the first time this happened – for example, Parks was inspired by 15-year-old <a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a> doing the same thing nine months earlier<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – but the Parks act of <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a> was chosen, symbolically, as an important catalyst in the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">post-1954 civil rights movement</a>; activists built the <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> around it, which lasted more than a year and resulted in desegregation of the privately run buses in the city. Civil rights protests and actions, together with legal challenges, resulted in a series of legislative and court decisions which contributed to undermining the Jim Crow system.<sup id="cite_ref-vcu_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vcu-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_legal_segregation">End of legal segregation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act,_July_2,_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/220px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/330px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/440px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7000" data-file-height="4687" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Johnson</a> signs the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The decisive action ending segregation came when Congress in bipartisan fashion overcame <a href="/wiki/Southern_filibuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern filibuster">Southern filibusters</a> to pass the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. A complex interaction of factors came together unexpectedly in the period 1954–1965 to make the momentous changes possible. The Supreme Court had taken the first initiative in <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954), declaring segregation of public schools unconstitutional. Enforcement was rapid in the North and border states, but was deliberately stopped in the South by the movement called <a href="/wiki/Massive_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>, sponsored by rural segregationists who largely controlled the state legislatures. Southern liberals, who counseled moderation, were shouted down by both sides and had limited impact. Much more significant was the civil rights movement, especially the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC) headed by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> It largely displaced the old, much more moderate NAACP in taking leadership roles. King organized massive demonstrations, that seized massive media attention in an era when network television news was an innovative and universally watched phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>SCLC, student activists and smaller local organizations staged demonstrations across the South. National attention focused on <a href="/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama" title="Birmingham, Alabama">Birmingham</a>, Alabama, where protesters mostly young teenagers, faced off against Commissioner of Public Safety <a href="/wiki/Bull_Connor" title="Bull Connor">Bull Connor</a>, Connor arrested 900 on one day alone. The next day Connor unleashed billy clubs, police dogs, and high-pressure water hoses to disperse and punish the young demonstrators with a brutality that horrified the nation. The brutality undermined the image of a modernizing progressive urban South. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, who had been calling for moderation, threatened to use federal troops to restore order in Birmingham. The result in Birmingham was compromise by which the new mayor opened the library, golf courses, and other city facilities to both races, against the backdrop of church bombings and assassinations.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In summer 1963, there were 800 demonstrations in 200 southern cities and towns, with over 100,000 participants, and 15,000 arrests. In <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a> in June 1963, Governor <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> escalated the crisis by defying court orders to admit the first two black students to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kennedy responded by sending Congress a comprehensive civil rights bill, and ordered Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> to file federal lawsuits against segregated schools, and to deny funds for discriminatory programs. Martin Luther King launched a huge march on Washington in August 1963, bringing out 200,000 demonstrators in front of the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial" title="Lincoln Memorial">Lincoln Memorial</a>, at the time the largest political assembly in the nation's history. The Kennedy administration now gave full-fledged support to the civil rights movement, but powerful southern congressmen blocked any legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Kennedy was assassinated, President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> called for immediate passage of Kennedy civil rights legislation as a memorial to the martyred president. Johnson formed a coalition with Northern Republicans that led to passage in the House, and with the help of Republican Senate leader <a href="/wiki/Everett_Dirksen" title="Everett Dirksen">Everett Dirksen</a> with passage in the Senate early in 1964. For the first time in history, the southern filibuster was broken and the Senate finally passed its version on June 19 by vote of 73 to 27.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the most powerful affirmation of equal rights ever made by Congress. It guaranteed access to public accommodations such as restaurants and places of amusement, authorized the Justice Department to bring suits to desegregate facilities in schools, gave new powers to the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Commission">Civil Rights Commission</a>; and allowed federal funds to be cut off in cases of discrimination. Furthermore, racial, religious and gender discrimination was outlawed for businesses with 25 or more employees, as well as apartment houses. The South resisted until the last moment, but as soon as the new law was signed by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, it was widely accepted across the nation. There was only a scattering of diehard opposition, typified by restaurant owner <a href="/wiki/Lester_Maddox" title="Lester Maddox">Lester Maddox</a> in Georgia.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1964, President Lyndon Johnson met with civil rights leaders. On January 8, during his first <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union address">State of the Union address</a>, Johnson asked Congress to "let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined." On June 21, civil rights workers <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a> <a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">disappeared</a> in <a href="/wiki/Neshoba_County,_Mississippi" title="Neshoba County, Mississippi">Neshoba County, Mississippi</a>, where they were volunteering in the registration of African American voters as part of the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> project. The disappearance of the three activists captured national attention and the ensuing outrage was used by Johnson and civil rights activists to build a coalition of northern and western Democrats and Republicans and push Congress to pass the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cra64_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cra64-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the historic Civil Rights Act of 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-cra64_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cra64-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It invoked the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a><sup id="cite_ref-cra64_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cra64-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to outlaw discrimination in public accommodations (privately owned restaurants, hotels, and stores, and in private schools and workplaces). This use of the Commerce Clause was upheld by the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> in the landmark case <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States</a></i> 379 US 241 (1964).<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1965, efforts to break the grip of state disenfranchisement by education for voter registration in southern counties had been underway for some time, but had achieved only modest success overall. In some areas of the Deep South, white resistance made these efforts almost entirely ineffectual. The murder of the three voting-rights activists in Mississippi in 1964 and the state's refusal to prosecute the murderers, along with numerous other acts of violence and terrorism against black people, had gained national attention. Finally, the <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches#First_Selma-to-Montgomery_March" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">unprovoked attack on March 7, 1965</a>, by county and state troopers on peaceful Alabama marchers crossing the <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a> en route from Selma to the state capital of <a href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery</a>, persuaded the President and Congress to overcome Southern legislators' resistance to effective voting rights enforcement legislation. President Johnson issued a call for a strong voting rights law and hearings soon began on the bill that would become the Voting Rights Act.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> ended legally sanctioned state barriers to voting for all federal, state and local elections. It also provided for federal oversight and monitoring of counties with historically low minority voter turnout. Years of enforcement have been needed to overcome resistance, and additional legal challenges have been made in the courts to ensure the ability of voters to elect candidates of their choice. For instance, many cities and counties introduced <a href="/wiki/At-large" title="At-large">at-large</a> election of council members, which resulted in many cases of diluting minority votes and preventing election of minority-supported candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013, the <a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">Roberts Court</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County v. Holder</a></i>, removed the requirement established by the Voting Rights Act that Southern states needed Federal approval for changes in voting policies. Several states immediately made changes in their laws restricting voting access.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_and_aftermath">Influence and aftermath</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_American_life">African American life</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal,_Oklahoma_City,_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg/220px-Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg/330px-Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg/440px-Negro_drinking_at_%22Colored%22_water_cooler_in_streetcar_terminal%2C_Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma_by_Russell_Lee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4110" data-file-height="2764" /></a><figcaption>An African American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City" title="Oklahoma City">Oklahoma City</a>, Oklahoma, 1939</figcaption></figure> <p>The Jim Crow laws and the high rate of <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynchings</a> in the South were major factors that led to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> during the first half of the 20th century. Because opportunities were very limited in the South, African Americans moved in great numbers to cities in Northeastern, Midwestern, and Western states to seek better lives. </p><p>African American athletes faced much discrimination during the Jim Crow era with white opposition leading to their exclusion from most organized sporting competitions. </p><p>The boxers <a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a> (both of whom became <a href="/wiki/World_heavyweight_boxing_championship" class="mw-redirect" title="World heavyweight boxing championship">world heavyweight boxing champions</a>) and track and field athlete <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a> (who won four gold medals at the <a href="/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics" title="1936 Summer Olympics">1936 Summer Olympics</a> in Berlin) gained prominence during the era. In baseball, a <a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">color line</a> instituted in the 1880s had informally barred black people from playing in the <a href="/wiki/Major_League_Baseball" title="Major League Baseball">major leagues</a>, leading to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro leagues</a>, which featured many famous players. A major breakthrough occurred in 1947, when <a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a> was hired as the first African American to play in Major League Baseball; he permanently broke the color bar. Baseball teams continued to integrate in the following years, leading to the full participation of <a href="/wiki/List_of_first_black_Major_League_Baseball_players" title="List of first black Major League Baseball players">black baseball players</a> in the Major Leagues in the 1960s.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interracial_marriage">Interracial marriage</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Interracial_marriage_in_the_United_States" title="Interracial marriage in the United States">Interracial marriage in the United States</a></div> <p>Although sometimes counted among Jim Crow laws of the South, statutes such as <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">anti-miscegenation laws</a> were also passed by other states. Anti-miscegenation laws were not repealed by the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, but were declared <a href="/wiki/Unconstitutional" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconstitutional">unconstitutional</a> by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a>) in a unanimous ruling <i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i> (1967).<sup id="cite_ref-cra64_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cra64-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> wrote in the court opinion that "the freedom to marry, or not marry, a person of another race resides with the individual, and cannot be infringed by the State."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jury_trials">Jury trials</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> grants criminal defendants the right to a trial by a jury of their peers. While federal law required that convictions could only be granted by a unanimous jury for federal crimes, states were free to set their own jury requirements. All but two states, Oregon and Louisiana, opted for unanimous juries for conviction. Oregon and Louisiana, however, allowed juries of at least 10–2 to decide a criminal conviction. Louisiana's law was amended in 2018 to require a unanimous jury for criminal convictions, effective in 2019. Prior to that amendment, the law had been seen as a remnant of Jim Crow laws, because it allowed minority voices on a jury to be marginalized. In 2020, the Supreme Court found, in <i><a href="/wiki/Ramos_v._Louisiana" title="Ramos v. Louisiana">Ramos v. Louisiana</a></i>, that unanimous jury votes are required for criminal convictions at state levels, thereby nullifying Oregon's remaining law, and overturning previous cases in Louisiana.<sup id="cite_ref-vox_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vox-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_court_cases">Later court cases</h3></div> <p>In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court (the <a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">Burger Court</a>), in <i><a href="/wiki/Swann_v._Charlotte-Mecklenburg_Board_of_Education" title="Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education">Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education</a></i>, upheld <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_busing" title="Desegregation busing">desegregation busing</a> of students to achieve integration. </p><p>Interpretation of the Constitution and its application to minority rights continues to be controversial as Court membership changes. Observers such as Ian F. Lopez believe that in the 2000s, the Supreme Court has become more protective of the status quo.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Felony_disenfranchisement">Felony disenfranchisement</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Today" title="Mississippi Today">Mississippi Today</a> discusses the present-day Jim Crow legacy of felony disenfranchisement, and states that part of Mississippi's 1890 constitution was not erased by the Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s. The article states the constitutional felony disenfranchisement clause "takes away – for life – the right to vote upon conviction for several low-level crimes, like theft and bribery, that the 1890 drafters felt would be mostly committed by Black people."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International">International</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AJim_Crow_laws&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+23+November+2024&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Jim+Crow+laws">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jim_Crow_laws&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There is evidence that the government of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> took inspiration from the Jim Crow laws when writing the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remembrance">Remembrance</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ferris_State_University" title="Ferris State University">Ferris State University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Big_Rapids,_Michigan" title="Big Rapids, Michigan">Big Rapids, Michigan</a>, houses the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_Museum_of_Racist_Memorabilia" title="Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia">Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia</a>, an extensive collection of everyday items that promoted racial segregation or presented racial <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">stereotypes of African Americans</a>, for the purpose of academic research and education about their cultural influence.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_Areas_Act" title="Group Areas Act">Group Areas Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_economy" title="Jim Crow economy">Jim Crow economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jim_Crow_law_examples_by_state" title="List of Jim Crow law examples by state">List of Jim Crow law examples by state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Racial segregation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">Second-class citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Jim_Crow" title="The New Jim Crow">The New Jim Crow</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-fremon-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fremon_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFremon2000" class="citation book cs1">Fremon, David (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jimcrowlawsracis00frem"><i>The Jim Crow Laws and Racism in American History</i></a></span>. Enslow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0766012972" title="Special:BookSources/0766012972"><bdi>0766012972</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jim+Crow+Laws+and+Racism+in+American+History&rft.pub=Enslow&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0766012972&rft.aulast=Fremon&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjimcrowlawsracis00frem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmermund2016-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schmermund2016_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmermund2016" class="citation book cs1">Schmermund, Elizabeth (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RgpiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27"><i>Reading and Interpreting the Works of Harper Lee</i></a>. Enslow Publishing, LLC. pp. 27–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7660-7914-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7660-7914-4"><bdi>978-0-7660-7914-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+and+Interpreting+the+Works+of+Harper+Lee&rft.pages=27-&rft.pub=Enslow+Publishing%2C+LLC&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-7660-7914-4&rft.aulast=Schmermund&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRgpiDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bubar, Joe (March 9, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://upfront.scholastic.com/issues/2019-20/030920/the-jim-crow-north.html#1300L">"The Jim Crow North"</a>, <i>Upfront Magazine - Scholastic</i>. Retrieved June 7, 2021.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Discrimination in Access to Public Places: A Survey of State and Federal Accommodations Laws</i>, 7 N.Y.U. Rev.L. & Soc.Change 215, 238 (1978).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartlett2008-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett2008_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlett2008" class="citation book cs1">Bartlett, Bruce (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=POhHuoGILNYC&pg=PA24"><i>Wrong on Race: The Democratic Party's Buried Past</i></a>. St. Martin's Press. pp. 24–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61138-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61138-2"><bdi>978-0-230-61138-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wrong+on+Race%3A+The+Democratic+Party%27s+Buried+Past&rft.pages=24-&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-230-61138-2&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPOhHuoGILNYC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeersinkJenkins2020" class="citation journal cs1">Heersink, Boris; Jenkins, Jeffery A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=C-SPAN&rft.atitle=Legacy+of+Jim+Crow+for+Southern+Native+Americans&rft.date=2011-10-28&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fvideo%2F%3F302379-1%2Flegacy-jim-crow-southern-native-americans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jimlu-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jimlu_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jimlu_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jimlu_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowery2010" class="citation book cs1">Lowery, Malinda Maynor (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vLY3XbAqDUwC"><i>Lumbee Indians in the Jim Crow South: Race, Identity, and the Making of a Nation</i></a>. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 0–339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807833681" title="Special:BookSources/9780807833681"><bdi>9780807833681</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://health-equity.lib.umd.edu/567/1/JimCrowAIStyle.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on April 12, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Jim+Crow%2C+Indian+Style%3A+The+Disenfranchisement+of+Native+Americans&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=167-202&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1903%2F22633&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20068694%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20068694&rft.aulast=Wolfley&rft.aufirst=Jeanette&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhealth-equity.lib.umd.edu%2F567%2F1%2FJimCrowAIStyle.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.landmarkcases.org/cases/brown-v-board-of-education">"Brown v. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 29,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oyez&rft.atitle=Brown+v.+Board+of+Education+of+Topeka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F1940-1955%2F347us483&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/two-landmark-decisions-fight-equality-and-justice">"Two Landmark Decisions in the Fight for Equality and Justice"</a>. <i>National Museum of African American History and Culture</i>. October 11, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 29,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+African+American+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Two+Landmark+Decisions+in+the+Fight+for+Equality+and+Justice&rft.date=2017-10-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2Fblog-post%2Ftwo-landmark-decisions-fight-equality-and-justice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515">"Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States"</a>. <i>Oyez</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 29,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oyez&rft.atitle=Heart+of+Atlanta+Motel%2C+Inc.+v.+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F1964%2F515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75375764/sioux-city-journal-iowa-18-december/">"Congressional"</a>. <i>Sioux City Journal</i>. December 18, 1884. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sioux+City+Journal&rft.atitle=Congressional&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1884-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F75375764%2Fsioux-city-journal-iowa-18-december%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scjc7-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scjc7_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scjc7_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scjc7_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Woodward, C. Vann, and McFeely, William S. (2001), <i>The Strange Career of Jim Crow</i>. p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E05EEDB1F31E033A25752C2A9649D94639ED7CF">"Louisiana's 'Jim Crow' Law Valid"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. New York. December 21, 1892. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 6,</span> 2011</span>. <q>New Orleans, Dec 20. – The Supreme Court yesterday declared constitutional the law passed two years ago and known as the 'Jim Crow' law, making it compulsory on railroads to provide separate cars for black people.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Louisiana%27s+%27Jim+Crow%27+Law+Valid&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1892-12-21&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3D9E05EEDB1F31E033A25752C2A9649D94639ED7CF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jaynes2005-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jaynes2005_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaynes2005" class="citation book cs1">Jaynes, Gerald D. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eV45DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT864"><i>Encyclopedia of African American Society</i></a>. Sage. pp. 864–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2764-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2764-8"><bdi>978-0-7619-2764-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+Society&rft.pages=864-&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2764-8&rft.aulast=Jaynes&rft.aufirst=Gerald+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeV45DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT864&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Milewski2017-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Milewski2017_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilewski2017" class="citation book cs1">Milewski, Melissa (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zXo7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47"><i>Litigating Across the Color Line: Civil Cases Between Black and White Southerners from the End of Slavery to Civil Rights</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 47–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-024919-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-024919-9"><bdi>978-0-19-024919-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Litigating+Across+the+Color+Line%3A+Civil+Cases+Between+Black+and+White+Southerners+from+the+End+of+Slavery+to+Civil+Rights&rft.pages=47-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-024919-9&rft.aulast=Milewski&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzXo7DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarriot2021" class="citation book cs1">Harriot, Michael (2021). "Reconstruction". In <a href="/wiki/Ibram_X._Kendi" title="Ibram X. Kendi">Kendi, Ibram X.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Keisha_N._Blain" title="Keisha N. Blain">Blain, Keisha N.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Four_Hundred_Souls" title="Four Hundred Souls"><i>Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019</i></a>. New York: One World. pp. 234–238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-593-13404-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-593-13404-7"><bdi>978-0-593-13404-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reconstruction&rft.btitle=Four+Hundred+Souls%3A+A+Community+History+of+African+America%2C+1619%E2%80%932019&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=234-238&rft.pub=One+World&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-593-13404-7&rft.aulast=Harriot&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perman2009-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Perman2009_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerman2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Perman" title="Michael Perman">Perman, Michael</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVHODYI1fNUC&pg=PA138"><i>Pursuit of Unity: A Political History of the American South</i></a>. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 138–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3324-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3324-7"><bdi>978-0-8078-3324-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pursuit+of+Unity%3A+A+Political+History+of+the+American+South&rft.pages=138-&rft.pub=Univ+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-3324-7&rft.aulast=Perman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjVHODYI1fNUC%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scjc6-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-scjc6_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woodward, C. Vann, and McFeely, William S. <i>The Strange Career of Jim Crow</i>. 2001, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkerTowler2019" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, Christopher Sebastian; Towler, Christopher C. (May 11, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-050317-064519">"Race and Authoritarianism in American Politics"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Political Science</i>. <b>22</b> (1): 503–519. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-050317-064519">10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1094-2939">1094-2939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Race+and+Authoritarianism+in+American+Politics&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=503-519&rft.date=2019-05-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-050317-064519&rft.issn=1094-2939&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Christopher+Sebastian&rft.au=Towler%2C+Christopher+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev-polisci-050317-064519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Michael_Perman_2001-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Michael_Perman_2001_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michael_Perman_2001_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Perman" title="Michael Perman">Perman, Michael</a>. <i>Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001, Introduction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kousser, J. Morgan,<i>The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South</i>, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pildes-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pildes_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pildes_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard H. Pildes, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=224731">"Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", 2000, pp. 12, 27</a>. Retrieved March 10, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glenn_Feldman_2004,_pp._135–136-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Glenn_Feldman_2004,_pp._135–136_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glenn Feldman, <i>The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama</i>, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese2010" class="citation book cs1">Reese, W. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TUjFAAAAQBAJ&q=underfunded+jim+crow+schools&pg=PA145"><i>History, Education, and the Schools</i></a>. Springer. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230104822" title="Special:BookSources/978-0230104822"><bdi>978-0230104822</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History%2C+Education%2C+and+the+Schools&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0230104822&rft.aulast=Reese&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTUjFAAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dunderfunded%2Bjim%2Bcrow%2Bschools%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buddy, J., & Williams, M. (2005). "A dream deferred: school libraries and segregation", <i>American Libraries</i>, 36(2), 33–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Battles,_D._M._2009-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Battles,_D._M._2009_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Battles, D. M. (2009). <i>The History of Public Library Access for African Americans in the South, or, Leaving Behind the Plow.</i> Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fultz2006-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fultz2006_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fultz2006_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fultz2006_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fultz, M. (2006). "Black Public Libraries in the South in the Era of De Jure Segregation". <i>Libraries & The Cultural Record</i>, 41(3), 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holt-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holt_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._Holt" title="Thomas C. Holt">Holt, Thomas</a> (1979). <i>Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction</i>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+over+White%3A+Negro+Political+Leadership+in+South+Carolina+during+Reconstruction&rft.place=Urbana&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dittmer1980-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dittmer1980_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDittmer1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">Dittmer, John</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mW4gKvP1oZkC&pg=PA108"><i>Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. 108–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-00813-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-00813-9"><bdi>978-0-252-00813-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Georgia+in+the+Progressive+Era%2C+1900%E2%80%931920&rft.pages=108-&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-252-00813-9&rft.aulast=Dittmer&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmW4gKvP1oZkC%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tomlins, Christopher L. <i>The United States Supreme Court: The Pursuit of Justice</i>. 2005, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, Desmond. <i>Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the US Federal Government</i>. 1995, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BerkinMiller2011-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BerkinMiller2011_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkinChristopher_MillerRobert_ChernyJames_Gormly2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carol_Berkin" title="Carol Berkin">Berkin, Carol</a>; Christopher Miller; Robert Cherny; James Gormly (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zhcIPxzRC9YC&pg=PT578"><i>Making America: A History of the United States</i></a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 578–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-90979-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-90979-8"><bdi>978-0-495-90979-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+America%3A+A+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=578-&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-495-90979-8&rft.aulast=Berkin&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft.au=Christopher+Miller&rft.au=Robert+Cherny&rft.au=James+Gormly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzhcIPxzRC9YC%26pg%3DPT578&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wilson-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wilson_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schulte Nordholt, J. W., and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_H._Rowen" title="Herbert H. Rowen">Rowen, Herbert H.</a>, <i>Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace</i>. 1991, pp. 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-blight-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blight_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blight_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blight_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blight_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">Blight, David W.</a> (2001), <i><a href="/wiki/Race_and_Reunion:_The_Civil_War_in_American_Memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory">Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory</a></i>, pp. 9–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heersink-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heersink_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeersinkJenkins2020" class="citation journal cs1">Heersink, Boris; Jenkins, Jeffery A. (January 6, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-american-political-development/article/abs/whiteness-and-the-emergence-of-the-republican-party-in-the-early-twentiethcentury-south/899B4B98A78353683C3C6050DFA5771B">"Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South"</a>. <i>Studies in American Political Development</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 71–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0898588X19000208">10.1017/S0898588X19000208</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0898-588X">0898-588X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213551748">213551748</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+American+Political+Development&rft.atitle=Whiteness+and+the+Emergence+of+the+Republican+Party+in+the+Early+Twentieth-Century+South&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-90&rft.date=2020-01-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213551748%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0898-588X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0898588X19000208&rft.aulast=Heersink&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft.au=Jenkins%2C+Jeffery+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fstudies-in-american-political-development%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fwhiteness-and-the-emergence-of-the-republican-party-in-the-early-twentiethcentury-south%2F899B4B98A78353683C3C6050DFA5771B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Colored Methodists Indignant Over the Expulsion of Their Senior Bishop From a Florida Railway Car", <i>The New York Times</i>, 30 March 1882: "Colored men of spirit and culture are resisting the conductors, who attempt to drive them into the 'Jim Crow cars,' and they sometimes succeed."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usgov-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-usgov_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/BAIC/Historical-Data/Constitutional-Amendments-and-Legislation/">"Constitutional Amendments and Major Civil Rights Acts of Congress Referenced in Black Americans in Congress"</a>. <i>History, Art & Archives</i>. US House of Representatives<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History%2C+Art+%26+Archives&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Amendments+and+Major+Civil+Rights+Acts+of+Congress+Referenced+in+Black+Americans+in+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.house.gov%2FExhibitions-and-Publications%2FBAIC%2FHistorical-Data%2FConstitutional-Amendments-and-Legislation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>New York Times</i>, 30 July 1887: "No 'Jim Crow' Cars": "The answer further avers that the cars provided for the colored passengers are equally as safe, comfortable, clean, well ventilated, and cared for as those provided for whites. The difference, it says, if any, relates to matters aesthetical only."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lou-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lou_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lou_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180730131859/http://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/plessy-v-ferguson">"Plessy v. Ferguson"</a>. <i>Know Louisiana</i>. Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/plessy-v-ferguson">the original</a> on July 30, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Know+Louisiana&rft.atitle=Plessy+v.+Ferguson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.knowlouisiana.org%2Fentry%2Fplessy-v-ferguson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Congress rejected by a majority of 140 to 59 a transport bill amendment proposed by <a href="/wiki/James_Thomas_Heflin" class="mw-redirect" title="James Thomas Heflin">James Thomas Heflin</a> (Ala.) to introduce racially segregated streetcars to the capital's transport system. <i>The New York Times</i>, 23 February 1908: <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Jim Crow Cars' Denied by Congress".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John McCutheon. The Mysterious Stranger and Other Cartoons by John T. McCutcheon, New York, McClure, Phillips & Co. 1905.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Louis Gates">Gates, Henry Louis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Appiah, Anthony</a>. <i>Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</i>. 1999, p. 1211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Gardner_Murphy" title="Edgar Gardner Murphy">Murphy, Edgar Gardner</a>. <i>The Problems of the Present South</i>. 1910, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCashin2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sheryll_Cashin" title="Sheryll Cashin">Cashin, Sheryll</a> (June 6, 2017). <i>Loving: Interracial Intimacy in America and the Threat to White Supremacy</i>. 2017 Beacon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807058275" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807058275"><bdi>978-0807058275</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Loving%3A+Interracial+Intimacy+in+America+and+the+Threat+to+White+Supremacy&rft.pub=2017+Beacon+Press&rft.date=2017-06-06&rft.isbn=978-0807058275&rft.aulast=Cashin&rft.aufirst=Sheryll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=323&invol=214">"Full text of Korematsu v. United States opinion"</a>. <i>Findlaw</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Findlaw&rft.atitle=Full+text+of+Korematsu+v.+United+States+opinion&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fgetcase.pl%3Fcourt%3Dus%26vol%3D323%26invol%3D214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=323&invol=192">Steele v. Louisville</a>, Findlaw.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pg-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pg_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319080058/http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/06075/671363.stm">"Former Pa. House speaker K. Leroy Irvis dies"</a>. <i>Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/06075/671363.stm">the original</a> on March 19, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pittsburgh+Post-Gazette&rft.atitle=Former+Pa.+House+speaker+K.+Leroy+Irvis+dies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fold.post-gazette.com%2Fpg%2F06075%2F671363.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Truman9881-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Truman9881_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2013" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jon E. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8qS8gCz6gHAC&q=Executive%20Order%209981&pg=PA159"><i>Freedom to Serve: Truman, Civil Rights, and Executive Order 9981</i></a>. Routledge. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-89449-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-89449-4"><bdi>978-0-415-89449-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+to+Serve%3A+Truman%2C+Civil+Rights%2C+and+Executive+Order+9981&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-89449-4&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jon+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8qS8gCz6gHAC%26q%3DExecutive%2520Order%25209981%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buckelew-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buckelew_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckelew" class="citation web cs1">Buckelew, Richard A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=1676">"Silas Herbert Hunt"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arkansas+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Silas+Herbert+Hunt&rft.aulast=Buckelew&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofarkansas.net%2Fencyclopedia%2Fentry-detail.aspx%3Fsearch%3D1%26entryID%3D1676&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bartley, Numan V., <i>The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s</i> (LSU Press, 1999).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_Chafe" title="William Chafe">Chafe, William H.</a>, "Presidential Address: 'The Gods Bring Threads to Webs Begun'." <i>Journal of American History</i> 86.4 (2000): 1531–51. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567576">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_T._Patterson_(historian)" title="James T. Patterson (historian)">Patterson, James T.</a>, <i>Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy</i> (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, Charles H., "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow in Southern College Sports: The Case of the Atlantic Coast Conference". <i>North Carolina Historical Review</i>, 76.3 (1999): 253–84. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23522657">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pamela Grundy, <i>Learning to win: Sports, education, and social change in twentieth-century North Carolina</i> (University of North Carolina Press, 2003), p. 297, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/101457616/learning-to-win-sports-education-and-social-change">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181215171453/https://www.questia.com/read/101457616/learning-to-win-sports-education-and-social-change">Archived</a> December 15, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.democracynow.org/2013/3/29/the_other_rosa_parks_now_73">"The Other Rosa Parks: Now 73, Claudette Colvin Was First to Refuse Giving Up Seat on Montgomery Bus"</a>. <i>Democracy Now!</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Democracy+Now%21&rft.atitle=The+Other+Rosa+Parks%3A+Now+73%2C+Claudette+Colvin+Was+First+to+Refuse+Giving+Up+Seat+on+Montgomery+Bus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.democracynow.org%2F2013%2F3%2F29%2Fthe_other_rosa_parks_now_73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vcu-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vcu_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/eras/civil-war-reconstruction/jim-crow-laws-andracial-segregation/">"Jim Crow Laws and Racial Segregation"</a>. <i>VCU Libraries Social Welfare History Project</i>. Virginia Commonwealth University. January 20, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VCU+Libraries+Social+Welfare+History+Project&rft.atitle=Jim+Crow+Laws+and+Racial+Segregation&rft.date=2011-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialwelfare.library.vcu.edu%2Feras%2Fcivil-war-reconstruction%2Fjim-crow-laws-andracial-segregation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Graham_Allison" title="Graham Allison">Allison, Graham</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Framing-South-Hollywood-Television-Struggle/dp/0801866154/"><i>Framing the South: Hollywood, television, and race during the Civil Rights Struggle</i></a> (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">McWhorter, Diane</a>, <i>Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution</i> (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743217729">online free to borrow</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carter, Dan T. <i>The politics of rage: George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics</i> (LSU Press, 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert E. Gilbert, "John F. Kennedy and civil rights for black Americans." <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> 12.3 (1982): 386–99. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27547837">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pauley, Garth E., "Presidential rhetoric and interest group politics: Lyndon B. Johnson and the Civil Rights Act of 1964." <i>Southern Journal of Communication</i> 63.1 (1997): 1–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grantham, Dewey W., <i>The South in Modern America </i> (1994), 228–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">Barrow, David</a>, <i>Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference</i> (1989).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Theoharis" title="Jeanne Theoharis">Theoharis, Jeanne</a>, <i>A More Beautiful and Terrible History: The Uses and Misuses of Civil Rights History</i> (2018).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For primary sources see John A. Kirk, ed., <i>The Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader</i> (2020).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cra64-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cra64_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cra64_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cra64_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cra64_69-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111229033506/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21">"Civil Rights Act of 1964 – CRA – Title VII – Equal Employment Opportunities – 42 US Code Chapter 21"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21">the original</a> on December 29, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 2,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Civil+Rights+Act+of+1964+%E2%80%93+CRA+%E2%80%93+Title+VII+%E2%80%93+Equal+Employment+Opportunities+%E2%80%93+42+US+Code+Chapter+21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffinduslaw.com%2Fcivil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120720111358/http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/civil_timeline.shtm">"LBJ for Kids – Civil rights during the Johnson Administration"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Texas">University of Texas</a>. 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United States Department of Justice.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patterson, <i> Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy</i> (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewkirk_II2018" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vann_R._Newkirk_II" title="Vann R. Newkirk II">Newkirk II, Vann R.</a> (July 10, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/07/how-shelby-county-broke-america/564707/">"How a Pivotal Voting Rights Act Case Broke America"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=How+a+Pivotal+Voting+Rights+Act+Case+Broke+America&rft.date=2018-07-10&rft.aulast=Newkirk+II&rft.aufirst=Vann+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpolitics%2Farchive%2F2018%2F07%2Fhow-shelby-county-broke-america%2F564707%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSollors2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sollors" title="Werner Sollors">Sollors, Werner</a> (2000). <i>Interracialism black-white intermarriage in American history, literature, and law</i>. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 26–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-280-65507-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-280-65507-0"><bdi>1-280-65507-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interracialism+black-white+intermarriage+in+American+history%2C+literature%2C+and+law&rft.place=New+York%3B+Oxford&rft.pages=26-34&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-280-65507-0&rft.aulast=Sollors&rft.aufirst=Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1966/395">"Loving v. Virginia"</a>. <i>Oyez</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 29,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oyez&rft.atitle=Loving+v.+Virginia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F1966%2F395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vox-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vox_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLopez2018" class="citation news cs1">Lopez, German (November 6, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/11/6/18052540/election-results-louisiana-amendment-2-unanimous-jim-crow-jury-law">"Louisiana votes to eliminate Jim Crow jury law with Amendment 2"</a>. <i>Vox</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Louisiana+votes+to+eliminate+Jim+Crow+jury+law+with+Amendment+2&rft.date=2018-11-06&rft.aulast=Lopez&rft.aufirst=German&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fpolicy-and-politics%2F2018%2F11%2F6%2F18052540%2Felection-results-louisiana-amendment-2-unanimous-jim-crow-jury-law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Haney_L%C3%B3pez" title="Ian Haney López">Lopez, Ian F. Haney</a> (February 1, 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM">"A nation of minorities: race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness"</a>, <i>Stanford Law Review</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mississippitoday.org/2024/04/12/mississippi-voting-rights-history-disenfranchisement/">"How Mississippi's Jim Crow Laws Still Haunt Black Voters Today"</a>. April 12, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Mississippi%27s+Jim+Crow+Laws+Still+Haunt+Black+Voters+Today&rft.date=2024-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmississippitoday.org%2F2024%2F04%2F12%2Fmississippi-voting-rights-history-disenfranchisement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkerson2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isabel_Wilkerson" title="Isabel Wilkerson">Wilkerson, Isabel</a> (2020). "The Nazis and the Acceleration of Caste". <i>Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780593230251" title="Special:BookSources/9780593230251"><bdi>9780593230251</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Nazis+and+the+Acceleration+of+Caste&rft.btitle=Caste%3A+The+Origins+of+Our+Discontents&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780593230251&rft.aulast=Wilkerson&rft.aufirst=Isabel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter2001" class="citation web cs1">Carter, Kelley L. (February 5, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071224104659/http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/newslist/freep/">"Relics of Racism: Big Rapids Museum Lets Its Memorabilia Tell the Ugly Story of Jim Crow in America"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/newslist/freep/">the original</a> on December 24, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 21,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Relics+of+Racism%3A+Big+Rapids+Museum+Lets+Its+Memorabilia+Tell+the+Ugly+Story+of+Jim+Crow+in+America&rft.date=2001-02-05&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Kelley+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ferris.edu%2Fjimcrow%2Flinks%2Fnewslist%2Ffreep%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Alexander" title="Michelle Alexander">Alexander, Michelle</a> (2012) [2010]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781595581037/page/n11/mode/2up"><i>The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness</i></a>. New York: New Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59558-103-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59558-103-7"><bdi>978-1-59558-103-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Jim+Crow%3A+Mass+Incarceration+in+the+Age+of+Colorblindness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59558-103-7&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781595581037%2Fpage%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Ayers" title="Edward L. Ayers">Ayers, Edward L</a>. <i>The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction.</i> New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1950-3756-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-1950-3756-1">0-1950-3756-1</a></li> <li>Barnes, Catherine A. <i>Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit.</i> New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, 1983. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-2310-5380-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-2310-5380-0">0-2310-5380-0</a></li> <li>Bartley, Numan V. <i>The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s.</i> Baton Rouge, LA: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>, 1969.</li> <li>Bond, Horace Mann. "The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_Education" title="Journal of Negro Education">Journal of Negro Education</a></i> vol. 4 (July 1935), pp. 321–327.</li> <li>Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. <i>The Jim Crow Encyclopedia</i> (Greenwood, 2008)</li> <li>Chin, Gabriel, and Karthikeyan, Hrishi. <i>Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asians, 1910 to 1950</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=283998&high=%20Gabriel%20CHin">9 Asian L.J. 1 (2002)</a></li> <li>Campbell, Nedra. <i>More Justice, More Peace: The Black Person's Guide to the American Legal System</i>. Lawrence Hill Books, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-5565-2468-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-5565-2468-4">1-5565-2468-4</a></li> <li>Cole, Stephanie and Natalie J. Ring (eds.), <i>The Folly of Jim Crow: Rethinking the Segregated South</i>. College Station, TX: <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University_Press" title="Texas A&M University Press">Texas A&M University Press</a>, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-6034-4582-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-6034-4582-X">1-6034-4582-X</a></li> <li>Dailey, Jane; Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth and Simon, Bryant (eds.), <i>Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights</i>. Princeton, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6910-0192-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-6910-0192-8">0-6910-0192-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Fairclough, Adam</a>. "'Being in the Field of Education and Also Being a Negro ... Seems ... Tragic': Black Teachers in the Jim Crow South." <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_American_History" title="The Journal of American History">The Journal of American History</a></i> vol. 87 (June 2000), pp. 65–91.</li> <li>Feldman, Glenn. <i>Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949</i>. Tuscaloosa, AL: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_Press" title="University of Alabama Press">University of Alabama Press</a>, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8173-0984-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8173-0984-5">0-8173-0984-5</a></li> <li>Fireside, Harvey. <i>Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism</i>. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7867-1293-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7867-1293-7">0-7867-1293-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction:_America%27s_Unfinished_Revolution_-_1863-1877" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution - 1863-1877">Reconstruction, America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877</a></i>. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-0601-5851-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-0601-5851-4">0-0601-5851-4</a></li> <li>Gaines, Kevin. <i>Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century</i>. University of North Carolina Press, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2239-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2239-6">0-8078-2239-6</a></li> <li>Gaston, Paul M. <i>The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates_Jr." title="Henry Louis Gates Jr.">Gates, Henry Louis Jr</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stony_the_Road" title="Stony the Road">Stony the Road</a>: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow</i>. New York: Penguin Press, 2019. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5255-5953-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-5255-5953-1">0-5255-5953-1</a></li> <li>Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. <i>Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2287-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2287-6">0-8078-2287-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Howard_Griffin" title="John Howard Griffin">Griffin, John Howard</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Black_Like_Me" title="Black Like Me">Black Like Me</a></i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961.</li> <li>Haws, Robert, ed. <i>The Age of Segregation: Race Relations in the South, 1890–1945</i> <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Mississippi" title="University Press of Mississippi">University Press of Mississippi</a>, 1978.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Hackney" title="Sheldon Hackney">Hackney, Sheldon</a>. <i>Populism to Progressivism in Alabama</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969.</li> <li>Johnson, Charles S. <i>Patterns of Negro Segregation</i>. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Klarman" title="Michael Klarman">Klarman, Michael J</a>. <i>From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1951-2903-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-1951-2903-2">0-1951-2903-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Litwack" title="Leon Litwack">Litwack, Leon F</a>. <i>Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3945-2778-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-3945-2778-X">0-3945-2778-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Haney_L%C3%B3pez" title="Ian Haney López">Lopez, Ian F. Haney</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM">"A nation of minorities": race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness</a>. <i>Stanford Law Review</i>, February 1, 2007.</li> <li>Kantrowitz, Stephen. <i>Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy</i> (2000)</li> <li>McMillen, Neil R. <i>Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow</i>. Urbana, IL: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>, 1989.</li> <li>Medley, Keith Weldon. <i>We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson</i>. Pelican. March, 2003.</li> <li>Murray, Pauli. <i>States' Law on Race and Color</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>. 2d ed. 1997 (Davison Douglas ed.). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-1883-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-1883-7">978-0-8203-1883-7</a></li> <li>Myrdal, Gunnar. <i>An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy.</i> New York: Harper and Row, 1944.</li> <li>Newby, I.A. <i>Jim Crow's Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900–1930.</i> Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1965.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOshinsky1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Oshinsky" title="David Oshinsky">Oshinsky, David M.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worsethanslavery0000oshi/page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Worse than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice</i></a>. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-82298-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-82298-9"><bdi>0-684-82298-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worse+than+Slavery%3A+Parchman+Farm+and+the+Ordeal+of+Jim+Crow+Justice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-684-82298-9&rft.aulast=Oshinsky&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworsethanslavery0000oshi%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Percy, William Alexander. <i>Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter's Son.</i> 1941. Reprint, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1993.</li> <li>Pye, David Kenneth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27955258&site=eds-live&scope=site">"Complex Relations: An African-American Attorney Navigates Jim Crow Atlanta".</a> <i>Georgia Historical Quarterly</i>, Winter 2007, vol. 91, issue 4, 453–477.</li> <li>Rabinowitz, Howard N. <i>Race Relations in the Urban South, 1856–1890</i> (1978)</li> <li>Smith, J. Douglas. <i>Managing: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia</i> University of North Carolina Press, 2002.</li> <li>Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of Paternalism in Virginia, 1922–1930: "Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro." <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Southern_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Southern History">Journal of Southern History</a></i> vol. 68 (February 2002), pp. 65–106.</li> <li>Smith, J. Douglas. "Patrolling the Boundaries of Race: Motion Picture Censorship and Jim Crow in Virginia, 1922–1932." <i>Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television</i> 21 (August 2001): 273–91.</li> <li>Sterner, Richard. <i>The Negro's Share</i> (1943) detailed statistics</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToth2017" class="citation news cs1">Toth, Casey (December 26, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newsobserver.com/news/local/counties/orange-county/article191603129.html">"Churches once abandoned by Jim Crow are being rediscovered"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/News_%26_Observer" class="mw-redirect" title="News & Observer">News & Observer</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=News+%26+Observer&rft.atitle=Churches+once+abandoned+by+Jim+Crow+are+being+rediscovered&rft.date=2017-12-26&rft.aulast=Toth&rft.aufirst=Casey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsobserver.com%2Fnews%2Flocal%2Fcounties%2Forange-county%2Farticle191603129.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wood, Amy Louise and Natalie J. Ring (eds.), <i>Crime and Punishment in the Jim Crow South.</i> Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2019.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Vann_Woodward" title="C. Vann Woodward">Woodward, C. Vann</a>. <i>The Strange Career of Jim Crow: A Brief Account of Segregation</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 1955.</li> <li>Woodward, C. Vann. <i>The Origins of the New South: 1877–1913</i>. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1951. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/strangecareerofj0000wood_m0h2">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackman2016" class="citation journal cs1">Blackman, Dexter Lee (2016). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The Negro Athlete and Victory": Athletics and Athletes as Advancement Strategies in Black America, 1890s–1930s". <i>Sport History Review</i>. <b>47</b> (1). Human Kinetics: 46–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1123%2Fshr.2015-0006">10.1123/shr.2015-0006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1087-1659">1087-1659</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sport+History+Review&rft.atitle=%22The+Negro+Athlete+and+Victory%22%3A+Athletics+and+Athletes+as+Advancement+Strategies+in+Black+America%2C+1890s%E2%80%931930s&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=46-68&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1123%2Fshr.2015-0006&rft.issn=1087-1659&rft.aulast=Blackman&rft.aufirst=Dexter+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Demas, Lane. “Beyond Jackie Robinson: Racial Integration in American College Football and New Directions in Sport History.” <i>History Compass</i> 5.2 (2007): 675–90.</li> <li>Essington, Amy. <i>The Integration of the Pacific Coast League: Race and Baseball on the West Coast</i> (U of Nebraska Press, 2018).</li> <li>Hawkins, Billy. <i>The new plantation: Black athletes, college sports, and predominantly white NCAA institutions</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).</li> <li>Clement, Rufus E. "Racial integration in the field of sports." <i>Journal of Negro Education</i> 23.3 (1954): 222– <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293219">online</a></li> <li>Fitzpatrick, Frank. <i>And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Basketball Game That Changed American Sports</i> (2000)</li> <li>Hutchison, Phillip. "The legend of Texas Western: journalism and the epic sports spectacle that wasn’t." <i>Critical Studies in Media Communication</i> 33.2 (2016): 154–67.</li> <li>Lopez, Katherine. <i>Cougars of Any Color: The Integration of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Houston" title="University of Houston">University of Houston</a> Athletics, 1964–1968</i> (McFarland, 2008).</li> <li>Martin, Charles H. "Jim Crow in the gymnasium: the integration of college basketball in the American South." <i>International Journal of the History of Sport</i> 10.1 (1993): 68–86.</li> <li>Miller, Patrick B. "Slouching toward a new expediency: College football and the color line during the depression decade." <i>American Studies</i> 40.3 (1999): 5–30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libprdojsap.lib.ku.edu/amerstud/article/download/2664/2623">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Pennington, Richard. <i>Breaking the Ice: The Racial Integration of Southwest Conference Football</i> (McFarland, 1987).</li> <li>Romero, Francine Sanders. "'There are only white champions': The rise and demise of segregated boxing in Texas." <i>Southwestern Historical Quarterly</i> 108.1 (2004): 26–41. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30239493">online</a></li> <li>Sacks, Marcy S. <i>Joe Louis: Sports and Race in Twentieth-Century America</i> (Routledge, 2018).</li> <li>Spivey, Donald. "The black athlete in big-time intercollegiate sports, 1941–1968." <i>Phylon</i> 44.2 (1983): 116–25. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/The%20Black%20Athlete%20in%20Big-Time%20Intercollegiate%20Sports%2041-68.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319080059/http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/The%20Black%20Athlete%20in%20Big-Time%20Intercollegiate%20Sports%2041-68.pdf">Archived</a> March 19, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>White, Derrick E. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4541&context=fhq">From desegregation to integration: Race, football, and 'Dixie' at the University of Florida</a>" <i>Florida Historical Quarterly</i> 88.4 (2010): 469–96.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Jim Crow laws</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Jim+Crow+laws">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Jim+Crow+laws&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Jim_Crow_laws" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jim_Crow_laws" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/index.htm/">The Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/africanamericanheritage/reconstruction.htm/">Jim Crow and Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20021004051643/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm">The History of Jim Crow</a>, Ronald L. F. Davis – A series of essays on the history of Jim Crow. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm">Archive index</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070601223741/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm">Creating Jim Crow</a> – Origins of the term and system of laws.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040203140654/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_etiquette.htm">Racial Etiquette: The Racial Customs and Rules of Racial Behavior in Jim Crow America</a> – The basics of Jim Crow etiquette.</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050407215126/http://www.robinwashington.com/jimcrow/1_home.html">"You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow!"</a> PBS documentary on first Freedom Ride, in 1947.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060212050132/http://afroamhistory.about.com/cs/jimcrowlaws/a/jimcrowlaws.htm">List of laws enacted in various states</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040618111006/http://www.ferris.edu/news/jimcrow/what.htm">Ferris University page</a> about Jim Crow</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20090423"><i>Voices on Antisemitism</i> Interview with David Pilgrim, founder of Jim Crow Museum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506001428/http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20090423">Archived</a> May 6, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the US Holocaust Memorial Museum</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/jazz/time/time_jim_crow.htm">Jim Crow Era, History in the Key of Jazz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Early" title="Gerald Early">Gerald Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, Missouri (esp. see section "Jim Crow is Born")</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/malu/forteachers/jim_crow_laws.htm">"Jim Crow Laws"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jim+Crow+Laws&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fmalu%2Fforteachers%2Fjim_crow_laws.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJim+Crow+laws" class="Z3988"></span> Examples of Jim Crow laws</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221118/http://www.thedailybeast.com/reports-of-the-death-of-jim-crow-prove-greatly-exaggerated">Reports of the Death of Jim Crow Prove Greatly Exaggerated.</a> Bill Morris, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Beast" title="The Daily Beast">The Daily Beast</a>##.</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/43/">Jim Crow Signs</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/">A History of Central Florida Podcast</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/publications/aclus-1931-black-justice-report">Black Justice</a> – <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a>, 1931</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jim_Crow_Era" title="Template:Jim Crow Era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Jim_Crow_Era&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Jim Crow Era (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jim_Crow_Era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jim Crow Era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jim_Crow_Era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jim Crow Era</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Participants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Federal government</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Presidents <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a></li></ul></li> <li>Congress <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">African-American senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives#Late_post-Reconstruction,_Populist,_and_early_Jim_Crow_era,_1887–1929" title="List of African-American United States representatives">African-American representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Chandler" title="William E. Chandler">William E. Chandler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Hoar" title="George F. Hoar">George F. Hoar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Ingalls" class="mw-redirect" title="John James Ingalls">John J. Ingalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Blair" title="Henry W. Blair">Henry W. Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">John Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">James G. Blaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Foraker" title="Joseph B. Foraker">Joseph B. Foraker</a></li></ul></li> <li>US Supreme Court <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">Waite Court</a> (1874–88)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">Fuller Court</a> (1888–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Court_(1910%E2%80%931921)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Court (1910–1921)">White Court</a> (1910–21)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</a> (1921–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">Hughes Court</a> (1930–41)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Court_(1941%E2%80%931946)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone Court (1941–1946)">Stone Court</a> (1941–46)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">Vinson Court</a> (1946–53)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> (1953-1969)</li></ul></li> <li>Federal bureaucracy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Home_Owners%27_Loan_Corporation" title="Home Owners' Loan Corporation">Home Owners' Loan Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practice_Committee" title="Fair Employment Practice Committee">Fair Employment Practice Committee</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;">State governments</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_F._Johnston" title="Joseph F. Johnston">Joseph F. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_B._Knox&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John B. Knox (page does not exist)">John B. Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stouten_H._Dent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stouten H. Dent (page does not exist)">Stouten H. Dent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Oates" title="William C. Oates">William C. Oates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_P._Harrison" class="mw-redirect" title="George P. Harrison">George P. Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_S._White" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank S. White">Frank S. White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=J.E._Williams&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J.E. Williams (page does not exist)">J.E. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_N._Tillman" title="John N. Tillman">John N. Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ambrose_H._Sevier,_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ambrose H. Sevier, Jr. (page does not exist)">Ambrose H. Sevier, Jr.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Watson" title="Thomas E. Watson">Thomas E. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._Hoke_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="M. Hoke Smith">M. Hoke Smith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Day" title="Carl Day">Carl Day</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Hargis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Hargis (page does not exist)">James Hargis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murphy_J._Foster" title="Murphy J. Foster">Murphy J. Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Kruttschnitt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernest Kruttschnitt (page does not exist)">Ernest Kruttschnitt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Z._George" title="James Z. George">James Z. George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Vardaman" title="James K. Vardaman">James K. Vardaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horatio_F._Simrall" title="Horatio F. Simrall">Horatio F. Simrall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Butler" title="Marion Butler">Marion Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furnifold_Simmons" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnifold Simmons">Furnifold Simmons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman" title="Benjamin Tillman">Benjamin Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Smalls" title="Robert Smalls">Robert Smalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coleman_Livingston_Blease" class="mw-redirect" title="Coleman Livingston Blease">Coleman Blease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Love_Taylor" title="Robert Love Taylor">Robert Love Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_R._Myers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas R. Myers (page does not exist)">Thomas R. Myers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Josiah_H._Dortch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Josiah H. Dortch (page does not exist)">Josiah H. Dortch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_J._Lea" title="Benjamin J. Lea">Benjamin J. Lea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=J.C._Myers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J.C. Myers (page does not exist)">J.C. Myers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_W._Terrell" title="Alexander W. Terrell">Alexander W. Terrell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_P._Thom" title="Alfred P. Thom">Alfred P. Thom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Caperton_Braxton" title="Allen Caperton Braxton">Allen Caperton Braxton</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Democratic_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Democratic Party">Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Republican_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Republican Party">Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_Alliance" title="Farmers' Alliance">Farmers' Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenback_Party" title="Greenback Party">Greenback Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Democrat" title="Bourbon Democrat">Bourbon Democrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry" title="National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry">Grange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Wheel" title="Agricultural Wheel">Agricultural Wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_Labor_Party_of_Arkansas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Union Labor Party of Arkansas (page does not exist)">Union Labor Party of Arkansas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Timeline</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Prelude</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arkansas_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1868&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arkansas Civil Rights Act of 1868 (page does not exist)">Arkansas Civil Rights Act of 1868</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tennessee_State_Constitution_of_1870&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tennessee State Constitution of 1870 (page does not exist)">Tennessee State Constitution of 1870</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blyew_v._United_States" title="Blyew v. United States">Blyew v. United States</a></i> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chicot_County_massacre_of_1871&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chicot County massacre of 1871 (page does not exist)">Chicot County massacre of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Illinois_School_Laws_of_1872&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Illinois School Laws of 1872 (page does not exist)">Illinois School Laws of 1872</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arkansas_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1873&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arkansas Civil Rights Act of 1873 (page does not exist)">Arkansas Civil Rights Act of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Illinois_School_Laws_of_1874&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Illinois School Laws of 1874 (page does not exist)">Illinois School Laws of 1874</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vagrancy_Law_(Mississippi)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vagrancy Law (Mississippi) (page does not exist)">Vagrancy Law (Mississippi)</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pig_Law_(Mississippi)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pig Law (Mississippi) (page does not exist)">Pig Law (Mississippi)</a> (1876)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Siebold" title="Ex parte Siebold">Ex parte Siebold</a></i> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1880–1889</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Strauder_v._West_Virginia" title="Strauder v. West Virginia">Strauder v. West Virginia</a></i> (1880)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virginia_v._Rives&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virginia v. Rives (page does not exist)">Virginia v. Rives</a></i> (1880)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Virginia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ex parte Virginia (page does not exist)">Ex parte Virginia</a></i> (1880)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neal_v._Delaware&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neal v. Delaware (page does not exist)">Neal v. Delaware</a></i> (1881)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Harris" title="United States v. Harris">United States v. Harris</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danville_Massacre" title="Danville Massacre">Danville Massacre</a> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pace_v._Alabama" title="Pace v. Alabama">Pace v. Alabama</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_Public_Accommodations_Law_of_1884&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio Public Accommodations Law of 1884 (page does not exist)">Ohio Public Accommodations Law of 1884</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iowa_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1884&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iowa Civil Rights Act of 1884 (page does not exist)">Iowa Civil Rights Act of 1884</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Yarbrough" title="Ex parte Yarbrough">Ex parte Yarbrough</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Illinois_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1885&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Illinois Civil Rights Act of 1885 (page does not exist)">Illinois Civil Rights Act of 1885</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo v. Hopkins</a></i> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodaux massacre</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Clayton_(Arkansas_politician)" title="John M. Clayton (Arkansas politician)">Assassination of John M. Clayton</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paragould_race_riots&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paragould race riots (page does not exist)">Paragould race riots</a> (1888–1908)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myers_Law_(Tennessee)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myers Law (Tennessee) (page does not exist)">Myers Law (Tennessee)</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lea_Law_(Tennessee)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lea Law (Tennessee) (page does not exist)">Lea Law (Tennessee)</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dortch_Law_(Tennessee)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dortch Law (Tennessee) (page does not exist)">Dortch Law (Tennessee)</a> (1889)</li> <li>Tennessee implements poll tax (state constitution 1870) (1889)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1890–1899</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Louisville,_New_Orleans,_and_Texas_Railroad_v._Mississippi" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisville, New Orleans, and Texas Railroad v. Mississippi">Louisville, New Orleans, and Texas Railroad v. Mississippi</a></i> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodge_Bill" title="Lodge Bill">Lodge Bill</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sevier_Law_(Arkansas)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sevier Law (Arkansas) (page does not exist)">Sevier Law (Arkansas)</a> (1890)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferguson_v._Gies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ferguson v. Gies (page does not exist)">Ferguson v. Gies</a></i> (1890) (Michigan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodge_Bill" title="Lodge Bill">Lodge Bill</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tillman_Act_(Arkansas)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tillman Act (Arkansas) (page does not exist)">Tillman Act (Arkansas)</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separate_Coach_Law_of_1891&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Separate Coach Law of 1891 (page does not exist)">Separate Coach Law of 1891</a> (Arkansas)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Horrors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southern Horrors (page does not exist)">Southern Horrors</a></i> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hampton_race_riot_of_1892&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hampton race riot of 1892 (page does not exist)">Hampton race riot of 1892</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_Afro-American" title="Baltimore Afro-American">Baltimore Afro-American</a></i> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sayre_Law_(Alabama)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sayre Law (Alabama) (page does not exist)">Sayre Law (Alabama)</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lea_Law_(Tennessee)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lea Law (Tennessee) (page does not exist)">Lea Law (Tennessee)</a> (1893)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dodson_v._State&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dodson v. State (page does not exist)">Dodson v. State</a></i> (1894) (Arkansas)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1894&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio Civil Rights Act of 1894 (page does not exist)">Ohio Civil Rights Act of 1894</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mills_v._Green&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mills v. Green (page does not exist)">Mills v. Green</a></i> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Exposition_Speech" title="Atlanta Exposition Speech">Atlanta Exposition Speech</a> (1895)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Red_Record_(1895)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Red Record (1895) (page does not exist)">The Red Record</a></i> (1895)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gibson_v._Mississippi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gibson v. Mississippi (page does not exist)">Gibson v. Mississippi</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_v._Mississippi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smith v. Mississippi (page does not exist)">Smith v. Mississippi</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Canfield_race_riot_of_1896&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canfield race riot of 1896 (page does not exist)">Canfield race riot of 1896</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polk_County_race_riot_of_1896&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polk County race riot of 1896 (page does not exist)">Polk County race riot of 1896</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_Anti-Mob_Violence_Act_of_1896&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio Anti-Mob Violence Act of 1896 (page does not exist)">Ohio Anti-Mob Violence Act of 1896</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atkins_race_riot_of_1897&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atkins race riot of 1897 (page does not exist)">Atkins race riot of 1897</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nevada_County_race_riot_of_1897&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nevada County race riot of 1897 (page does not exist)">Nevada County race riot of 1897</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Mississippi" title="Williams v. Mississippi">Williams v. Mississippi</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cumming_v._Richmond_County_Board_of_Education" title="Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education">Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperium_in_Imperio" title="Imperium in Imperio">Imperium in Imperio</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_River_County_race_riot_of_1899&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Little River County race riot of 1899 (page does not exist)">Little River County race riot of 1899</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1900–1909</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carter_v._Texas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carter v. Texas (page does not exist)">Carter v. Texas</a></i> (1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_riots" title="Robert Charles riots">Robert Charles riots of 1900</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alabama_Constitutional_Convention_of_1901&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alabama Constitutional Convention of 1901 (page does not exist)">Alabama Constitutional Convention of 1901</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Omaha_race_riot_of_1901&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Omaha race riot of 1901 (page does not exist)">Omaha race riot of 1901</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_dinner_at_the_White_House" title="Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House">Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_Penitentiary" title="Louisiana State Penitentiary">Louisiana State Penitentiary</a> (1901)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Leopard%27s_Spots" title="The Leopard's Spots">The Leopard's Spots</a></i> (1902)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giles_v._Harris" title="Giles v. Harris">Giles v. Harris</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tarrance_v._Florida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tarrance v. Florida (page does not exist)">Tarrance v. Florida</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brownfield_v._South_Carolina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brownfield v. South Carolina (page does not exist)">Brownfield v. South Carolina</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Streetcar_Segregation_Act_of_1903&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Streetcar Segregation Act of 1903 (page does not exist)">Streetcar Segregation Act of 1903</a> (Arkansas)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bonanza_race_riot_of_1904&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bonanza race riot of 1904 (page does not exist)">Bonanza race riot of 1904</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rogers_v._Alabama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rogers v. Alabama (page does not exist)">Rogers v. Alabama</a></i> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_State_Penitentiary" title="Mississippi State Penitentiary">Mississippi State Penitentiary</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_Law" title="Day Law">Day Law (Kentucky)</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Springfield_race_riot_of_1904&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Springfield race riot of 1904 (page does not exist)">Springfield race riot of 1904</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville lynching</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Clansman:_An_Historical_Romance_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan" class="mw-redirect" title="The Clansman: An Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan">The Clansman</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clyatt_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clyatt v. United States (page does not exist)">Clyatt v. United States</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Chicago_Defender" title="The Chicago Defender">The Chicago Defender</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Springfield_race_riot_of_1906&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Springfield race riot of 1906 (page does not exist)">Springfield race riot of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chattanooga_riot_of_1906&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chattanooga riot of 1906 (page does not exist)">Chattanooga riot of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greensburg_race_riot_of_1906&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Greensburg race riot of 1906 (page does not exist)">Greensburg race riot of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownsville_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Brownsville Affair">Brownsville Affair</a> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodges_v._United_States" title="Hodges v. United States">Hodges v. United States</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Berea_College_v._Kentucky" title="Berea College v. Kentucky">Berea College v. Kentucky</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twining_v._New_Jersey" title="Twining v. New Jersey">Twining v. New Jersey</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (1909)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1910–1919</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jack_Johnson_race_riots_of_1910&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jack Johnson race riots of 1910 (page does not exist)">Jack Johnson race riots of 1910</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slocum,_Texas#The_Slocum_Massacre" title="Slocum, Texas">Slocum massacre of 1910</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Franklin_v._South_Carolina" title="Franklin v. South Carolina">Franklin v. South Carolina</a></i> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Dorado_race_riot_of_1910&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="El Dorado race riot of 1910 (page does not exist)">El Dorado race riot of 1910</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Courier" title="Pittsburgh Courier">Pittsburgh Courier</a></i> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crumpacker_Bill" class="mw-redirect" title="Crumpacker Bill">Crumpacker Bill</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association</a> (1914)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Reynolds_(1914)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Reynolds (1914) (page does not exist)">United States v. Reynolds</a></i> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bailey_v._Alabama" title="Bailey v. Alabama">Bailey v. Alabama</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walnut_Ridge_race_riot_of_1912&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walnut Ridge race riot of 1912 (page does not exist)">Walnut Ridge race riot of 1912</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guinn_v._United_States" title="Guinn v. United States">Guinn v. United States</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Lynching of Jesse Washington</a> (1916)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race">The Passing of the Great Race</a></i> (1916)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_riot_of_1917" title="Houston riot of 1917">Houston riot of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riot">East St. Louis riot of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_race_riot_of_1918&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philadelphia race riot of 1918 (page does not exist)">Philadelphia race riot of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chester_race_riot_of_1918&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chester race riot of 1918 (page does not exist)">Chester race riot of 1918</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Negro_World" title="Negro World">Negro World</a></i> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Summer (1919)">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charleston_race_riot_of_1919&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charleston race riot of 1919 (page does not exist)">Charleston race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Omaha race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisbee_Riot" title="Bisbee Riot">Bisbee riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longview_Race_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Longview Race Riot">Longview race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_riot_of_1919" title="Knoxville riot of 1919">Knoxville riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaine race riot">Elaine race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Washington,_D.C._riot_of_1919&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Washington, D.C. riot of 1919 (page does not exist)">Washington, D.C. riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_We_Must_Die" title="If We Must Die">"If We Must Die" poem</a> (1919)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years_of_Lynching_in_the_United_States_1889-1918&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States 1889-1918 (page does not exist)">Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States 1889-1918</a></i> (1919)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1920–1929</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Duluth_lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="1920 Duluth lynchings">1920 Duluth lynchings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee massacre of 1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Carolina_repeals_poll_tax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="North Carolina repeals poll tax (page does not exist)">North Carolina repeals poll tax</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyer_Anti-Lynching_Bill" title="Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill">Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill</a> (1921)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Newberry_v._United_States" title="Newberry v. United States">Newberry v. United States</a></i> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulsa race riot">Tulsa race riot of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre of 1923</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catcher_race_riot_of_1923&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Catcher race riot of 1923 (page does not exist)">Catcher race riot of 1923</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moore_v._Dempsey" title="Moore v. Dempsey">Moore v. Dempsey</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act_of_1924" title="Racial Integrity Act of 1924">Racial Integrity Act of 1924</a> (Virginia)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Love_v._Griffith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Love v. Griffith (page does not exist)">Love v. Griffith</a></i> (1924)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandler_v._Neff&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chandler v. Neff (page does not exist)">Chandler v. Neff</a></i> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a> (1925)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corrigan_v._Buckley" title="Corrigan v. Buckley">Corrigan v. Buckley</a></i> (1926)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._Herndon" title="Nixon v. Herndon">Nixon v. Herndon</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Mississippi_Flood_of_1927" title="Great Mississippi Flood of 1927">Great Mississippi Flood of 1927</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rope_and_Faggot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rope and Faggot (page does not exist)">Rope and Faggot</a></i> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_De_Priest_tea_at_the_White_House" title="Jessie De Priest tea at the White House">Jessie De Priest tea at the White House</a> (1929)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1930–1939</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Shipp_and_Abram_Smith" title="Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith">Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sainte_Genevieve_race_riot_of_1930&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sainte Genevieve race riot of 1930 (page does not exist)">Sainte Genevieve race riot of 1930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Home_Loan_Bank_Board" title="Federal Home Loan Bank Board">Federal Home Loan Bank Board</a> (1932)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._Condon" title="Nixon v. Condon">Nixon v. Condon</a></i> (1932)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Powell_v._Alabama" title="Powell v. Alabama">Powell v. Alabama</a></i> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i> (1933) (North Carolina)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Owners%27_Loan_Corporation" title="Home Owners' Loan Corporation">Home Owners' Loan Corporation</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Housing_Act_of_1934" title="National Housing Act of 1934">National Housing Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Costigan-Wagner_antilynching_bill&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Costigan-Wagner antilynching bill (page does not exist)">Costigan-Wagner antilynching bill</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_repeals_poll_tax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louisiana repeals poll tax (page does not exist)">Louisiana repeals poll tax</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grovey_v._Townsend" title="Grovey v. Townsend">Grovey v. Townsend</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norris_v._Alabama" title="Norris v. Alabama">Norris v. Alabama</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Patterson_v._Alabama" title="Patterson v. Alabama">Patterson v. Alabama</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_riot_of_1935" title="Harlem riot of 1935">Harlem riot of 1935</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Mississippi" title="Brown v. Mississippi">Brown v. Mississippi</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Lee_Garner" title="Jessie Lee Garner">Garner v. Mississippi Light & Power</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=University_v._Murray&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="University v. Murray (page does not exist)">University v. Murray</a></i> (1936) (Maryland)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Breedlove_v._Suttles" title="Breedlove v. Suttles">Breedlove v. Suttles</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Florida_repeals_poll_tax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Florida repeals poll tax (page does not exist)">Florida repeals poll tax</a> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_ex_rel._Gaines_v._Canada" title="Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada">Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Negro_Alliance_v._Sanitary_Grocery_Co." title="New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.">New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hale_v._Kentucky" title="Hale v. Kentucky">Hale v. Kentucky</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arkansas_referendum_on_poll_tax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arkansas referendum on poll tax (page does not exist)">Arkansas referendum on poll tax</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Library_sit-in" title="Alexandria Library sit-in">Alexandria Library sit-in</a> (1939)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lane_v._Wilson" title="Lane v. Wilson">Lane v. Wilson</a></i> (1939)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i> (1939)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mills_v._Board_of_Education_of_Anne_Arundel_County&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mills v. Board of Education of Anne Arundel County (page does not exist)">Mills v. Board of Education of Anne Arundel County</a></i> (1939)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1940–1949</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wagner-Gavagan_antilynching_bill&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wagner-Gavagan antilynching bill (page does not exist)">Wagner-Gavagan antilynching bill</a> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chambers_v._Florida" title="Chambers v. Florida">Chambers v. Florida</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_v._Texas_(1940)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smith v. Texas (1940) (page does not exist)">Smith v. Texas</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alston_v._School_Board_of_the_City_of_Norfolk,_Virginia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alston v. School Board of the City of Norfolk, Virginia (page does not exist)">Alston v. School Board of the City of Norfolk, Virginia</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hasqett_v._Werner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hasqett v. Werner (page does not exist)">Hasqett v. Werner</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Classic" title="United States v. Classic">United States v. Classic</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practice_Committee" title="Fair Employment Practice Committee">Fair Employment Practice Committee</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Executive Order 8802</a> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hill_v._Texas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hill v. Texas (page does not exist)">Hill v. Texas</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_V_campaign" title="Double V campaign">"Double V" campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaumont_race_riot_of_1943" title="Beaumont race riot of 1943">Beaumont race riot of 1943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_race_riot_of_1943" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit race riot of 1943">Detroit race riot of 1943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_riot_of_1943" title="Harlem riot of 1943">Harlem riot of 1943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agana_race_riot" title="Agana race riot">Agana race riot of 1944</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a></i> (1944)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollock_v._Williams&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pollock v. Williams (page does not exist)">Pollock v. Williams</a></i> (1944)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_American_Dilemma" title="An American Dilemma">An American Dilemma</a></i> (1944)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hedgepeth_and_Williams_v._Board_of_Education" title="Hedgepeth and Williams v. Board of Education">Hedgepeth and Williams v. Board of Education</a></i> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgia_repeals_poll_tax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georgia repeals poll tax (page does not exist)">Georgia repeals poll tax</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Executive_Order_9908&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Executive Order 9908 (page does not exist)">Executive Order 9908</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Congress" title="Civil Rights Congress">Civil Rights Congress</a> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morgan_v._Virginia" title="Morgan v. Virginia">Morgan v. Virginia</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Boswell_Amendment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boswell Amendment (page does not exist)">Boswell Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Georgia_lynching" class="mw-redirect" title="1946 Georgia lynching">1946 Georgia lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Committee_on_Civil_Rights" title="President's Committee on Civil Rights">President's Committee on Civil Rights</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_Homes_race_riots" title="Airport Homes race riots">Airport Homes race riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia,_Tennessee#Columbia_race_riot_of_1946" title="Columbia, Tennessee">Columbia race riot of 1946</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mendez_v._Westminster" title="Mendez v. Westminster">Mendez v. Westminster</a></i> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernwood_Park_race_riot" title="Fernwood Park race riot">Fernwood Park race riot</a> (1947)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patton_v._Mississippi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patton v. Mississippi (page does not exist)">Patton v. Mississippi</a></i> (1947)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elmore_v._Rice_(1947)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elmore v. Rice (1947) (page does not exist)">Elmore v. Rice</a></i> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Conference_Educational_Fund" title="Southern Conference Educational Fund">Southern Conference Educational Fund</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Levi_Pearson_v._Clarendon_County_Board_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Levi Pearson v. Clarendon County Board of Education (page does not exist)">Levi Pearson v. Clarendon County Board of Education</a></i> (1947)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=To_Secure_These_Rights_(book)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="To Secure These Rights (book) (page does not exist)">To Secure These Rights</a></i> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Executive_Order_9980&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Executive Order 9980 (page does not exist)">Executive Order 9980</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sipuel_v._Board_of_Regents_of_the_University_of_Oklahoma" title="Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma">Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perez_v._Sharp" title="Perez v. Sharp">Perez v. Sharp</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elmore_v._Rice_(1948)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elmore v. Rice (1948) (page does not exist)">Elmore v. Rice</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosana_Aubert_v._Orleans_Parish_School_Board&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rosana Aubert v. Orleans Parish School Board (page does not exist)">Rosana Aubert v. Orleans Parish School Board</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peekskill_riots" title="Peekskill riots">Peekskill riots of 1949</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virginia_referendum_on_poll_tax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virginia referendum on poll tax (page does not exist)">Virginia referendum on poll tax</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Texas_referendum_on_poll_tax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Texas referendum on poll tax (page does not exist)">Texas referendum on poll tax</a> (1949)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Davis_v._Schnell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Davis v. Schnell (page does not exist)">Davis v. Schnell</a></i> (1949)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/State_of_Iowa_v._Katz" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Iowa v. Katz">State of Iowa v. Katz</a></i> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Englewood_race_riot" title="Englewood race riot">Englewood race riot</a> (1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Aftermath</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture of the 1960s</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power movement">Black Power movement</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loophole_clauses&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loophole clauses (page does not exist)">Loophole clauses</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Character_clause&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Character clause (page does not exist)">Character clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">Grandfather clause</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Understanding_clause&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Understanding clause (page does not exist)">Understanding clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">Literacy test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">Poll tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cumulative_poll_tax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cumulative poll tax (page does not exist)">Cumulative poll tax</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property_qualifications&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Property qualifications (page does not exist)">Property qualifications</a></li></ul></li> <li>Voting devices <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct primary">Direct primary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_primaries" class="mw-redirect" title="White primaries">White primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multiple_box_ballot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Multiple box ballot (page does not exist)">Multiple box ballot</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight-box_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eight-box law (page does not exist)">Eight-box law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">Secret ballot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plurality-at-large_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurality-at-large voting">At-large voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering_in_the_United_States" title="Gerrymandering in the United States">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moving_polling_stations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moving polling stations (page does not exist)">Moving polling stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Historiography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bibliography_of_Jim_Crow&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bibliography of Jim Crow (page does not exist)">Bibliography of Jim Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_C._Hamm&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter C. Hamm (page does not exist)">Walter C. Hamm</a></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Three_Phases_of_Colored_Suffrage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Three Phases of Colored Suffrage (page does not exist)">The Three Phases of Colored Suffrage</a>" (1899)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Alexander_Mabry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Alexander Mabry (page does not exist)">William Alexander Mabry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Disfranchisement_of_the_Negro_in_the_South&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Disfranchisement of the Negro in the South (page does not exist)">The Disfranchisement of the Negro in the South</a></i> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V._O._Key,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="V. O. Key, Jr.">V. O. Key, Jr.</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Politics_in_State_and_Nation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southern Politics in State and Nation (page does not exist)">Southern Politics in State and Nation</a></i> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Vann_Woodward" title="C. Vann Woodward">C. Vann Woodward</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/C._Vann_Woodward#Origins_of_the_New_South,_1877-1913" title="C. Vann Woodward">Origins of the New South, 1877-1913</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/C._Vann_Woodward#The_Strange_Career_of_Jim_Crow" title="C. Vann Woodward">The Strange Career of Jim Crow</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Morgan_Kousser" title="J. Morgan Kousser">J. Morgan Kousser</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Shaping_of_Southern_Politics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Shaping of Southern Politics (page does not exist)">The Shaping of Southern Politics</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Perman" title="Michael Perman">Michael Perman</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Struggle_for_Mastery&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Struggle for Mastery (page does not exist)">Struggle for Mastery</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sproule_v._Fredericks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sproule v. Fredericks (page does not exist)">Sproule v. Fredericks (Tennessee)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jim_Crow_law_examples_by_state" title="List of Jim Crow law examples by state">List of Jim Crow law examples by state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_line_(civil_rights_issue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Color line (civil rights issue)">Color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">Disfranchisement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">Voter suppression in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Historical race concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_aspects_of_race_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial aspects of race in the United States">Judicial aspects of race in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Segregation in the United States">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Racial segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">Miscegenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces">Military segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">Residential segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Housing segregation in the United States">Housing segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Public housing in the United States">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_Museum_of_Racist_Memorabilia" title="Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia">Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes of African Americans</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Jim_Crow" title="The New Jim Crow">The New Jim Crow</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-white_jury" class="mw-redirect" title="All-white jury">All-white jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharecropping#United_States" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Convict lease">Convict lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_gang" title="Chain gang">Chain gang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Category:History of racial segregation in the United States">Category:History of racial segregation in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:US history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:US history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_American_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_American_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science<br /> and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Segregation_in_countries_by_type_(in_some_countries,_categories_overlap)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Segregation_by_type" title="Template:Segregation by type"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Segregation_by_type" title="Template talk:Segregation by type"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation_by_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation by type"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Segregation_in_countries_by_type_(in_some_countries,_categories_overlap)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tal_Committee" title="Tal Committee">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Muslims_from_Serbia_(1862)" title="Exodus of Muslims from Serbia (1862)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey" title="Population exchange between Greece and Turkey">Greece and Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)" title="Partition of Bengal (1947)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Saudi_Arabia" title="Religious segregation">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Bahrain" title="Religious segregation">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Myanmar" title="Religious segregation">Myanmar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Ethnic and racial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pass_system_(Canadian_history)" title="Pass system (Canadian history)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Bahrain" title="Racial segregation">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid_in_Brazil" title="Social apartheid in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Bulgaria_and_Romania" title="Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania">Bulgaria and Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak%E2%80%93Hungarian_population_exchange" title="Czechoslovak–Hungarian population exchange">Czechoslovakia and Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Fiji" title="Racial segregation">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_situation_in_the_French_suburbs" title="Social situation in the French suburbs">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche" title="Nur für Deutsche">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_and_apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel and apartheid">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumiputera_(Malaysia)" title="Bumiputera (Malaysia)">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Rhodesia" title="Racial segregation">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudization" title="Saudization">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emiratisation" title="Emiratisation">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racial segregation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">Massive resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">Gender</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Afghanistan" title="Sex segregation in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Iran" title="Sex segregation in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Sex segregation in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_separation_in_Judaism" title="Gender separation in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_public_restrooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex segregation in public restrooms">Sex segregation in public restrooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist feminism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_federalism" title="Ethnic federalism">Ethnic federalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">Ethnocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_zoning" title="Exclusionary zoning">Exclusionary zoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">Residential segregation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporative_federalism" title="Corporative federalism">Corporative federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafrada" title="Hafrada">Hafrada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_minority" title="Majority minority">Majority minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rankism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservation in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">Second-class citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_school" title="Separate school">Separate school</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid" title="Social apartheid">Social apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Pillarisation" title="Pillarisation">Pillarisation</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Segregation" title="Category:Segregation">Category</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caste" title="Category:Caste">caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sex_segregation" title="Category:Sex segregation">gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Racial_segregation" title="Category:Racial segregation">racial</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Segregation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Segregation">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Racism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Racism_topics" title="Template:Racism topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Racism_topics" title="Template talk:Racism topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Racism_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Racism topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Racism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of racism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aversive_racism" title="Aversive racism">Aversive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Colorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_racism" title="Covert racism">Covert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_racism" title="Cultural racism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_on_the_Internet" title="Racism on the Internet">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendered_racism" title="Gendered racism">Gendered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_racism" title="Internalized racism">Internalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_racism" title="Patent racism">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_racism" title="Laissez-faire racism">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_racism" title="Linguistic racism">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocolonial_racism" title="Neocolonial racism">Neocolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_racism" title="Romantic racism">Romantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_racism" title="Societal racism">Societal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_racism" title="Symbolic racism">Symbolic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations<br />of racism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Discrimination based on nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_slurs" title="List of ethnic slurs">Ethnic slurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Ethnic stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hierarchy" title="Racial hierarchy">Racial hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_nationalism" title="Racial nationalism">Racial nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling" title="Racial profiling">Racial profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_apartheid" title="Global apartheid">Global apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Africa" title="Racism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Africa" title="Racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Racism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Asia" title="Racism in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_Korea" title="Racism in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Korea" title="Racism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Thailand" title="Racism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Vietnam" title="Racism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Racism in the Arab world">Arab world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Libya" title="Racism in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Sudan" title="Racism in Sudan">Sudan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Australia" title="Racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Europe" title="Racism in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Denmark" title="Racism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_France" title="Racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Germany" title="Racism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Poland" title="Racism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Portugal" title="Racism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Russia" title="Racism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Spain" title="Racism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Ukraine" title="Racism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Iran" title="Racism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Israel" title="Racism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Racism in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_discrimination_in_Turkey" title="Xenophobia and discrimination in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Mexico" title="Racism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_America" title="Racism in South America">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Argentina" title="Racism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Brazil" title="Racism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Chile" title="Racism in Chile">Chile</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Racism by target</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">Chinese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Zainichi Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States">Japanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_Korea" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea">Japanese Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan">Zainichi Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Black sentiment">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogynoir" title="Misogynoir">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanophobia">Hispanic & Latino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">Jewish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Jewish_communities" title="Racism in Jewish communities">In Jewish communities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_LGBT_community" title="Racism in the LGBT community">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Muslim_communities" title="Racism in Muslim communities">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_wine_industry" title="Racism in the wine industry">Wine industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Racial supremacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Ableism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Casteism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_plastic_surgery" title="Ethnic plastic surgery">Ethnic plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_back_to_where_you_came_from" title="Go back to where you came from">Go back to where you came from</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herrenvolk_democracy" title="Herrenvolk democracy">Herrenvolk democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interminority_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Interminority racism in the United States">Interminority racism in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Hispanic_and_Latino_American_communities" title="Racism in Hispanic and Latino American communities">Hispanics/Latinos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)" title="Passing (racial identity)">Passing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics_of_racism" title="Psychometrics of racism">Psychometrics of racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_sexuality" title="Race and sexuality">Race and sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_card" title="Race card">Race card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Racial figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_sport" title="Racism in sport">Racism in sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_sport_in_Australia" title="Racism in sport in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Sociology of race and ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism" title="Category:Racism">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Racism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Racism">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_racism-related_articles" title="Index of racism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination" title="Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination" title="Template talk:Discrimination"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">National</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory<br />policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a 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