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id="toc-Early_history_(1918–1941)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_(1941–45)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_(1941–45)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 World War II (1941–45) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_(1941–45)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War_(1947–1969)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War_(1947–1969)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Cold War (1947–1969) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War_(1947–1969)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_program_(1969–1973)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_program_(1969–1973)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 End of the program (1969–1973) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_program_(1969–1973)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geneva_Protocol_and_BWC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geneva_Protocol_and_BWC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Geneva Protocol and BWC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geneva_Protocol_and_BWC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agents_studied_and_weaponized" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agents_studied_and_weaponized"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Agents studied and weaponized </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agents_studied_and_weaponized-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alleged_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alleged_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Alleged uses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alleged_uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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<li id="toc-In_military_venues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_military_venues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 In military venues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_military_venues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_civilian_venues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_civilian_venues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 In civilian venues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_civilian_venues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-GAO_Report" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#GAO_Report"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 GAO Report </div> </a> <ul id="toc-GAO_Report-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_(post-1969)_bio-defense_program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>. Research continued following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> as the U.S. built up a large stockpile of <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">biological agents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological weapon">weapons</a>. Over the course of its 27-year history, the program weaponized and stockpiled seven <a href="/wiki/Bio-agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Bio-agent">bio-agents</a> — <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>), <a href="/wiki/Francisella_tularensis" title="Francisella tularensis">Francisella tularensis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">tularemia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Brucella" title="Brucella">Brucella</a> spp (<a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">brucellosis</a>), <a href="/wiki/Coxiella_burnetii" title="Coxiella burnetii">Coxiella burnetii</a> (<a href="/wiki/Q-fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Q-fever">Q-fever</a>), <a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus">Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botulinum toxin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcal_enterotoxin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Staphylococcal enterotoxin B">Staphylococcal enterotoxin B</a>. The US also pursued basic research on many more bio-agents. Throughout its history, the U.S. bioweapons program was secret. It was later revealed that laboratory and field testing (some of the latter using simulants on non-consenting individuals) had been common. The official policy of the United States was first to deter the use of bio-weapons against U.S. forces and secondarily to retaliate if deterrence failed. In 1969, President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> ended all offensive (i.e., non-defensive) aspects of the U.S. bio-weapons program. In 1975 the U.S. ratified both the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> and the 1972 <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a> (BWC)—international treaties outlawing biological warfare. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history_(1918–1941)">Early history (1918–1941)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early history (1918–1941)">edit</a>]</div> Initial interest in any form of biological warfare came at the close of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The only agent the U.S. tested was the toxin <a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">ricin</a>, a product of the castor plant.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> The U.S. conducted tests concerning two methods of ricin dissemination: the first, which involved adhering the toxin to <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(weaponry)" title="Fragmentation (weaponry)">shrapnel</a> for delivery by <a href="/wiki/Artillery_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Artillery shell">artillery shell</a>, was successful;<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> the second, delivering an aerosol cloud of ricin, was proven less successful in these tests.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> Neither delivery method was perfected before the war in Europe ended.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> In the early 1920s suggestions that the U.S. began a biological weapons program were coming from within the Chemical Warfare Service (CWS).<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> Chief of the CWS, <a href="/wiki/Amos_Fries" title="Amos Fries">Amos Fries</a>, decided that such a program would not be "profitable" for the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> Japan's <a href="/wiki/Shiro_Ishii" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiro Ishii">Shiro Ishii</a> began promoting biological weapons during the 1920s and toured biological research facilities worldwide, including in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> Though Ishii concluded that the U.S. was developing a bio-weapons programs, he was incorrect.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> In fact, Ishii concluded that each major power he visited was developing a bio-weapons program.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a> continued, the United States did not emphasize biological weapons development or research.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> While the U.S. was spending very little time on biological weapons research, its future allies and enemies in the upcoming second World War were researching the potential of biological weapons as early as 1933.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_(1941–45)">World War II (1941–45)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World War II (1941–45)">edit</a>]</div> Despite the World War I-era interest in ricin, as World War II erupted, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> still maintained the position that biological weapons were, for the most part, impractical.<a href="#cite_note-garrett-2">[2]</a> Other nations, notably France, Japan and the United Kingdom, thought otherwise and had begun their own biological weapons programs.<a href="#cite_note-garrett-2">[2]</a> Thus, as late as 1942 the U.S. had no biological weapons capabilities. Initial interest in biological weapons by the Chemical Warfare Service began in 1941.<a href="#cite_note-croddy2-3">[3]</a> That fall, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Secretary of War">U.S. Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a> requested that the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> (NAS) undertake consideration of U.S. biological warfare.<a href="#cite_note-zilinskas-4">[4]</a> He wrote to Dr. <a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Jewett" title="Frank B. Jewett">Frank B. Jewett</a>, then president of the NAS: <blockquote>Because of the dangers that might confront this country from potential enemies employing what may be broadly described as biological warfare, it seems advisable that investigations be initiated to survey the present situation and the future possibilities. I am therefore, asking if you will undertake the appointment of an appropriate committee to survey all phases of this matter. Your organization already has before it a request from The Surgeon General for the appointment of a committee by the Division of Medical Sciences of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council</a> to examine one phase of the matter.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></blockquote> In response the NAS formed a committee, the <a href="/wiki/War_Bureau_of_Consultants" title="War Bureau of Consultants">War Bureau of Consultants</a> (WBC), which issued a report on the subject in February 1942.<a href="#cite_note-zilinskas-4">[4]</a> The report, among other items, recommended the research and development of an offensive biological weapons program.<a href="#cite_note-zilinskas-4">[4]</a> The British, and the research undertaken by the WBC, pressured the U.S. to begin biological weapons research and development and in November 1942 U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a> officially approved an American biological weapons program.<a href="#cite_note-ryan-6">[6]</a> In response to the information provided by the WBC, Roosevelt ordered Stimson to form the <a href="/wiki/War_Research_Service" title="War Research Service">War Research Service</a> (WRS).<a href="#cite_note-zilinskas-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-moreno-7">[7]</a> Established within the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Security_Agency" title="Federal Security Agency">Federal Security Agency</a>, the WRS' stated purpose was to promote "public security and health",<a href="#cite_note-moreno-7">[7]</a> but, in reality, the WRS was tasked with coordinating and supervising the U.S. biological warfare program.<a href="#cite_note-zilinskas-4">[4]</a> In the spring of 1943 the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Biological_Warfare_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories">U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories</a> were established at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick" title="Fort Detrick">Camp Detrick (now Fort Detrick)</a> in <a href="/wiki/Frederick,_Maryland" title="Frederick, Maryland">Frederick</a>, Maryland.<a href="#cite_note-ryan-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-guillemin3-8">[8]</a> Though initially, under <a href="/wiki/George_Merck" class="mw-redirect" title="George Merck">George Merck</a>, the WRS contracted several universities to participate in the U.S. biological weapons program, the program became large quickly and before long it was under the full control of the CWS.<a href="#cite_note-moreno-7">[7]</a> By November 1943 the biological weapons facility at Detrick was completed, in addition, the United States constructed three other facilities - a biological agent production plant at <a href="/wiki/Vigo_County,_Indiana" title="Vigo County, Indiana">Vigo County</a> near <a href="/wiki/Terre_Haute,_Indiana" title="Terre Haute, Indiana">Terre Haute, Indiana</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vigo_Ordnance_Plant" title="Vigo Ordnance Plant">Vigo Ordnance Plant</a>), a field-testing site on <a href="/wiki/Horn_Island_(Mississippi)" title="Horn Island (Mississippi)">Horn Island</a> in Mississippi (<a href="/wiki/Horn_Island_Chemical_Warfare_Service_Quarantine_Station" title="Horn Island Chemical Warfare Service Quarantine Station">Horn Island Testing Station</a>), and another field site near <a href="/wiki/Granite_Peak" title="Granite Peak">Granite Peak</a> in Utah (<a href="/wiki/Granite_Peak_Installation" title="Granite Peak Installation">Granite Peak Installation</a>).<a href="#cite_note-moreno-7">[7]</a> According to an official history of the period, "the elaborate security precautions taken [at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick" title="Fort Detrick">Camp Detrick</a>] were so effective that it was not until January 1946, 4 months after <a href="/wiki/VJ_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="VJ Day">VJ Day</a>, that the public learned of the wartime research in biological weapons".<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War_(1947–1969)">Cold War (1947–1969)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cold War (1947–1969)">edit</a>]</div> Following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the United States biological warfare program progressed into an effective, military-driven research and production program, covered in controversy and secrecy.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> Production of U.S. <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a> agents went from "factory-level to laboratory-level".<a href="#cite_note-croddyhart-12">[12]</a> By 1950 the principal U.S. bio-weapons facility was located at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Detrick" class="mw-redirect" title="Camp Detrick">Camp Detrick</a> in Maryland under the auspices of the Research and Engineering Division of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Chemical_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Chemical Corps">U.S. Army Chemical Corps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-whitby-13">[13]</a> Most of the research and development was done there, while production and testing occurred at Pine Bluff, Arkansas, and <a href="/wiki/Dugway_Proving_Ground" title="Dugway Proving Ground">Dugway Proving Ground</a>, Utah. <a href="/wiki/Pine_Bluff_Arsenal" title="Pine Bluff Arsenal">Pine Bluff Arsenal</a> began production of weapons-grade agents by 1954.<a href="#cite_note-zubay-14">[14]</a> From 1952 to 1954 the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Corps" title="Chemical Corps">Chemical Corps</a> maintained a biological weapons research and development facility at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Terry" title="Fort Terry">Fort Terry</a> on <a href="/wiki/Plum_Island_(New_York)" title="Plum Island (New York)">Plum Island</a>, New York.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin4-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-wheelis-16">[16]</a> Fort Terry's focus was on anti-animal biological weapon research and development; the facility researched more than a dozen potential BW agents.<a href="#cite_note-wheelis-16">[16]</a> From the end of World War II through the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, the U.S. Army, the Chemical Corps and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Air Force">U.S. Air Force</a> all expanded their biological warfare programs significantly, especially concerning delivery systems.<a href="#cite_note-croddyhart-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-zubay-14">[14]</a> Throughout the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union would combine to produce enough biological weapons to kill everyone on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-17">[17]</a> At the trial of <a href="/wiki/John_W._Powell" title="John W. Powell">John W. Powell</a> and two other defendants for sedition for reporting that the U.S. used biological weapons during the Korean War, the U.S. Attorney in the case, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Howard_Schnacke" title="Robert Howard Schnacke">Robert H. Schnacke</a> and the former Chief of the Special Operations Division at Ft. Detrick during the Korean War (and long-time U.S. Chemical Corps officer), John L. Schwab, entered sworn affidavits that the U.S. Army had the capability to use both offensive and defensive biological and chemical weapons "during the period from January 1, 1949 through July 27, 1953.... based upon resources available and retained only within the continental limits of the United States."<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Another substantive expansion phase was during the Kennedy-Johnson years, after <a href="/wiki/Robert_McNamara" title="Robert McNamara">McNamara</a> initiated <a href="/wiki/Project_112" title="Project 112">Project 112</a> as a comprehensive initiative, starting in 1961. Despite an increase in testing, the readiness for biological warfare remained limited after this program. A 10 November 1969 report by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Interdepartmental_Political-Military_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Interdepartmental Political-Military Group (page does not exist)">Interdepartmental Political-Military Group</a> submitted its findings to the Nixon administration that the American BW capability was limited:<a href="#cite_note-USBW-32-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">No large inventory of dry (powdered) anti-personnel lethal or incapacitating biological agents is maintained and only eight aircraft spray disseminators are in the inventory. No missile delivery capabilities are currently maintained for delivery of biological agents, although a bomblet containing warhead for the sergeant missile has been standardized, but not produced in quantity. Small quantities of both lethal and incapacitating biological agents are maintained in special warfare devices.</blockquote> Field testing of the biological weapons was completed covertly and successfully with simulants and agents dispersed over wide, open areas.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> The first American large-scale aerosol vulnerability test, code-named <a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea-Spray" title="Operation Sea-Spray">Operation Sea-Spray</a>, occurred in the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="San Francisco Bay Area">San Francisco Bay Area</a> in September 1950, using two types of bacteria, <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_globigii" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus globigii">Bacillus globigii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serratia_marcescens" title="Serratia marcescens">Serratia marcescens</a>, and fluorescent particles.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> Bacillus species were chosen in these tests because of their spore-forming abilities and their similarities to <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a>, a causing agent of <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> S. marcescens was used because it is easily identifiable from its red pigment.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> In 1966, the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Subway" title="New York City Subway">New York City Subway</a> was contaminated with Bacillus globigii in an attempt to simulate the spreading of anthrax in a large urban population.<a href="#cite_note-Frischknecht-21">[21]</a> More field tests involving pathogenic species were conducted at Dugway Proving Ground, Utah and anti-animal studies were conducted at <a href="/wiki/Eglin_Air_Force_Base" title="Eglin Air Force Base">Eglin Air Force Base</a>, Florida.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> At the time, many scientists disagreed with the creation of biological weapons. <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Rosebury" title="Theodor Rosebury">Theodor Rosebury</a>, who previously worked as a supervisor at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Detrick" class="mw-redirect" title="Camp Detrick">Camp Detrick</a>, issued a warning against the development of biological weapons during the Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> In 1945, Rosebury left Camp Detrick during a period of time when scientists could publish the results of their research.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> Rosebury published Peace or Pestilence? in 1949, which explained his views on why biological weapons should be banned by world powers.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> By the time his book was available, publications were becoming more restricted and the extent of the Soviet threat of biological weapons was being overstated by Congress and the media.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> In 1969, Harvard biologist <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Meselson" title="Matthew Meselson">Matthew Meselson</a> argued that the biological warfare programs would eventually hurt US security because potential enemy nations could easily emulate these weapons.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> The general population remained uninformed of any breakthroughs concerning biological warfare.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> This included new production plants for anthrax, <a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">brucellosis</a>, and anti-crop agents, as well as the development of the <a href="/wiki/Cluster_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster bomb">cluster bomb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> The U.S. public was also unaware of ongoing studies, particularly the environmental and open-air experiments that were taking place.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> One of the more controversial experiments was conducted in 1951, when a disproportionate number of African Americans were exposed to the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus, to see if they were more susceptible to infection.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> Some scientists reasoned that such knowledge would help them prepare a defense against a more deadly form of the fungus.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> The same year, workers at the Norfolk Supply Center in Norfolk, Virginia, were unknowingly exposed to Aspergillus fumigatus spores.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> Another case of human research was the biodefense medical research program, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Whitecoat" title="Operation Whitecoat">Operation Whitecoat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> This decade-long experiment on volunteer Seventh Day Adventist servicemen exposed them to <a href="/wiki/Tularaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tularaemia">tularaemia</a> via aerosols.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> They were then treated with antibiotics. The goal of the experiment, unknown to the volunteers, was to standardize tularaemia bomb-fill for attacks on civilian populations.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> In the 1960s, the U.S. changed its main approach from biological agents aimed to kill to those that would incapacitate.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> In 1964, research programs studied <a href="/wiki/Enterotoxin_type_B" title="Enterotoxin type B">Enterotoxin type B</a>, which can cause food poisoning. New research initiatives also included <a href="/wiki/Prophylaxis" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylaxis">prophylaxis</a>, the preventive treatment of diseases.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> Pathogens studied included the biological agents causing a myriad of diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">glanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">brucellosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melioidosis" title="Melioidosis">melioidosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis">Venezuelan equine encephalitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Q_fever" title="Q fever">Q fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coccidioidomycosis" title="Coccidioidomycosis">coccidioidomycosis</a>, and other plant and animal pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-Franz-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> brought public awareness to the U.S. biological weapons program.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> The use of chemicals, riot-control agents, and herbicides like <a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a> drew international criticism, and negatively affected the U.S. public opinion on the development of biological weapons.<a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-22">[22]</a> Highly controversial human research programs and open air experiments were discovered. <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Guillemin" title="Jeanne Guillemin">Jeanne Guillemin</a>, wife of biologist <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Meselson" title="Matthew Meselson">Matthew Meselson</a>, summarized the controversy:<a href="#cite_note-Wampler-23">[23]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The entire experimental legacy is dismaying, from the hundreds of dead monkeys at Fort Detrick to the spectacle of Seventh Day Adventist soldiers, the vaccinated volunteers in Project Whitecoat, strapped to chairs amid cages of animals in the Utah sunlight as Q fever aerosols are blown over them. Most chilling are the mock scenarios played out in urban areas: light bulbs filled with simulated BW agents being dropped in New York subways, men in Washington National Airport spraying pseudo-BW from briefcases, and similar tests in California and Texas and over the Florida Keys.<a href="#cite_note-Wampler-23">[23]</a></blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">Nixon administration</a> felt an urgent need to respond to the growing negative perception of biological weapons.<a href="#cite_note-Wampler-23">[23]</a> The realization that biological weapons may become the poor man's atom bomb also contributed to the end of the U.S. biological weapons program.<a href="#cite_note-Frischknecht-21">[21]</a> Subsequently, President Nixon announced that the U.S. was unilaterally renouncing its biological warfare program, ultimately signing the <a href="/wiki/Biological_and_Toxin_Weapons_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention">Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention</a> in 1972.<a href="#cite_note-Richardt-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_program_(1969–1973)">End of the program (1969–1973)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: End of the program (1969–1973)">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Statement_on_Chemical_and_Biological_Defense_Policies_and_Programs" title="Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs">Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs</a></div> President <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Nixon">Richard M. Nixon</a> issued his "Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs" on November 25, 1969, in a speech from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick" title="Fort Detrick">Fort Detrick</a>.<a href="#cite_note-miller-25">[25]</a> The statement officially ended all U.S. offensive biological weapons programs.<a href="#cite_note-graham-26">[26]</a> Nixon noted that biological weapons were unreliable<a href="#cite_note-graham-26">[26]</a> and stated:<a href="#cite_note-miller-25">[25]</a> <blockquote>The United States shall renounce the use of lethal biological agents and weapons, and all other methods of biological warfare. The United States will confine its biological research to defensive measures such as immunization and safety measures.</blockquote> In his speech Nixon called his move "unprecedented"; and it was in fact the first review of the U.S. biological warfare program since 1954.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin-27">[27]</a> Despite the lack of review, the biological warfare program had increased in cost and size since 1961. From the onset of the U.S. biological weapons program in 1943 through the end of World War II the United States spent $400 million on biological weapons, mostly on research and development.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin5-28">[28]</a> The budget for fiscal year 1966 was $38 million.<a href="#cite_note-smart2-29">[29]</a> When Nixon ended the program the budget was $300 million annually.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-cirincione-30">[30]</a> Nixon's statement confined all biological weapons research to defensive-only and ordered the destruction of the existing <a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._biological_weapons_topics" title="List of U.S. biological weapons topics">U.S. biological arsenal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> U.S. biological weapons stocks were destroyed over the next few years. A $12 million disposal plan was undertaken at <a href="/wiki/Pine_Bluff_Arsenal" title="Pine Bluff Arsenal">Pine Bluff Arsenal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-mangold-32">[32]</a> where all U.S. anti-personnel <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">biological agents</a> were stored.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> That plan was completed in May 1972 and included decontamination of facilities at Pine Bluff.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-mangold-32">[32]</a> Other agents, including anti-crop agents such as <a href="/wiki/Wheat_stem_rust" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheat stem rust">wheat stem rust</a>, were stored at <a href="/wiki/Beale_Air_Force_Base" title="Beale Air Force Base">Beale Air Force Base</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Arsenal" title="Rocky Mountain Arsenal">Rocky Mountain Arsenal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> These anti-crop agents, along with agents at Fort Detrick used for research purposes were destroyed in March 1973.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geneva_Protocol_and_BWC">Geneva Protocol and BWC</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geneva Protocol and BWC">edit</a>]</div> The 1925 <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a>, ratified by most major powers in the 1920s and 30s, had still not been ratified by the United States at the dawn of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-graham-26">[26]</a> Among the Protocol's provisions was a ban on bacteriological warfare.<a href="#cite_note-obrien-33">[33]</a> The Geneva Protocol had encountered opposition in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a>, in part due to strong lobbying against it by the Chemical Warfare Service, and it was never brought to the floor for a vote when originally introduced.<a href="#cite_note-graham-26">[26]</a> Regardless, on June 8, 1943, President Roosevelt affirmed a <a href="/wiki/No-first-use" class="mw-redirect" title="No-first-use">no-first-use</a> policy for the United States concerning biological weapons.<a href="#cite_note-graham-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-obrien-33">[33]</a> Even with Roosevelt's declaration opposition to the Protocol remained strong; in 1949 the Protocol was among several old treaties returned to President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> unratified.<a href="#cite_note-graham-26">[26]</a> When Nixon ended the U.S. bio-weapons program in 1969 he also announced that he would resubmit the Geneva Protocol to the U.S. Senate.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> This was a move Nixon was considering as early as July 1969.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> The announcement included language that indicated the Nixon administration was moving toward an international agreement on an outright ban on bio-weapons.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> Thus, the Nixon administration became the world's leading anti-biological weapons voice calling for an international treaty.<a href="#cite_note-miller-25">[25]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Nation_Disarmament_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee">Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee</a> was discussing a British draft of a biological weapons treaty which the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> approved in 1968 and that <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> supported.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin-27">[27]</a> These arms control talks would eventually lead to the <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a>, the international treaty outlawing biological warfare.<a href="#cite_note-carter-34">[34]</a> Prior to the Nixon announcement only Canada supported the British draft.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> Beginning in 1972, the Soviet Union, United States and more than 100 other countries signed the BWC.<a href="#cite_note-miller-25">[25]</a> The United States ratified the Geneva Protocol in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-fas-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agents_studied_and_weaponized">Agents studied and weaponized</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Agents studied and weaponized">edit</a>]</div> When the U.S. biological warfare program ended in 1969 it had developed six mass-produced, battle-ready biological weapons in the form of agents that cause <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">tularemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">brucellosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Q-fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Q-fever">Q-fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus">Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-croddyhart-12">[12]</a> In addition <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcal_enterotoxin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Staphylococcal enterotoxin B">staphylococcal enterotoxin B</a> was produced as an incapacitating agent.<a href="#cite_note-croddyhart-12">[12]</a> In addition to the agents that were ready to be used, the U.S. program conducted research into the weaponization of more than 20 other agents. They included: <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis" title="Eastern equine encephalitis">EEE</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Western equine encephalitis">WEE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentinian_hemorrhagic_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Argentinian hemorrhagic fever">AHF</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hantavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hantavirus">Hantavirus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolivian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Bolivian hemorrhagic fever">BHF</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lassa_fever" title="Lassa fever">Lassa fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melioidosis" title="Melioidosis">melioidosis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-note1-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psittacosis" title="Psittacosis">psittacosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a> (RVF), <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chikungunya virus">CHIKV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Late_blight_of_potato" class="mw-redirect" title="Late blight of potato">late blight of potato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rinderpest" title="Rinderpest">rinderpest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcastle disease">Newcastle disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">bird flu</a>, and the toxin <a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">ricin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-weaponslist-37">[37]</a> Besides the numerous pathogens that afflict human beings, the U.S. had developed an arsenal of anti-agriculture biological agents. These included rye stem rust spores (stored at <a href="/wiki/Edgewood_Arsenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgewood Arsenal">Edgewood Arsenal</a>, 1951–1957), <a href="/wiki/Wheat_stem_rust" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheat stem rust">wheat stem rust</a> spores (stored at the same facility 1962–1969),<a href="#cite_note-whitby-13">[13]</a> and the causative agent of <a href="/wiki/Rice_blast" class="mw-redirect" title="Rice blast">rice blast</a> (stored at Fort Detrick 1965–1966).<a href="#cite_note-whitby-13">[13]</a> A U.S. facility at Fort Terry focused primarily on anti-animal biological agents. The first agent that was a candidate for development was <a href="/wiki/Foot_and_mouth_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot and mouth disease">foot and mouth disease</a> (FMD).<a href="#cite_note-wheelis-16">[16]</a> Besides FMD, five other top-secret biological weapons projects were commissioned on Plum Island.<a href="#cite_note-carroll-38">[38]</a> The other four programs researched included RVF, rinderpest, <a href="/wiki/African_swine_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="African swine fever">African swine fever</a>, plus eleven miscellaneous exotic animal diseases.<a href="#cite_note-wheelis-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-carroll-38">[38]</a> The eleven miscellaneous pathogens were: <a href="/wiki/Bluetongue_disease" title="Bluetongue disease">Blue tongue virus</a>, bovine influenza, <a href="/wiki/Bovine_virus_diarrhea" class="mw-redirect" title="Bovine virus diarrhea">bovine virus diarrhea</a> (BVD), <a href="/wiki/Fowl_plague" class="mw-redirect" title="Fowl plague">fowl plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visna_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Visna virus">goat pneumonitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacteria">mycobacteria</a>, "N" virus, <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcastle disease">Newcastle disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sheep_pox" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheep pox">sheep pox</a>, Teschers disease, and <a href="/wiki/Vesicular_stomatitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicular stomatitis">vesicular stomatitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wheelis-16">[16]</a> Work on delivery systems for the U.S. bioweapons arsenal led to the first mass-produced biological weapon in 1952, the <a href="/wiki/M33_cluster_bomb" title="M33 cluster bomb">M33 cluster bomb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-croddy1-39">[39]</a> The M33's sub-munition, the pipe-bomb-like cylindrical <a href="/wiki/M114_bomb" title="M114 bomb">M114 bomb</a>, was also completed and battle-ready by 1952.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-croddy1-39">[39]</a> Other delivery systems researched and at least partially developed during the 1950s included the <a href="/wiki/E77_balloon_bomb" title="E77 balloon bomb">E77 balloon bomb</a> and the <a href="/wiki/E86_cluster_bomb" title="E86 cluster bomb">E86 cluster bomb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-whitby-13">[13]</a> The peak of U.S. biological weapons delivery system development came during the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> Production of cluster bomb submunitions began to shift from cylindrical to spherical bomblets, which had a larger coverage area.<a href="#cite_note-kirby-40">[40]</a> Development of the spherical <a href="/wiki/E120_bomblet" title="E120 bomblet">E120 bomblet</a> took place in the early 1960s<a href="#cite_note-countermeasures-41">[41]</a> as did development of the <a href="/wiki/M143_bomblet" title="M143 bomblet">M143 bomblet</a>, similar to the chemical <a href="/wiki/M139_bomblet" title="M139 bomblet">M139 bomblet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-smart-1">[1]</a> The experimental <a href="/wiki/Flettner_rotor_bomblet" title="Flettner rotor bomblet">Flettner rotor bomblet</a> was also developed during this time period.<a href="#cite_note-eitzen-42">[42]</a> The Flettner rotor was called, "probably one of the better devices for disseminating microorganisms", by <a href="/wiki/William_C._Patrick_III" title="William C. Patrick III">William C. Patrick III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-usphs-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alleged_uses">Alleged uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Alleged uses">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korean_War">Korean War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Korean War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_biological_warfare_in_the_Korean_War" title="Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War">Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War</a></div> In 1952, during the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, the Chinese and North Koreans insinuated that mysterious outbreaks of disease in North Korea and China<a href="#cite_note-stueck-44">[44]</a> were due to U.S. biological attacks.<a href="#cite_note-regis-45">[45]</a> Despite contrary assertions from the <a href="/wiki/International_Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="International Red Cross">International Red Cross</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, whom the Chinese denounced as being dominated by US influence and thus biased, the Chinese government pursued an investigation by the <a href="/wiki/World_Peace_Council" title="World Peace Council">World Peace Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin2-46">[46]</a> A committee led by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> gathered evidence for a report that included testimony from eyewitnesses, doctors, and four American Korean War prisoners who confirmed use of biological weapons by the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin2-46">[46]</a> In eastern Europe, China, and North Korea it was widely believed that the accusations were true.<a href="#cite_note-stueck-44">[44]</a> A 1988 book Korea: The Unknown War, by Western historians <a href="/wiki/Jon_Halliday" title="Jon Halliday">Jon Halliday</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Cumings" title="Bruce Cumings">Bruce Cumings</a>, also suggested the claims might be true.<a href="#cite_note-usnews-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In 1998, Canadian researchers and historians <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Endicott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephen Endicott (page does not exist)">Stephen Endicott</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Hagerman" title="Edward Hagerman">Edward Hagerman</a> of <a href="/wiki/York_University" title="York University">York University</a> made the case that the accusations were true in their book, The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea.<a href="#cite_note-endicott-49">[49]</a> The book received mostly positive reviews, out of a collection of 20 reviews cited, 2 were negative, calling it "bad history" and "appalling",<a href="#cite_note-regis-45">[45]</a> while others praised the authors, "Endicott and Hagerman is far and away the most authoritative work on the subject" and "the most impressive, expertly researched and, as far as the official files allow, the best-documented case for the prosecution yet made".<a href="#cite_note-reviews-50">[50]</a> In the same year Endicott's book was published, Kathryn Weathersby and Milton Leitenberg of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War_International_History_Project" title="Cold War International History Project">Cold War International History Project</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodrow Wilson Center">Woodrow Wilson Center</a> in Washington released a cache of Soviet and Chinese documents that claimed to have revealed that the biowarfare allegation was an elaborate <a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">disinformation</a> campaign by the communists.<a href="#cite_note-usnews-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-cwihp-51">[51]</a> In addition, a Japanese journalist claims to have seen similar evidence of a Soviet disinformation campaign and that the evidence supporting its occurrence was faked.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin2-46">[46]</a> In 2001, anti-communist historian <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Romerstein" title="Herbert Romerstein">Herbert Romerstein</a> supported Weathersby and Leitenberg, criticizing Endicott's research for using evidence provided by the Chinese government.<a href="#cite_note-Romerstein-52">[52]</a> In March 2010, the allegations were investigated by the <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English" title="Al Jazeera English">Al Jazeera English</a> news program <a href="/wiki/People_%26_Power" title="People & Power">People & Power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jeffreys1-53">[53]</a> In this program, Professor Mori Masataka investigated historical artifacts in the form of bomb casings from US biological weapons, contemporary documentary evidence and eyewitness testimonies.<a href="#cite_note-jeffreys1-53">[53]</a> He concluded that the United States did, in fact, test biological weapons on North Korea during the Korean War.<a href="#cite_note-jeffreys1-53">[53]</a> In September 2020, U.S. author Jeffrey Kaye published a set of declassified CIA communications reports (COMINT) that documented the responses of military units for the Korean People's Army and the Chinese People's Volunteer Army as they were apparently under attack by biological weapons, particularly the dropping of bacteria-laden insects. Some of these COMINT reports were also published a few months previously in <a href="/wiki/Nicholson_Baker" title="Nicholson Baker">Nicholson Baker</a>'s book, Baseless.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> One report from an identified Chinese military unit on February 26, 1952, said, "yesterday it was discovered that in our bivouac area there was a real flood of bacteria and germs from a plane by the enemy. Please supply us immediately with an issue of DDT that we may combat this menace, stop the spread of this plague, and eliminate all bacteria." In another example, on March 6, 1952, the 23rd Brigade of the Korean People's Army sent a "long detailed ... message to one of its subordinate battalions" suggesting preventive measures be taken against "bacteria" dropped by UN aircraft, apparently in the area around Sariwon. The report stated that "three persons ... became suddenly feverish", presumably in their unit. Their nervous systems were said to have become "benumbed".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuba">Cuba</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cuba">edit</a>]</div> It has been rumored that the U.S. employed biological weapons against the <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">Communist</a> island nation of <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> claimed that evidence exists implicating the U.S. in biological warfare in Cuba.<a href="#cite_note-chomsky-56">[56]</a> These claims are disputed.<a href="#cite_note-levy-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-nieto-58">[58]</a> Allegations in 1962 held that CIA operatives had contaminated a shipment of sugar while it was in storage in Cuba.<a href="#cite_note-blum-59">[59]</a> Also in 1962, a Canadian agricultural technician assisting the Cuban government claimed he was paid $5,000 to infect Cuban turkeys with the deadly <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcastle disease">Newcastle disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-blum-59">[59]</a> Though the technician later claimed he had just pocketed the money, many Cubans and some US citizens believed a clandestinely administered <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">biological weapons agent</a> was responsible for a subsequent outbreak of the disease in Cuban turkeys.<a href="#cite_note-blum-59">[59]</a> In 1971 the first serious outbreak of <a href="/wiki/African_Swine_Fever" class="mw-redirect" title="African Swine Fever">African Swine Fever</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a> occurred in Cuba. The Cuban government alleged that U.S. covert biological warfare was responsible for this outbreak, which led to the preemptive slaughter of 500,000 pigs.<a href="#cite_note-levy-57">[57]</a> The outbreak was labeled the "most alarming event" of 1971 by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization. Six years after the event, the newspaper Newsday, citing an anonymous former CIA agent,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> claimed that anti-Castro <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">saboteurs</a> with at least the tacit backing of U.S. <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> officials introduced African swine fever virus into <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> six weeks before the outbreak in 1971 to destabilize the Cuban economy and encourage domestic opposition to <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>. According to the Newsday report, the virus was allegedly delivered to the operatives from an army base in the Panama Canal Zone by an unnamed U.S. intelligence source.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Evidence linking these incidents to biological warfare has not been confirmed,<a href="#cite_note-levy-57">[57]</a> however, according to Kieth Bolender, a French scientist analyzing the situation concluded that it was not possible that the outbreak had occurred naturally.<a href="#cite_note-:0-64">[64]</a> Accusations have continued to come out of Havana alleging continued U.S. use of bio-weapons on the island after the official end of the U.S. biological weapons program in 1973. The Cuban government blamed the U.S. for a 1981 outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a> that sickened more than 300,000.<a href="#cite_note-levy-57">[57]</a> Dengue is a <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector-borne</a> disease usually carried by mosquitoes,<a href="#cite_note-blum-59">[59]</a> the same species of yellow-fever mosquitoes (<a href="/wiki/Aedes_aegypti" title="Aedes aegypti">Aedes aegypti</a>) utilized in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Big_Buzz" title="Operation Big Buzz">Operation Big Buzz</a> in 1955. Dengue 2 killed 158 people that year in Cuba, including 101 children under 15.<a href="#cite_note-levy-57">[57]</a> Hemorrhagic Dengue 2 had not appeared in the Caribbean until this point and the two closest islands, Jamaica and Bahamas, reported no cases during this time.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> According to Ariel Alonso Pérez, the fever appeared simultaneously in three separate areas (Havana, Cienfuegos, and Camagüey) hundreds of miles apart and that examination of visitors from areas known to have Dengue found that none had brought the virus with them and none of the original victims had made contact with foreigners or exited the country.<a href="#cite_note-:0-64">[64]</a> Tensions between the two countries, coupled with confirmed U.S. research into <a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">entomological warfare</a> during the 1950s, made these charges seem not implausible to some scientists and historians.<a href="#cite_note-levy-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-blum-59">[59]</a> Since July 1981, Cuba has had widespread sugar cane rust, African Swine Fever, tobacco blue mold, Dengue 2, meningitis, hemorrhagic conjunctivitis, and several parasites targeting staple crops such as rice, corn, and potatoes. None of these had been present in the region before 1960.<a href="#cite_note-:0-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimentation_and_testing">Experimentation and testing</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Experimentation and testing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_States_military_anti-plant_research" class="mw-redirect" title="United States military anti-plant research">United States military anti-plant research</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Entomological_testing">Entomological testing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Entomological testing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare#United_States" title="Entomological warfare">U.S. Cold War entomological warfare program</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> seriously researched the potential of <a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">entomological warfare</a> (EW) during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. EW is a specific type of biological warfare which aims to use insects as weapon, either directly or through their potential to act as <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vectors</a>. During the 1950s the United States conducted a series of field tests using entomological weapons. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Big_Itch" title="Operation Big Itch">Operation Big Itch</a>, in 1954, was designed to test munitions loaded with uninfected fleas (<a href="/wiki/Xenopsylla_cheopis" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenopsylla cheopis">Xenopsylla cheopis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-croddy3-66">[66]</a> In May 1955 over 300,000 <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> mosquitoes (<a href="/wiki/Aedes_aegypti" title="Aedes aegypti">Aedes aegypti</a>) were dropped over parts of the U.S. state of Georgia to determine if the air-dropped mosquitoes could survive to take meals from humans.<a href="#cite_note-rose-67">[67]</a> The mosquito tests were known as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Big_Buzz" title="Operation Big Buzz">Operation Big Buzz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-novick-68">[68]</a> The U.S. engaged in at least two other EW testing programs, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Drop_Kick" title="Operation Drop Kick">Operation Drop Kick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_May_Day" title="Operation May Day">Operation May Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rose-67">[67]</a> A 1981 Army report outlined these tests as well as multiple cost-associated issues that occurred with EW.<a href="#cite_note-rose-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clinical_trials">Clinical trials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Clinical trials">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Whitecoat" title="Operation Whitecoat">Operation Whitecoat</a> involved the controlled testing of many serious agents on military personnel who had consented to experimentation, and who understood the risks involved. No deaths are known to have resulted from this program. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vulnerability_field_tests">Vulnerability field tests</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Vulnerability field tests">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_military_venues">In military venues</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In military venues">edit</a>]</div> In August 1949 a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Biological_Warfare_Laboratories" title="United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories">U.S. Army Special Operations Division</a>, operating out of <a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick" title="Fort Detrick">Fort Detrick</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, set up its first test at <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">The Pentagon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> Operatives sprayed harmless bacteria into the building's air conditioning system and observed as the microbes spread throughout the Pentagon.<a href="#cite_note-timeline-69">[69]</a> The U.S. military acknowledges that it tested several chemical and biological weapons on US military personnel in the desert facility, including the <a href="/w/index.php?title=East_Demilitarization_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Demilitarization Area (page does not exist)">East Demilitarization Area</a> near <a href="/wiki/Deseret_Chemical_Depot" title="Deseret Chemical Depot">Deseret Chemical Depot</a>/<a href="/wiki/Deseret_Chemical_Test_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Deseret Chemical Test Center">Deseret Chemical Test Center</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Douglas,_Utah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Douglas, Utah">Fort Douglas, Utah</a>, but takes the position that the tests have contributed to long-term illnesses in only a handful of exposed personnel.<a href="#cite_note-sltrib.com-70">[70]</a> Veterans who took part believe they were also exposed to <a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs" title="United States Department of Veterans Affairs">Department of Veterans Affairs</a> denies almost all claims for care and compensation made by veterans who believe they got sick as a result of the tests. The U.S. military for decades remained silent about "<a href="/wiki/Project_112" title="Project 112">Project 112</a>" and its victims, a slew of tests overseen by the Army's Deseret Test Center in Salt Lake City. Project 112 starting in the 1960s tested chemical and biological agents, including VX, sarin and E. coli, on military personnel who did not know they were being tested. After the Defense Department finally acknowledged conducting the tests on unwitting human subjects, it agreed to help the Veterans' Affairs Department track down those who were exposed, but a Government Accountability Office report in 2008 scolded the military for ceasing the effort.<a href="#cite_note-sltrib.com-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_civilian_venues">In civilian venues</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In civilian venues">edit</a>]</div> Between 1941 and the mid-1960s, some medical experiments were conducted on a large scale on civilians who had not consented to participate. Often, these experiments took place in urban areas in order to test dispersion methods. Questions were raised about detrimental health effects after experiments in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, were followed by a spike in hospital visits. The San Francisco test involved a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S. Navy</a> ship that in 1951 sprayed <a href="/wiki/Serratia_marcescens" title="Serratia marcescens">Serratia marcescens</a> from the bay; it traveled more than 30 miles.<a href="#cite_note-wmd-71">[71]</a> In 1977, however, the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> reported that there was no association between the testing and the occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wmd-71">[71]</a> Scientists tested biological agents, including Bacillus globigii, which were thought to be harmless, at public places such as subways. Light bulbs containing <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_globigii" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus globigii">Bacillus globigii</a> were dropped in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>'s <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Subway" title="New York City Subway">subway system</a>; the result was strong enough to affect people prone to illness (also known as Subway Experiment).<a href="#cite_note-bbc-72">[72]</a> Based on the circulation measurements, thousands of people would have been killed if a dangerous microbe was released in the same manner.<a href="#cite_note-wmd-71">[71]</a> Another dispersion test involved laboratory personnel disguised as passengers spraying harmless bacteria in <a href="/wiki/Washington_National_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington National Airport">Washington National Airport</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wmd-71">[71]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft">jet aircraft</a> released material over <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_Texas" title="Victoria, Texas">Victoria, Texas</a>, that was monitored in the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Florida Keys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wmd-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="GAO_Report">GAO Report</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: GAO Report">edit</a>]</div> In February 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a> (GAO) released report GAO-08-366 titled, "Chemical and Biological Defense, DOD and VA Need to Improve Efforts to Identify and Notify Individuals Potentially Exposed during Chemical and Biological Tests." The report stated that tens of thousands of military personnel and civilians may have been exposed to biological and chemical substances through <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">DOD</a> tests. In 2003, the DOD reported it had identified 5,842 military personnel and estimated 350 civilians as being potentially exposed during the testing, known as <a href="/wiki/Project_112" title="Project 112">Project 112</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gao366-73">[73]</a> The GAO scolded the U.S. Department of Defense's (DOD) 2003 decision to stop searching for people affected by the tests as premature.<a href="#cite_note-sltrib.com-70">[70]</a> The GAO report also found that the DoD made no effort to inform civilians of exposure, and that the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs" title="United States Department of Veterans Affairs">United States Department of Veterans Affairs</a> (VA) is failing to use available resources to inform veterans of possible exposure or to determine if they were deceased. After the DoD halted efforts to find those who may have been affected by the tests, veteran health activists and others identified approximately 600 additional individuals who were potentially exposed during Project 112.<a href="#cite_note-gao366-73">[73]</a> Some of the individuals were identified after the GAO reviewed records stored at the <a href="/wiki/Dugway_Proving_Ground" title="Dugway Proving Ground">Dugway Proving Ground</a>, others were identified by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sltrib1-74">[74]</a> Many of the newly identified suffer from long-term illnesses that may have been caused by the biological or chemical testing.<a href="#cite_note-sltrib2-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_(post-1969)_bio-defense_program">Current (post-1969) bio-defense program</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Current (post-1969) bio-defense program">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_biological_defense_program" title="United States biological defense program">United States biological defense program</a></div> Both the U.S. bio-weapons ban and the <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a> restricted any work in the area of biological warfare to <a href="/wiki/Biodefense" title="Biodefense">defensive in nature</a>. In reality, this gives BWC member-states wide latitude to conduct biological weapons research because the BWC contains no provisions for monitoring or enforcement.<a href="#cite_note-littlewood-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-cirincione2-77">[77]</a> The treaty, essentially, is a gentlemen's agreement amongst members backed by the long-prevailing thought that biological warfare should not be used in battle.<a href="#cite_note-littlewood-76">[76]</a> After Nixon declared an end to the U.S. bio-weapons program, debate in the Army centered around whether or not toxin weapons were included in the president's declaration.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> Following Nixon's November 1969 order, scientists at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick" title="Fort Detrick">Fort Detrick</a> worked on one toxin, <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">Staphylococcus enterotoxin type B</a> (SEB), for several more months.<a href="#cite_note-mauroni-31">[31]</a> Nixon ended the debate when he added toxins to the bio-weapons ban in February 1970.<a href="#cite_note-guillemin-27">[27]</a> The U.S. also ran a series of experiments with <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, code named <a href="/wiki/Project_Bacchus" title="Project Bacchus">Project Bacchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Clear_Vision" title="Project Clear Vision">Project Clear Vision</a> and <a href="/wiki/Project_Jefferson" title="Project Jefferson">Project Jefferson</a> in the late 1990s and early 2000s. In recent years certain critics have claimed the U.S. stance on biological warfare and the use of biological agents has differed from historical interpretations of the BWC.<a href="#cite_note-fas1-78">[78]</a> For example, it is said that the U.S. now maintains that the Article I of the BWC (which explicitly bans bio-weapons), does not apply to "non-lethal" biological agents.<a href="#cite_note-fas1-78">[78]</a> Previous interpretation was stated to be in line with a definition laid out in Public Law 101-298, the <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Anti-Terrorism_Act_of_1989" title="Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989">Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fas2-79">[79]</a> That law defined a biological agent as:<a href="#cite_note-fas2-79">[79]</a> <blockquote>any micro-organism, virus, infectious substance, or biological product that may be engineered as a result of biotechnology, or any naturally occurring or bioengineered component of any such microorganism, virus, infectious substance, or biological product, capable of causing death, disease, or other biological malfunction in a human, an animal, a plant, or another living organism; deterioration of food, water, equipment, supplies, or material of any kind ...</blockquote> According to the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a>, U.S. work on non-lethal agents exceeds limitations in the BWC.<a href="#cite_note-fas1-78">[78]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, the Russians claimed that they had come across "US military-run biolabs in Ukraine" supposedly developing biological weapons.<a href="#cite_note-:1-80">[80]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ukraine_biolabs_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukraine biolabs conspiracy theory">Ukraine biolabs conspiracy theory</a> was rejected as without evidence by the US,<a href="#cite_note-:2-81">[81]</a> Ukraine,<a href="#cite_note-cnnosullivan22-82">[82]</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Reuters-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Russian scientists,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reuters-83">[83]</a> who stated the labs are performing public health research. The US dismissed the allegations as propaganda and <a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation_since_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian disinformation since 2000">disinformation</a>, stating the labs focused on preventing the outbreak of infectious diseases and developing vaccines.<a href="#cite_note-:1-80">[80]</a> The laboratories were first established following the <a href="/wiki/Nunn%E2%80%93Lugar_Cooperative_Threat_Reduction" title="Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction">Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction</a> to secure and dismantle the remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_biological_weapons_program" title="Soviet biological weapons program">Soviet biological weapons program</a>, and since then have been used to monitor and prevent new epidemics. The laboratories are publicly listed, not secret, and are operated by their own countries, such as Ukraine, not by the US.<a href="#cite_note-cnnosullivan22-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-90">[90]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/PolitiFact" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a>, as part of a continuation of international agreements to reduce biological threats, the Department of Defense does provide "technical support to the Ukrainian Ministry of Health since 2005 to improve public health laboratories," but does not control or provide personnel to the public health facilities.<a href="#cite_note-:1-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-81">[81]</a> According to the 2008 report by the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a>, "Developments in <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a>, may produce a wide variety of live agents and toxins that are difficult to detect and counter; and new chemical warfare agents and mixtures of chemical weapons and biowarfare agents are being developed . . . Countries are using the natural overlap between weapons and civilian applications of chemical and biological materials to conceal chemical weapon and bioweapon production."<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biological_warfare" title="History of biological warfare">History of biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_experimentation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation in the United States">Human experimentation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_biological_weapons_program" title="Iraqi biological weapons program">Iraqi biological weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea-Spray" title="Operation Sea-Spray">Operation Sea-Spray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Olson" title="Frank Olson">Frank Olson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_SHAD" title="Project SHAD">Project SHAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_biological_weapons_program" title="Soviet biological weapons program">Soviet biological weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Biological_Warfare_Laboratories" title="United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories">United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States and weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_chemical_weapons_program" title="United States chemical weapons program">United States chemical weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_biological_warfare_in_the_Korean_War" title="Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War">Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2001_anthrax_attacks" title="2001 anthrax attacks">2001 anthrax attacks</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-smart-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smart_1-13">n</a> Smart, Jeffery K. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/chemBio/chembio.html">Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare</a>: Chapter 2 – History of Chemical and Biological Warfare: An American Perspective, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011119085143/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/medaspec/Ch-2electrv699.pdf">PDF</a>: p. 14), <a href="/wiki/Borden_Institute" title="Borden Institute">Borden Institute</a>, Textbooks of Military Medicine, PDF via <a href="/wiki/Maxwell-Gunter_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base">Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base</a>. Retrieved January 3, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-garrett-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-garrett_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-garrett_2-1">b</a> Garrett, Laurie. Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=teMYnJoVolkC&dq=us+bio+weapons+1943&pg=PA340">Google Books</a>), Oxford University Press, 2003, pp. 340–41, (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198526830" title="Special:BookSources/0198526830">0198526830</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-croddy2-3"><a href="#cite_ref-croddy2_3-0">^</a> Croddy, Weapons of Mass Destruction, p. 303. </li> <li id="cite_note-zilinskas-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zilinskas_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zilinskas_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zilinskas_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zilinskas_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zilinskas_4-4">e</a> Zilinskas, Raymond A. 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Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Containing and Preventing Biological Threats, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dq2HEPoFjSAC&dq=us+bio+weapons+1943&pg=PA14">Google Books</a>), Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008, p. 14, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0750684895" title="Special:BookSources/0750684895">0750684895</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-moreno-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-moreno_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moreno_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moreno_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moreno_7-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_D._Moreno" title="Jonathan D. 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America's Struggle with Chemical-Biological Weapons, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TiSL-7ghCWwC&dq=nixon+biological+weapons+ban&pg=PA50">Google Books</a>), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000, pp. 49–60, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275967565" title="Special:BookSources/0275967565">0275967565</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-mangold-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mangold_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mangold_32-1">b</a> Mangold, Tom. 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An American Editor in Early Revolutionary China: John William Powell and the China Weekly/monthly Review, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EAwwU6iBw-8C&dq=us+bio+weapons+1943&pg=PA218">Google Books</a>), Routledge, 2003, pp. 217–19, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415944244" title="Special:BookSources/0415944244">0415944244</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-34"><a href="#cite_ref-carter_34-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Carter,_April" class="mw-redirect" title="Carter, April">Carter, April</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Stockholm_International_Peace_Research_Institute" title="Stockholm International Peace Research Institute">Stockholm International Peace Research Institute</a>). Success and Failure in Arms Control Negotiations, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3vLPuAV4lcC&dq=nixon+ban+biological+weapons&pg=PA298">Google Books</a>), Oxford University Press, 1989, p. 298, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198291280" title="Special:BookSources/0198291280">0198291280</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-fas-35"><a href="#cite_ref-fas_35-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/geneva/text/geneva1.htm">Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare</a>", via <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a>, April 29, 1975. Retrieved January 5, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-note1-36"><a href="#cite_ref-note1_36-0">^</a> The United States is known to have researched both <a href="/wiki/B._mallei" class="mw-redirect" title="B. mallei">B. mallei</a> (the causal agent of glanders) and <a href="/wiki/B._pseudomallei" class="mw-redirect" title="B. pseudomallei">B. pseudomallei</a> (the causal agent of melioidosis) from 1943–1944. Neither bacteria was weaponized. See Khardori, Bioterrorism Preparedness, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-weaponslist-37"><a href="#cite_ref-weaponslist_37-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011002153149/http://www.cns.miis.edu/research/cbw/possess.htm">Chemical and Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present</a>", James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, <a href="/wiki/Middlebury_College" title="Middlebury College">Middlebury College</a>, April 9, 2002. Retrieved January 3, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-carroll-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carroll_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-carroll_38-1">b</a> Carroll, Michael C. Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aLyWOYcC3zAC&dq=%22Fort+Terry%22+biological+weapons&pg=PA48">Google Books</a>), HarperCollins, 2004, pp. 45–48, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060011416" title="Special:BookSources/0060011416">0060011416</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-croddy1-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-croddy1_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-croddy1_39-1">b</a> Croddy, Weapons of Mass Destruction, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-kirby-40"><a href="#cite_ref-kirby_40-0">^</a> Kirby, Reid. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wood.army.mil/chmdsd/pdfs/Jul-Dec%202006/Kirby3col.pdf">The CB Battlefield Legacy: Understanding the Potential Problem of Clustered CB Weapons</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121019041039/http://www.wood.army.mil/chmdsd/pdfs/Jul-Dec%202006/Kirby3col.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-10-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/Army_Chemical_Review" title="Army Chemical Review">Army Chemical Review</a>, pp. 25–29, July–December 2006. Retrieved January 5, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-countermeasures-41"><a href="#cite_ref-countermeasures_41-0">^</a> Countermeasures, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ciar.org/ttk/mbt/missile-countermeasures-technology.CM_ch6-9.pdf">Chapter 6 – An Overview of Emerging Missile State Countermeasures</a>, p. 14. Retrieved January 5, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-eitzen-42"><a href="#cite_ref-eitzen_42-0">^</a> Eitzen, Edward M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/chemBio/chembio.html">Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare</a>: Chapter 20 – Use of Biological Weapons, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011214100716/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/medaspec/Ch-20electrv699.pdf">PDF</a>: p. 6), <a href="/wiki/Borden_Institute" title="Borden Institute">Borden Institute</a>, Textbooks of Military Medicine, PDF via <a href="/wiki/Maxwell-Gunter_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base">Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base</a>. Retrieved January 5, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-usphs-43"><a href="#cite_ref-usphs_43-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/U.S._Public_Health_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Public Health Service">U.S. Public Health Service</a>, Office of Emergency Preparedness, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/blaw/FEMA/Proceedings.pdf">"Proceedings of the Seminar Responding to the Consequences of Chemical and Biological Terrorism"</a>, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, Md; July 11–14, 1995, p. 70, via LSU Law Center's Medical and Public Health Law Site. Retrieved January 5, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-stueck-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stueck_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stueck_44-1">b</a> Stueck, William Whitney. The Korean War in World History, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9yqLZUITEI0C&dq=Biological+weapons+korean+war&pg=PA83">Google Books</a>), University Press of Kentucky, 2004, pp. 83–84, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813123062" title="Special:BookSources/0813123062">0813123062</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-regis-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-regis_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-regis_45-1">b</a> Regis, Ed. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/06/27/reviews/990627.27reg.html?_r=2">Wartime Lies?</a>", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, June 27, 1999. Retrieved January 7, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-guillemin2-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guillemin2_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guillemin2_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guillemin2_46-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Guillemin,_Jeanne" class="mw-redirect" title="Guillemin, Jeanne">Guillemin, Jeanne</a>. Biological Weapons, pp. 99–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-usnews-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-usnews_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-usnews_47-1">b</a> Auster, Bruce B. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/981116/archive_005192.htm">Unmasking an Old Lie</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110524213923/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/981116/archive_005192.htm">Archived</a> May 24, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</a>, November 16, 1998. Retrieved January 7, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Korea: The Unknown War (Viking, 1988) </li> <li id="cite_note-endicott-49"><a href="#cite_ref-endicott_49-0">^</a> Endicott, Stephen, and Hagerman, Edward. The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P8HgoMBKi0YC&q=The+United+States+and+Biological+Warfare+Secrets+from+the+Early+Cold+War+and+Korea">Google Books</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/e/endicott-biological.html">relevant excerpt</a>), Indiana University Press, 1998, pp. 75–77, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253334721" title="Special:BookSources/0253334721">0253334721</a>), links accessed January 7, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-reviews-50"><a href="#cite_ref-reviews_50-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yorku.ca/sendicot/reviews.htm">Reviews of The United States and Biological Warfare: secrets of the Early Cold War and Korea</a>", <a href="/wiki/York_University" title="York University">York University</a>, compiled book review excerpts. Retrieved January 7, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-cwihp-51"><a href="#cite_ref-cwihp_51-0">^</a> Weathersby, Kathryn, & Milton Leitenberg, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilsoncenter.net/publication/cwihp-bulletin-11">New Evidence on the Korean War</a>", <a href="/wiki/Cold_War_International_History_Project" title="Cold War International History Project">Cold War International History Project</a>, 1998. Retrieved March 4, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-Romerstein-52"><a href="#cite_ref-Romerstein_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_Romerstein2001" class="citation journal cs1">Herbert Romerstein (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7GCLnVGiID4C&pg=PA57">"Disinformation as a KGB Weapon in the Cold War"</a>. The Journal of Intelligence History. 1: 59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Intelligence+History&rft.atitle=Disinformation+as+a+KGB+Weapon+in+the+Cold+War&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=59&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Herbert+Romerstein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7GCLnVGiID4C%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+biological+weapons+program" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jeffreys1-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jeffreys1_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jeffreys1_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jeffreys1_53-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.aljazeera.net/programmes/peopleandpower/2010/03/201031761541794128.html">People & Power: Dirty little secrets</a> by Diarmuid Jeffreys, Al Jazeera English, 2010-03-10 </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNICHOLSON.2021" class="citation book cs1">NICHOLSON., Baker (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1237807728">BASELESS : my search for secrets in the ruins of the freedom of information act</a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7352-1576-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7352-1576-4"><bdi>978-0-7352-1576-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1237807728">1237807728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=BASELESS+%3A+my+search+for+secrets+in+the+ruins+of+the+freedom+of+information+act.&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1237807728&rft.isbn=978-0-7352-1576-4&rft.aulast=NICHOLSON.&rft.aufirst=Baker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1237807728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+biological+weapons+program" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaye2021" class="citation web cs1">Kaye, Jeffrey (2021-06-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jeff-kaye.medium.com/a-real-flood-of-bacteria-and-germs-communications-intelligence-and-charges-of-u-s-4decafdc762">""A real flood of bacteria and germs" — Communications Intelligence and Charges of U.S."</a> Medium. Retrieved 2021-07-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medium&rft.atitle=%22A+real+flood+of+bacteria+and+germs%22+%E2%80%94+Communications+Intelligence+and+Charges+of+U.S.&rft.date=2021-06-13&rft.aulast=Kaye&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjeff-kaye.medium.com%2Fa-real-flood-of-bacteria-and-germs-communications-intelligence-and-charges-of-u-s-4decafdc762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+biological+weapons+program" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chomsky-56"><a href="#cite_ref-chomsky_56-0">^</a> Chomsky, Noam. Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4ErRaUQhb-8C&dq=biological+weapons+against+Cuba&pg=PA27">Google Books</a>), Pluto Press, 2000, p. 27, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0745317081" title="Special:BookSources/0745317081">0745317081</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-levy-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-levy_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-levy_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-levy_57-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-levy_57-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-levy_57-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-levy_57-5">f</a> <a href="/wiki/Levy,_Barry_S." class="mw-redirect" title="Levy, Barry S.">Levy, Barry S.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidel,_Victor_W." class="mw-redirect" title="Sidel, Victor W.">Sidel, Victor W.</a> War and Public Health, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E9YgB0cxC0UC&dq=biological+weapons+against+Cuba&pg=PA110">Google Books</a>), American Public Health Association, 2000, pp. 110–11, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0875530230" title="Special:BookSources/0875530230">0875530230</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-nieto-58"><a href="#cite_ref-nieto_58-0">^</a> Nieto, Clara, Brandt, Chris, and <a href="/wiki/Zinn,_Howard" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinn, Howard">Zinn, Howard</a>. Masters of War: Latin America and United States Aggression from the Cuban Revolution Through the Clinton Years, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TGrB5guKEnAC&dq=biological+weapons+against+Cuba&pg=PA458">Google Books</a>), Seven Stories Press, 2003, pp. 458–59, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1583225455" title="Special:BookSources/1583225455">1583225455</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-blum-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blum_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-blum_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-blum_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-blum_59-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-blum_59-4">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Blum,_William" class="mw-redirect" title="Blum, William">Blum, William</a>. <a href="/wiki/Killing_Hope" title="Killing Hope">Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II</a>, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pdfy-q0ULBH2DJICRS3Vg/page/n187">Internet Archive</a>), Zed Books Ltd., 2003, pp. 188–90, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1842773690" title="Special:BookSources/1842773690">1842773690</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZilinskas1999" class="citation journal cs1">Zilinskas, R. A. (1999). "Cuban Allegations of Biological Warfare by the United States: Assessing the Evidence". Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 25 (3): 173–227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408419991299202">10.1080/10408419991299202</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10524329">10524329</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Cuban+Allegations+of+Biological+Warfare+by+the+United+States%3A+Assessing+the+Evidence&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=173-227&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10408419991299202&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10524329&rft.aulast=Zilinskas&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+biological+weapons+program" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelis2004" class="citation book cs1">Wheelis, M. 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France 24. 2022-03-12. Retrieved 2022-03-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=France+24&rft.atitle=China+and+QAnon+embrace+Russian+disinformation+justifying+war+in+Ukraine&rft.date=2022-03-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2Feurope%2F20220312-china-and-qanon-embrace-russian-disinformation-justifying-war-in-ukraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+biological+weapons+program" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.snopes.com/news/2022/02/24/us-biolabs-ukraine-russia/">"Ukraine, US Biolabs, and an Ongoing Russian Disinformation Campaign"</a>. Snopes.com. 24 February 2022. 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Retrieved 2022-03-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=Ex-Soviet+Bioweapons+Labs+Are+Fighting+COVID-19.+Moscow+Doesn%27t+Like+It.&rft.aulast=Stronski&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2020%2F06%2F25%2Fsoviet-bioweapons-labs-georgia-armenia-kazakhstan-coronavirus-russia-disinformation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+biological+weapons+program" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerr2008" class="citation web cs1">Kerr, Paul K. (February 20, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usiraq.procon.org/sourcefiles/CRS_2-20-08.pdf">"Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons and Missiles: Status and Trends"</a> (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. CRS-17. Retrieved July 28, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuclear%2C+Biological%2C+and+Chemical+Weapons+and+Missiles%3A+Status+and+Trends&rft.pages=CRS-17&rft.pub=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.date=2008-02-20&rft.aulast=Kerr&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fusiraq.procon.org%2Fsourcefiles%2FCRS_2-20-08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+biological+weapons+program" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Cirincione" title="Joseph Cirincione">Cirincione, Joseph</a>, et al. Deadly Arsenals: Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Threats, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7F-nbw6q8S4C&dq=nixon+biological+weapons+ban&pg=PA212">Google Books</a>), <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegie Endowment">Carnegie Endowment</a>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/087003216X" title="Special:BookSources/087003216X">087003216X</a>.</li> <li>Croddy, Eric and Wirtz, James J. Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Encyclopedia of Worldwide Policy, Technology, and History, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzlNgS70OHAC&dq=m33+cluster+bomb&pg=PA75">Google Books</a>), ABC-CLIO, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1851094903" title="Special:BookSources/1851094903">1851094903</a>.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721155336/http://pbs.gen.in/wgbh/nova/bioterror/glob_nf.html">Global Guide to Bioweapons</a>", <a href="/wiki/Nova_(American_TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova (American TV series)">Nova Online</a> – "Bioterror", <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>, accessed January 7, 2009.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Guillemin" title="Jeanne Guillemin">Guillemin, Jeanne</a>. Biological Weapons: From the Invention of State-sponsored Programs to Contemporary Bioterrorism, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780231129428/page/126">Internet Archive</a>), Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 63,  122–27. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231129424" title="Special:BookSources/0231129424">0231129424</a>.</li> <li>Khardori, Nancy. Bioterrorism Preparedness: Medicine – Public Health – Policy, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1TvF9JPW67IC&dq=us+bio+weapons+1943&pg=PA16">Google Books</a>), Wiley-VCH, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3527607730" title="Special:BookSources/3527607730">3527607730</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Miller_(journalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith Miller (journalist)">Miller, Judith</a>, Engelberg, Stephen and <a href="/wiki/William_J._Broad" class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Broad">Broad, William J.</a> <a href="/wiki/Germs:_Biological_Weapons_and_America%27s_Secret_War" title="Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War">Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War</a>, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RBb8ss3GG1MC&dq=nixon+biological+weapons+ban&pg=PA63">Google Books</a>), Simon and Schuster, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0684871599" title="Special:BookSources/0684871599">0684871599</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Army" title="United States Department of the Army">Department of the Army</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB58/RNCBW_USABWP.pdf">U.S. Army Activity in the U.S. Biological Warfare Programs</a>, 2 volumes; 24 February 1977.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_biological_weapons_program&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/weapon/">The Living Weapon</a>", <a href="/wiki/American_Experience" title="American Experience">American Experience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>, link to full one-hour video included, accessed January 12, 2009.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:U.S._biological_weapons" title="Template:U.S. biological weapons"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:U.S._biological_weapons" title="Template talk:U.S. biological weapons"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:U.S._biological_weapons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:U.S. biological weapons"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_biological_weapons_program" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States biological weapons program</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Weaponized agents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">Anthrax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">Botulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">Brucellosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_fever" title="Q fever">Q fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterotoxin_type_B" title="Enterotoxin type B">Enterotoxin type B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnaporthe_grisea" title="Magnaporthe grisea">Rice blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">Tularemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus">VEE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_rust" title="Stem rust">Wheat stem rust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Researched agents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Argentine hemorrhagic fever">AHF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Bolivian hemorrhagic fever">BHF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Bird flu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">CHIKV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">Dengue fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern equine encephalitis virus">EEE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">Glanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus_hemorrhagic_fever_with_renal_syndrome" title="Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome">Hantavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lassa_fever" title="Lassa fever">Lassa fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melioidosis" title="Melioidosis">Melioidosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulent_Newcastle_disease" title="Virulent Newcastle disease">VND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytophthora_infestans" title="Phytophthora infestans">Potato blight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psittacosis" title="Psittacosis">Psittacosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">Ricin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">RVF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinderpest" title="Rinderpest">Rinderpest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">Typhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Western equine encephalitis virus">WEE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">Yellow fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Munitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E120_bomblet" title="E120 bomblet">E120 bomblet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E133_cluster_bomb" title="E133 cluster bomb">E133 cluster bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E14_munition" title="E14 munition">E14 munition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E23_munition" title="E23 munition">E23 munition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E48_particulate_bomb" title="E48 particulate bomb">E48 particulate bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E61_anthrax_bomblet" title="E61 anthrax bomblet">E61 bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E77_balloon_bomb" title="E77 balloon bomb">E77 balloon bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E86_cluster_bomb" title="E86 cluster bomb">E86 cluster bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E96_cluster_bomb" title="E96 cluster bomb">E96 cluster bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flettner_rotor_bomblet" title="Flettner rotor bomblet">Flettner rotor bomblet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M114_bomb" title="M114 bomb">M114 bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M115_bomb" title="M115 bomb">M115 bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M143_bomblet" title="M143 bomblet">M143 bomblet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M33_cluster_bomb" title="M33 cluster bomb">M33 cluster bomb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Operations and testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea-Spray" title="Operation Sea-Spray">Operation Sea-Spray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Big_Buzz" title="Operation Big Buzz">Operation Big Buzz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Big_Itch" title="Operation Big Itch">Operation Big Itch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dark_Winter" title="Operation Dark Winter">Operation Dark Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dew" title="Operation Dew">Operation Dew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Drop_Kick" title="Operation Drop Kick">Operation Drop Kick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_LAC" title="Operation LAC">Operation LAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Magic_Sword" title="Operation Magic Sword">Operation Magic Sword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_May_Day" title="Operation May Day">Operation May Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Polka_Dot" title="Operation Polka Dot">Operation Polka Dot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Whitecoat" title="Operation Whitecoat">Operation Whitecoat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_112" title="Project 112">Project 112</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Bacchus" title="Project Bacchus">Project Bacchus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Biological_Warfare_Laboratories" title="United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories">U.S. Army Biological Warfare Labs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Island_Animal_Disease_Center#Building_101" title="Plum Island Animal Disease Center">Building 101</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_257" class="mw-redirect" title="Building 257">Building 257</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_470" title="Building 470">Building 470</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_Test_Center" title="Deseret Test Center">Deseret Test Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugway_Proving_Ground" title="Dugway Proving Ground">Dugway Proving Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick" title="Fort Detrick">Fort Detrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Douglas" title="Fort Douglas">Fort Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Terry" title="Fort Terry">Fort Terry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite_Peak_Installation" title="Granite Peak Installation">Granite Peak Installation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_Island_Chemical_Warfare_Service_Quarantine_Station" title="Horn Island Chemical Warfare Service Quarantine Station">Horn Island Testing Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Million-Liter_Test_Sphere" title="One-Million-Liter Test Sphere">One-Million-Liter Test Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pine_Bluff_Arsenal" title="Pine Bluff Arsenal">Pine Bluff Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Island_Animal_Disease_Center" title="Plum Island Animal Disease Center">Plum Island Animal Disease Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigo_Ordnance_Plant" title="Vigo Ordnance Plant">Vigo Ordnance Plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">Entomological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_biological_weapons_program" title="Soviet biological weapons program">Soviet biological weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_biological_warfare_in_the_Korean_War" title="Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War">Korean War bio-warfare allegations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._biological_weapons_topics" title="List of U.S. biological weapons topics">List of topics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">U.S. biological weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_biological_defense_program" title="United States biological defense program">U.S. biological defense program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_on_Chemical_and_Biological_Defense_Policies_and_Programs" title="Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs">U.S. bio-weapons ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Bureau_of_Consultants" title="War Bureau of Consultants">War Bureau of Consultants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Research_Service" title="War Research Service">War Research Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_biological_defense_program" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:U.S._biological_defense" title="Template:U.S. biological defense"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:U.S._biological_defense" title="Template talk:U.S. biological defense"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:U.S._biological_defense" title="Special:EditPage/Template:U.S. biological defense"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_biological_defense_program" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_biological_defense_program" title="United States biological defense program">United States biological defense program</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Federal administrative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/US_Department_of_Homeland_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="US Department of Homeland Security">DHS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DHS_Chemical_and_Biological_Defense_Division" title="DHS Chemical and Biological Defense Division">DHS Chemical and Biological Defense Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DHS_Office_of_Health_Affairs" title="DHS Office of Health Affairs">DHS Office of Health Affairs</a> (National Biosurvelliance Integration Center, <a href="/wiki/BioWatch" title="BioWatch">BioWatch</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Biodefense_Analysis_and_Countermeasures_Center" title="National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center">National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bio_and_Agro-Defense_Facility" title="National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility">National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Bioforensic_Analysis_Center&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Bioforensic Analysis Center (page does not exist)">National Bioforensic Analysis Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">DNI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Counterproliferation_Center" title="National Counterproliferation Center">National Counterproliferation Center</a> (Advisory Committee on Bioterrorism)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/US_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="US Department of Health and Human Services">DHHS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Assistant_Secretary_for_Preparedness_and_Response" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response">Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Select_Agents_and_Toxins" title="Division of Select Agents and Toxins">Division of Select Agents and Toxins</a> (<a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Science_Advisory_Board_for_Biosecurity" title="National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity">National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/US_Department_of_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="US Department of Defense">DoD</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Nuclear,_Chemical_%26_Biological_Defense_Programs" title="Assistant Secretary of Defense for Nuclear, Chemical & Biological Defense Programs">Assistant SECDEF for NCB Defense Programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Threat_Reduction_Agency" title="Defense Threat Reduction Agency">Defense Threat Reduction Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_Emerging_Infections_Surveillance_and_Response_System&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System (page does not exist)">Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Program_Executive_Office_of_Chemical_and_Biological_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Program Executive Office of Chemical and Biological Defense">Joint Program Executive Office of Chemical and Biological Defense</a> (JPEO-CBD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Medical_Intelligence" title="National Center for Medical Intelligence">National Center for Medical Intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Federal research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Trans- departmental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Interagency_Confederation_for_Biological_Research" title="National Interagency Confederation for Biological Research">National Interagency Confederation for Biological Research</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Interagency_Biodefense_Campus" title="National Interagency Biodefense Campus">National Interagency Biodefense Campus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick" title="Fort Detrick">Fort Detrick</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_Advanced_Research_and_Development_Authority#Integrated_National_Biodefense_Medical_Countermeasures_Portfolio" title="Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority">Integrated National Biodefense Medical Countermeasures Portfolio</a> (DHHS/DoD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Medical_Research_Institute_of_Infectious_Diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases">U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgewood_Chemical_Biological_Center" title="Edgewood Chemical Biological Center">Edgewood Chemical Biological Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugway_Proving_Ground" title="Dugway Proving Ground">Dugway Proving Ground</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galveston_National_Laboratory" title="Galveston National Laboratory">Galveston National Laboratory</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_Medical_Branch" title="University of Texas Medical Branch">UTMB</a>/<a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Allergy_and_Infectious_Diseases" title="National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases">NIAID</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integrated_Research_Facility&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Integrated Research Facility (page does not exist)">Integrated Research Facility</a> (HHS/<a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Allergy_and_Infectious_Diseases" title="National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases">NIAID</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_Advanced_Research_and_Development_Authority" title="Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority">Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority</a> (HHS)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homeland_Security_Research_Program&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Homeland Security Research Program (page does not exist)">Homeland Security Research Program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a>/DHS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Island_Animal_Disease_Center" title="Plum Island Animal Disease Center">Plum Island Animal Disease Center</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">USDA</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Disease_Weed_Science_Research_Unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Disease Weed Science Research Unit">Foreign Disease Weed Science Research Unit</a> (USDA)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Local</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_Health_Departments" class="mw-redirect" title="Local Health Departments">Local Health Departments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Health_Departments" class="mw-redirect" title="State Health Departments">State Health Departments</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nebraska_Biocontainment_Patient_Care_Unit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nebraska Biocontainment Patient Care Unit (page does not exist)">Nebraska Biocontainment Patient Care Unit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Federal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NDMS" class="mw-redirect" title="NDMS">National Medical Response Team/National Pharmacy Response Team</a> (<a href="/wiki/NDMS" class="mw-redirect" title="NDMS">NDMS</a>, HHS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_Biological_Incident_Response_Force" title="Chemical Biological Incident Response Force">Chemical Biological Incident Response Force</a> (<a href="/wiki/USMC" class="mw-redirect" title="USMC">USMC</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_Intelligence_Service" title="Epidemic Intelligence Service">Epidemic Intelligence Service</a> (<a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeromedical_Biological_Containment_System" title="Aeromedical Biological Containment System">Aeromedical Biological Containment System</a> (CDC)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioterror_Rapid_Response_and_Advanced_Technology_Laboratory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bioterror Rapid Response and Advanced Technology Laboratory (page does not exist)">Bioterror Rapid Response and Advanced Technology Laboratory</a> (CDC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Non- governmental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Academic centers and think tanks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Center_for_Health_Security" title="Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security">Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security (formerly Center for Biosecurity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry L. Stimson Center">Henry L. Stimson Center</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Center_for_Advancing_Microbial_Risk_Assessment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Center for Advancing Microbial Risk Assessment (page does not exist)">Center for Advancing Microbial Risk Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Center_for_Biodefense_and_Emerging_Pathogens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Center for Biodefense and Emerging Pathogens (page does not exist)">Center for Biodefense and Emerging Pathogens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Bioinformatics_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Bioinformatics Institute">Middle-Atlantic Regional Center of Excellence for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases Research</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Center_for_Biodefense_Immune_Modeling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Center for Biodefense Immune Modeling (page does not exist)">Center for Biodefense Immune Modeling</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Center_for_Civilian_Biodefense_Strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Johns Hopkins Center for Civilian Biodefense Strategies">Johns Hopkins Center for Civilian Biodefense Strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Center_for_Biodefense_and_Infectious_Diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases (page does not exist)">National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases</a> (NCBID; <a href="/wiki/George_Mason_University" title="George Mason University">George Mason Univ.</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Government_contractors" class="mw-redirect" title="Government contractors">Government contractors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battelle_Memorial_Institute" title="Battelle Memorial Institute">Battelle Memorial Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Idaho_Technology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Idaho Technology (page does not exist)">Idaho Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Air" title="Phoenix Air">Phoenix Air</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Programs and projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Threat reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nunn%E2%80%93Lugar_Cooperative_Threat_Reduction" title="Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction">Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program</a>, implemented the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Threat_Reduction_Agency" title="Defense Threat Reduction Agency">Defense Threat Reduction Agency</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_Threat_Reduction&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biological Threat Reduction (page does not exist)">Biological Threat Reduction</a> (DoD) plus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Bacchus" title="Project Bacchus">Project Bacchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Clear_Vision" title="Project Clear Vision">Project Clear Vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Jefferson" title="Project Jefferson">Project Jefferson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Biosurveillance" title="Biosurveillance">Biosurveillance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Biosurveillance_Strategy" title="National Biosurveillance Strategy">National Biosurveillance Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Response_Network_(US)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory Response Network (US)">Laboratory Response Network</a> (CDC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BioWatch" title="BioWatch">BioWatch</a> (EPA, CDC)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_Bio-Surveillance_Technology_Initiative&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Global Bio-Surveillance Technology Initiative (page does not exist)">Global Bio-Surveillance Technology Initiative</a> (GBTI), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bio-Surveillance_Management_Office&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bio-Surveillance Management Office (page does not exist)">Bio-Surveillance Management Office</a> (BMO) (part of JPEO-CBD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence_(Electronic_Surveillance_System_for_the_Early_Notification_of_Community-based_Epidemics)" title="Essence (Electronic Surveillance System for the Early Notification of Community-based Epidemics)">ESSENCE</a> (DoD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_outbreak_and_disease_surveillance" title="Real-time outbreak and disease surveillance">RODS</a> (Civilian)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a>/Biosurety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Select_Agent_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Select Agent Program">Select Agent Program</a> (CDC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_Reliability_Program" title="Personnel Reliability Program">Personnel Reliability Program</a> (DoD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_intelligence" title="Medical intelligence">Medical intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Intelligence_Assessments_on_Infectious_Diseases" title="National Intelligence Assessments on Infectious Diseases">National Intelligence Assessments on Infectious Diseases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Disaster_response" title="Disaster response">Disaster response</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Response_Framework" title="National Response Framework">National Response Framework</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Strategy_for_Homeland_Security" title="National Strategy for Homeland Security">National Strategy for Homeland Security</a> (DHS; including <a href="/wiki/National_Incident_Management_System" title="National Incident Management System">NIMS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incident_Command_System" title="Incident Command System">ICS</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Disaster_Medical_System" title="National Disaster Medical System">National Disaster Medical System</a> (DHHS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_National_Stockpile" title="Strategic National Stockpile">Strategic National Stockpile</a> (CDC, DHS)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technology and equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Protection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MOPP_(protective_gear)" title="MOPP (protective gear)">MOPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NBC_suit" title="NBC suit">NBC suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respirators" class="mw-redirect" title="Respirators">Respirators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Detection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_CANARY" title="Cell CANARY">Cell CANARY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_MASINT#Biological_Materials_MASINT" title="Materials MASINT">Biological Materials MASINT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Pathogen_Detection_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous Pathogen Detection System">Autonomous Pathogen Detection System</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint_Biological_Agent_Identification_and_Diagnostic_System&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joint Biological Agent Identification and Diagnostic System (page does not exist)">Joint Biological Agent Identification and Diagnostic System</a> (JBAIDS)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Biocontainment" title="Biocontainment">Biocontainment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biosafety_level" title="Biosafety level">Biosafety level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosafety_cabinet" title="Biosafety cabinet">Biosafety cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_pressure_personnel_suit" title="Positive pressure personnel suit">Positive pressure personnel suit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Treaties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> (1925, 1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_on_Chemical_and_Biological_Defense_Policies_and_Programs" title="Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs">Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a> (1972)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Anti-Terrorism_Act_of_1989" title="Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989">Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Nuclear_Threat_Reduction_Act_of_1991" title="Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991">Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13139" title="Executive Order 13139">Executive Order 13139</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_Act" title="Patriot Act">Patriot Act</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Security_and_Bioterrorism_Preparedness_Response_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness Response Act">Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness Response Act</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agricultural_Bioterrorism_Protection_Act_of_2002&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agricultural Bioterrorism Protection Act of 2002 (page does not exist)">Agricultural Bioterrorism Protection Act of 2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Bioshield_Act" title="Project Bioshield Act">Project Bioshield Act</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodefense_and_Pandemic_Vaccine_and_Drug_Development_Act_of_2005" title="Biodefense and Pandemic Vaccine and Drug Development Act of 2005">Biodefense and Pandemic Vaccine and Drug Development Act of 2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Readiness_and_Emergency_Preparedness_Act" title="Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act">Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_and_All-Hazards_Preparedness_Act" title="Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act">Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_and_All-Hazards_Preparedness_Reauthorization_Act_of_2013" title="Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013">Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">International representation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Security_Initiative" title="Global Health Security Initiative">Global Health Security Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Partnership_Against_the_Spread_of_Weapons_and_Materials_of_Mass_Destruction" title="Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction">Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1540" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540">United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540</a> (2004)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Past biological incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_Rajneeshee_bioterror_attack" title="1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack">1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_California_medfly_attack" title="1989 California medfly attack">1989 California medfly attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2001_anthrax_attacks" title="2001 anthrax attacks">2001 anthrax attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_Green_ricin_plot" title="Wood Green ricin plot">Wood Green ricin plot</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_ricin_letters" title="2003 ricin letters">2003 ricin letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2013_ricin_letters" title="April 2013 ricin letters">2013 ricin letters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Defunct organizations and programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Medical_Unit" title="United States Army Medical Unit">United States Army Medical Unit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States biological weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunshine_Project" title="Sunshine Project">Sunshine Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeromedical_Isolation_Team" title="Aeromedical Isolation Team">Aeromedical Isolation Team</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">DoD</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agro-terrorism" title="Agro-terrorism">Agro-terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodefense" title="Biodefense">Biodefense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity_in_the_United_States" title="Biosecurity in the United States">Biosecurity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare (BW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosurveillance" title="Biosurveillance">Biosurveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CBRN_defense" title="CBRN defense">CBRN defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_decontamination" title="Human decontamination">Decontamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">Entomological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(health_care)" title="Isolation (health care)">Isolation (health care)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Select_agent" title="Select agent">Select agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox_virus_retention_debate" title="Smallpox virus retention debate">Smallpox virus retention debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Armed_Forces" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Template:United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Template talk:United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Armed_Forces" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <dl><dt>Legend</dt> <dd>A = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></dd> <dd>MC = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></dd> <dd>N = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></dd> <dd>AF = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></dd> <dd>SF = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></dd> <dd>CG = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Deputy Secretary of Defense">Deputy Secretary of Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Secretary of Homeland Security">Secretary of Homeland Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security">Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff">Chairman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff">Vice Chairman</a></li></ul></li> <li>Committees on Armed Services <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States Senate Committee on Armed Services">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States House Committee on Armed Services">House</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_duty_United_States_four-star_officers" title="List of active duty United States four-star officers">Active duty four-star officers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_duty_United_States_three-star_officers" title="List of active duty United States three-star officers">Active duty three-star officers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_seniority" title="United States military seniority">United States military seniority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Act_of_1947" title="National Security Act of 1947">National Security Act of 1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldwater%E2%80%93Nichols_Act" title="Goldwater–Nichols Act">Goldwater–Nichols Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_components_of_the_U.S._Department_of_Defense" title="List of components of the U.S. Department of Defense">Components</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military departments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Army" title="United States Department of the Army">Department of the Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army" title="United States Secretary of the Army">Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy" title="United States Department of the Navy">Department of the Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Department of the Air Force">Department of the Air Force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Secretary of the Air Force">Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Secretary of Homeland Security">Secretary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Service branches and heads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Army">Chief of Staff of the United States Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commandant_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Commandant of the United States Marine Corps">Commandant of the Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations" title="Chief of Naval Operations">Chief of Naval Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force">Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Space_Operations" title="Chief of Space Operations">Chief of Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard" title="Commandant of the Coast Guard">Commandant of the Coast Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Reserve_components_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces">Reserve components</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Reserves: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Reserve" title="United States Army Reserve">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve" title="United States Marine Corps Reserve">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Reserve" title="United States Navy Reserve">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Reserve_Command" title="Air Force Reserve Command">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Reserve" title="United States Coast Guard Reserve">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_National_Guard" title="Army National Guard">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_National_Guard" title="Air National Guard">AF</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries" title="Auxiliaries">Civilian auxiliaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Auxiliary_Radio_System" title="Military Auxiliary Radio System">Military Auxiliary Radio System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Corps_Cyber_Auxiliary" title="Marine Corps Cyber Auxiliary">Marine Corps Cyber Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Air_Patrol" title="Civil Air Patrol">Civil Air Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary" title="United States Coast Guard Auxiliary">Coast Guard Auxiliary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Unified_combatant_command" title="Unified combatant command">Unified combatant command</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Africa_Command" title="United States Africa Command">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Central_Command" title="United States Central Command">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_European_Command" title="United States European Command">European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Indo-Pacific_Command" title="United States Indo-Pacific Command">Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Northern_Command" title="United States Northern Command">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Southern_Command" title="United States Southern Command">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Cyber_Command" title="United States Cyber Command">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Special_Operations_Command" title="United States Special Operations Command">Special Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Command" title="United States Strategic Command">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Transportation_Command" title="United States Transportation Command">Transportation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Title_10_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 10 of the United States Code">Title 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_14_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 14 of the United States Code">Title 14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_32_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 32 of the United States Code">Title 32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_50_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 50 of the United States Code">Title 50</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">The Pentagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">Installations</a></li> <li>Units: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Category:Military units and formations of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Organization of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Category:Military units and formations of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Category:Military units and formations of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Units_and_formations_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Category:Units and formations of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Organization of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_logistics_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Military logistics of the United States">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mass_media_of_the_military_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Mass media of the military of the United States">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Armed_Forces_unit_mottoes" title="List of United States Armed Forces unit mottoes">Unit mottoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Operations and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_budget_of_the_United_States" title="Military budget of the United States">Budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_deployments" title="United States military deployments">Current deployments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_the_United_States" title="List of conflicts in the United States">Conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_United_States" title="List of wars involving the United States">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_affairs_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="History of civil affairs in the United States Armed Forces">Civil affairs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations" title="Timeline of United States military operations">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">By ancestry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Asian_Americans" title="Military history of Asian Americans">Asian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhists_in_the_United_States_military" title="Buddhists in the United States military">Buddhist Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Jewish_Americans" title="Military history of Jewish Americans">Jewish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslims_in_the_United_States_military" title="Muslims in the United States military">Muslim Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhs_in_the_United_States_military" title="Sikhs in the United States military">Sikh Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Hispanic_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Hispanic Americans">Hispanic Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hispanics in the American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Hispanics in the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Hispanics in the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Navy" title="Hispanics in the United States Navy">Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Naval_Academy" title="Hispanics in the United States Naval Academy">Academy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">History centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History" title="United States Army Center of Military History">Army Center of Military History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_History_Division" title="United States Marine Corps History Division">Marine Corps History Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_History_and_Heritage_Command" title="Naval History and Heritage Command">Naval History and Heritage Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Historical_Research_Agency" title="Air Force Historical Research Agency">Air Force Historical Research Agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/American_official_war_artists" title="American official war artists">War artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Art_Program" title="United States Army Art Program">Army Art Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Art_Program" title="United States Air Force Art Program">Air Force Art Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_service_academies" title="United States service academies">Service academies</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">A</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy_Preparatory_School" title="United States Military Academy Preparatory School">prep</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy" title="United States Naval Academy">MC/N</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naval_Academy_Preparatory_School" title="Naval Academy Preparatory School">prep</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy" title="United States Air Force Academy">AF/SF</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy_Preparatory_School" title="United States Air Force Academy Preparatory School">prep</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Academy" title="United States Coast Guard Academy">CG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Merchant_Marine_Academy" title="United States Merchant Marine Academy">Merchant Marine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps" title="Reserve Officers' Training Corps">ROTC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps" title="Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Reserve_Officers_Training_Corps" title="Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps">MC/N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Reserve_Officer_Training_Corps" title="Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps">AF/SF</a></li></ul></li> <li>Officer candidate/training school: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Officer_Candidate_School_(United_States_Army)" title="Officer Candidate School (United States Army)">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officer_Candidates_School_(United_States_Marine_Corps)" title="Officer Candidates School (United States Marine Corps)">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officer_Candidate_School_(United_States_Navy)" title="Officer Candidate School (United States Navy)">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Officer_Training_School" title="Air Force Officer Training School">AF/SF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrant_officer_(United_States)" title="Warrant officer (United States)">Warrant officer</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warrant_Officer_Candidate_School" title="Warrant Officer Candidate School">A</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Entrance_Processing_Command" title="United States Military Entrance Processing Command">MEPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Services_Vocational_Aptitude_Battery" title="Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery">ASVAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Basic_School" title="The Basic School">The Basic School</a> (MC)</li> <li>Enlisted recruit training: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Basic_Training" title="United States Army Basic Training">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Recruit_Training" title="United States Marine Corps Recruit Training">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_Training_Command,_Great_Lakes,_Illinois" title="Recruit Training Command, Great Lakes, Illinois">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Basic_Military_Training" title="United States Air Force Basic Military Training">AF/SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Training_Center_Cape_May" title="United States Coast Guard Training Center Cape May">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_education_and_training_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Military education and training in the United States">Other education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Uniforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Uniforms of the United States Armed Forces">Uniforms</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Uniforms of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Uniforms of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Uniforms of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Uniforms of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Uniforms of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Armed Forces">Awards & decorations</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter-service_awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_military" title="Inter-service awards and decorations of the United States military">Inter-service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Army" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Department of the Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Navy" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Department of the Navy">MC/N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Department of the Air Force">AF/SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authorized_foreign_decorations_of_the_United_States_military" title="Authorized foreign decorations of the United States military">Foreign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_military_decoration_authorized_by_the_US_military" class="mw-redirect" title="International military decoration authorized by the US military">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_award_devices" title="United States military award devices">Devices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_badges_of_the_United_States" title="Military badges of the United States">Badges</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identification_badges_of_the_uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Identification badges of the uniformed services of the United States">Identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Badges of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Badges of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Badges of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Badges of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Badges of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Badges of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_comparative_military_ranks" title="List of comparative military ranks">Ranks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Officer: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Army officer rank insignia">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_rank_insignia" title="United States Marine Corps rank insignia">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Navy officer rank insignia">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Air Force officer rank insignia">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force_rank_insignia" title="United States Space Force rank insignia">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Coast Guard officer rank insignia">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrant_officer_(United_States)" title="Warrant officer (United States)">Warrant officers</a></li> <li>Enlisted: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_enlisted_rank_insignia" title="United States Army enlisted rank insignia">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_rank_insignia" title="United States Marine Corps rank insignia">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_enlisted_rates" title="List of United States Navy enlisted rates">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_enlisted_rank_insignia" title="United States Air Force enlisted rank insignia">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force_rank_insignia" title="United States Space Force rank insignia">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_enlisted_ranks" title="List of United States Coast Guard enlisted ranks">CG</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Oath: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces_oath_of_enlistment" title="United States Armed Forces oath of enlistment">Enlistment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Uniformed_Services_Oath_of_Office" title="United States Uniformed Services Oath of Office">Officer</a></li></ul></li> <li>Creeds & Codes: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_the_United_States_Fighting_Force" title="Code of the United States Fighting Force">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncommissioned_officer%27s_creed" title="Noncommissioned officer's creed">NCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier%27s_Creed" title="Soldier's Creed">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman%27s_Creed" title="Rifleman's Creed">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailor%27s_Creed" title="Sailor's Creed">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airman%27s_Creed" title="Airman's Creed">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guardsman" title="Creed of the United States Coast Guardsman">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Armed_Forces)" title="Service number (United States Armed Forces)">Service numbers</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Army)" title="Service number (United States Army)">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Marine_Corps)" title="Service number (United States Marine Corps)">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Navy)" title="Service number (United States Navy)">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Air_Force)" title="Service number (United States Air Force)">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Coast_Guard)" title="Service number (United States Coast Guard)">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_occupation_code" title="United States military occupation code">Military Occupational Specialty</a>/<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_ratings" title="List of United States Navy ratings">Rating</a>/<a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Specialty_Code" title="Air Force Specialty Code">Air Force Specialty Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_pay" title="United States military pay">Pay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">Uniform Code of Military Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps">Judge Advocate General's Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Health_System" title="Military Health System">Military Health System</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tricare" title="Tricare">Tricare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_(United_States_military)" title="Separation (United States military)">Separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs" title="United States Department of Veterans Affairs">Veterans Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiefs_of_Chaplains_of_the_United_States" title="Chiefs of Chaplains of the United States">Chiefs of Chaplains</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Chaplains_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Chaplains of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Chaplain of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Chaplains_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Chief of Chaplains of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Chaplains_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Chief of Chaplains of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Chaplain of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="List of equipment of the United States Armed Forces">Equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Army" title="List of equipment of the United States Army">A</a> (<a href="/wiki/Army_Nomenclature_System" title="Army Nomenclature System">Designations</a>)</li> <li>MC: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vehicles_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="List of vehicles of the United States Marine Corps">vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="List of weapons of the United States Marine Corps">weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Marine_Corps_individual_equipment" title="List of United States Marine Corps individual equipment">other</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="List of equipment of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="List of equipment of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="List of equipment of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Land</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_weapons_of_the_U.S._Armed_Forces" title="List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces">Individual weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crew-served_weapons_of_the_U.S._Armed_Forces" title="List of crew-served weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces">Crew-served weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_land_vehicles_of_the_U.S._Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="List of land vehicles of the U.S. Armed Forces">Vehicles</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_currently_active_United_States_military_land_vehicles" title="List of currently active United States military land vehicles">active</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Sea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_currently_active_United_States_military_watercraft" title="List of currently active United States military watercraft">All watercraft</a></li> <li>Ships: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_United_States_Army" title="List of ships of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_ships" title="List of United States Navy ships">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ships_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="List of current ships of the United States Navy">active</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ships_of_the_United_States_Navy#Future_ships" title="List of current ships of the United States Navy">future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="List of ships of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_cutters" title="List of United States Coast Guard cutters">CG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Military_Sealift_Command_ships" title="List of Military Sealift Command ships">MSC</a></li></ul></li> <li>Weapons: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_weapons" title="List of United States Navy weapons">N</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_naval_reactors" title="United States naval reactors">Reactors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Air</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_aircraft_of_the_United_States" title="Lists of military aircraft of the United States">Aircraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_undesignated_military_aircraft_of_the_United_States" title="List of undesignated military aircraft of the United States">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_United_States_military_aircraft" title="List of active United States military aircraft">active</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_future_military_aircraft_of_the_United_States" title="List of future military aircraft of the United States">future</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_aircraft_designation_systems" title="United States military aircraft designation systems">Aircraft designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._helicopter_armament_subsystems" title="U.S. helicopter armament subsystems">Helicopter arms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Army_during_World_War_II" title="List of equipment of the United States Army during World War II">WWII equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_football" title="Nuclear football">Nuclear football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_electronics_of_the_United_States" title="List of military electronics of the United States">Electronics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joint_Electronics_Type_Designation_System" title="Joint Electronics Type Designation System">designations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Flags of the United States Armed Forces">Flags</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Flag of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Flag of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Flag of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Flag of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Flag of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Flag of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ensign_of_the_United_States" title="Ensign of the United States">Ensign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_of_the_United_States" title="Jack of the United States">Jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guidon_(United_States)" title="Guidon (United States)">Guidons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_ration" title="United States military ration">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">WMDs</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear weapons of the United States">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._chemical_weapons_topics" title="List of U.S. chemical weapons topics">Chemical</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Military of the United States">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Army" title="Category:United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Category:United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Navy" title="Category:United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Air_Force" title="Category:United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Space_Force" title="Category:United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Category:United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> Navboxes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Army_navbox" title="Template:US Army navbox">A</a></li> <li><a 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