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Hegel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-G.W.F._Hegel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sigmund_Freud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sigmund_Freud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Sigmund Freud</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sigmund_Freud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carl_Jung" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carl_Jung"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Carl Jung</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carl_Jung-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alfred_Adler" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alfred_Adler"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Alfred Adler</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alfred_Adler-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gordon_Allport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gordon_Allport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Gordon Allport</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gordon_Allport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erik_H._Erikson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erik_H._Erikson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.6</span> <span>Erik H. Erikson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erik_H._Erikson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erich_Fromm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erich_Fromm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.7</span> <span>Erich Fromm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erich_Fromm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rudolf_Otto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rudolf_Otto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.8</span> <span>Rudolf Otto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rudolf_Otto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_thinkers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_thinkers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Modern thinkers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_thinkers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allen_Bergin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allen_Bergin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Allen Bergin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allen_Bergin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robert_A._Emmons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_A._Emmons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Robert A. Emmons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_A._Emmons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ralph_W._Hood_Jr." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ralph_W._Hood_Jr."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Ralph W. Hood Jr.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ralph_W._Hood_Jr.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kenneth_Pargament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kenneth_Pargament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>Kenneth Pargament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kenneth_Pargament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-James_Hillman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Hillman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.5</span> <span>James Hillman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Hillman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Julian_Jaynes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Julian_Jaynes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.6</span> <span>Julian Jaynes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Julian_Jaynes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypotheses_on_the_role_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypotheses_on_the_role_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Hypotheses on the role of religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hypotheses_on_the_role_of_religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hypotheses on the role of religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hypotheses_on_the_role_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secularization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secularization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Secularization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secularization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_transformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_transformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Religious transformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_transformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_divide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_divide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Cultural divide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_divide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychometric_approaches_to_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychometric_approaches_to_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Psychometric approaches to religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Psychometric_approaches_to_religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Psychometric approaches to religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Psychometric_approaches_to_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious_orientations_and_religious_dimensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_orientations_and_religious_dimensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Religious orientations and religious dimensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_orientations_and_religious_dimensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Questionnaires_to_assess_religious_experience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Questionnaires_to_assess_religious_experience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Questionnaires to assess religious experience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Questionnaires_to_assess_religious_experience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developmental_approaches_to_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental_approaches_to_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Developmental approaches to religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Developmental_approaches_to_religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Developmental approaches to religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Developmental_approaches_to_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-James_Fowler's_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Fowler's_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>James Fowler's model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Fowler's_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_hypotheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_hypotheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Other hypotheses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_hypotheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_and_cognitive_psychology_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_and_cognitive_psychology_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Evolutionary and cognitive psychology of religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_and_cognitive_psychology_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_prayer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_prayer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Religion and prayer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_prayer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_ritual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_ritual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Religion and ritual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_ritual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_personal_functioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_personal_functioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Religion and personal functioning</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion_and_personal_functioning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion and personal functioning subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_personal_functioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion_and_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Religion and health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Religion and personality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_prejudice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_prejudice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Religion and prejudice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_prejudice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Religion and drugs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_mental_illness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_mental_illness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Religion and mental illness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_mental_illness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_psychotherapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_psychotherapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Religion and psychotherapy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion_and_psychotherapy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion and psychotherapy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_psychotherapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pastoral_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pastoral_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Pastoral psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pastoral_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> 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class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychology of religion</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86" title="علم نفس الأديان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم نفس الأديان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolox%C3%ADa_de_la_relix%C3%B3n" title="Psicoloxía de la relixón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Psicoloxía de la relixón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Din_psixologiyas%C4%B1" title="Din psixologiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Din psixologiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="ধর্মের মনস্তত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ধর্মের মনস্তত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Психология на религията – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Психология на религията" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_de_la_religi%C3%B3" title="Psicologia de la religió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Psicologia de la religió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie_n%C3%A1bo%C5%BEenstv%C3%AD" title="Psychologie náboženství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Psychologie náboženství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionspsychologie" title="Religionspsychologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Religionspsychologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religioonips%C3%BChholoogia" title="Religioonipsühholoogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Religioonipsühholoogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CF%85%CF%87%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ψυχολογία της θρησκείας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ψυχολογία της θρησκείας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolog%C3%ADa_de_la_religi%C3%B3n" title="Psicología de la religión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Psicología de la religión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologio_de_la_religio" title="Psikologio de la religio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Psikologio de la religio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlijioaren_psikologia" title="Erlijioaren psikologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erlijioaren psikologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86" title="روان‌شناسی دین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روان‌شناسی دین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie_de_la_religion" title="Psychologie de la religion – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Psychologie de la religion" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolox%C3%ADa_da_relixi%C3%B3n" title="Psicoloxía da relixión – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Psicoloxía da relixión" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A2%85%EA%B5%90%EC%8B%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="종교심리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="종교심리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կրոնի հոգեբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կրոնի հոգեբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologija_Kabale" title="Psihologija Kabale – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Psihologija Kabale" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi_agama" title="Psikologi agama – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Psikologi agama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_della_religione" title="Psicologia della religione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Psicologia della religione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%93%D7%AA" title="פסיכולוגיה של הדת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פסיכולוגיה של הדת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Дін психологиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Дін психологиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologia_religionis" title="Psychologia religionis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Psychologia religionis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vall%C3%A1spszichol%C3%B3gia" title="Valláspszichológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Valláspszichológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86" title="علم نفس الاديان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علم نفس الاديان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godsdienstpsychologie" title="Godsdienstpsychologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Godsdienstpsychologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionspsykologi" title="Religionspsykologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Religionspsykologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinning_psixologiyasi" title="Dinning psixologiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dinning psixologiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologia_religii" title="Psychologia religii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Psychologia religii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_da_religi%C3%A3o" title="Psicologia da religião – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Psicologia da religião" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Психология религии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Психология религии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Психологија религије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Психологија религије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psihologija_religije" title="Psihologija religije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Psihologija religije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uskontopsykologia" title="Uskontopsykologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Uskontopsykologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionspsykologi" title="Religionspsykologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Religionspsykologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="சமய உளவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சமய உளவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Din_psikolojisi" title="Din psikolojisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Din psikolojisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%97" title="Психологія релігії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Психологія релігії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A2m_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BB%8Dc_t%C3%B4n_gi%C3%A1o" title="Tâm lý học tôn giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tâm lý học tôn giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="宗教心理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="宗教心理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="宗教心理學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="宗教心理學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q368498#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/100px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/150px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/200px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a 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decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/24px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/32px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Psychology of religion</b> consists of the application of <a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">psychological methods</a> and interpretive frameworks to the diverse contents of <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> traditions as well as to both religious and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligious</a> individuals. The various methods and frameworks can be summarized according to the classic distinction between the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural-scientific</a> and human-scientific approaches. The first cluster amounts to objective, quantitative, and preferably experimental procedures for testing hypotheses about causal connections among the objects of one's study. In contrast, the human-scientific approach accesses the human world of experience using qualitative, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a>, and interpretive methods. This approach aims to discern meaningful, rather than causal, connections among the phenomena one seeks to understand. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologists</a> of religion pursue three major projects: </p> <ol><li>systematic description, especially of religious contents, attitudes, experiences, and expressions</li> <li>explanation of the origins of religion, both in the history of the human race and in individual lives, taking into account a diversity of influences</li> <li>mapping out the consequences of religious attitudes and conduct, both for the individual and for society at large.</li></ol> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> of religion first arose as a self-conscious discipline in the late 19th century, but all three of these tasks have a history going back many centuries before that.<sup id="cite_ref-Wulff,_D._M._2010_pp._732_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wulff,_D._M._2010_pp._732-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The challenge for the psychology of religion is essentially threefold: </p> <ol><li>to provide a thoroughgoing description of the objects of investigation, whether they be shared religious content (e.g., a tradition's ritual observances) or individual experiences, attitudes, or conduct;</li> <li>to account in psychological terms for the rise of such phenomena, whether they be in individual lives or not;</li> <li>to clarify the outcomes – the fruits, as <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> put it<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – of these phenomena, for individuals, and the larger society.<sup id="cite_ref-Wulff,_D._M._2010_pp._732_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wulff,_D._M._2010_pp._732-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fruits may be both positive and negative.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ol> <p>The first, descriptive task naturally requires a clarification of one's terms – above all, the word <i>religion</i>. <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historians of religion</a> have long underscored the problematic character of this term. They note that its usage over the centuries has changed in significant ways, generally in the direction of <a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">reification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early psychologists of religion were fully aware of these difficulties, typically acknowledging that the definitions they chose were to some degree arbitrary.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the rise of positivistic trends in psychology over the 20th century, especially the demand that all phenomena be operationalized by quantitative procedures, psychologists of religion developed a multitude of scales, most of them developed for use by Protestant Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a> was also brought into play by both psychologists and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">sociologists of religion</a>, to establish a fixed core of dimensions and a corresponding set of scales. The justification and adequacy of these efforts, especially in the light of constructivist and other <a href="/wiki/Postmodern" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern">postmodern</a> viewpoints, remains a matter of debate. </p><p>In the last several decades, especially among <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical psychologist">clinical psychologists</a>, a preference for the terms "spirituality" and "spiritual" has emerged, along with efforts to distinguish them from "religion" and "religious." Especially in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, "religion" has for many become associated with sectarian institutions and their obligatory creeds and rituals, thus giving the word a negative cast; "<a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a>", in contrast, is positively constructed as deeply individual and subjective, as a universal capacity to apprehend and accord one's life with higher realities.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, "spirituality" has likewise undergone an evolution in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a>, from a time when it was essentially a synonym for religion in its original, subjective meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, efforts are ongoing to "<a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">operationalize</a>" these terms, with little regard for their history in their Western context, and with the apparent realist assumption that underlying them are fixed qualities identifiable using empirical procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Schnitker and Emmons theorized that the understanding of religion as a search for meaning makes implications in the three psychological areas of motivation, cognition and social relationships. The cognitive aspects relate to God and a sense of purpose, the motivational ones to the need to control, and the religious search for meaning is also woven into social communities.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this section by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edwin_Diller_Starbuck">Edwin Diller Starbuck</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Edwin Diller Starbuck"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Diller_Starbuck" title="Edwin Diller Starbuck">Edwin Diller Starbuck</a> is considered a pioneer of the psychology of religion and his book <i>Psychology of Religion</i> (1899) has been described as the first book in the genre. This book was endorsed by William James who collaborated by writing its preface.<sup id="cite_ref-White_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starbuck's work would influence James on writing his own book, <i>The Varieties of Religious Experience</i>, with James thanking him in the preface for having "made over to me his large collection of manuscript material".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the book itself James mentions Starbuck's name 46 times and cites him on several different occasions.<sup id="cite_ref-White_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_James">William James</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: William James"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>American psychologist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> (1842–1910) is regarded by most psychologists of religion as the founder of the field.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He served as president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>, and wrote one of the first psychology textbooks. In the psychology of religion, James' influence endures. His <i><a href="/wiki/The_Varieties_of_Religious_Experience" title="The Varieties of Religious Experience">Varieties of Religious Experience</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is considered to be the classic work in the field, and references to James' ideas are common at professional conferences. </p><p>James distinguished between <a href="/wiki/Institutional_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional religion">institutional religion</a> and personal religion. Institutional religion refers to the religious group or organization and plays an important part in a society's culture. Personal religion, in which the individual has <a href="/wiki/Mystical_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystical experience">mystical experience</a>, can be experienced regardless of the culture. James was most interested in understanding personal religious experience. </p><p>In studying personal <a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">religious experiences</a>, James made a distinction between <i>healthy-minded</i> and <i>sick-souled</i> religiousness. Individuals predisposed to healthy-mindedness tend to ignore the evil in the world and focus on the positive and the good. James used examples of <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a> and the "<a href="/wiki/Mind-cure" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-cure">mind-cure</a>" religious movement to illustrate healthy-mindedness in <i>The Varieties of Religious Experience</i>. In contrast, individuals predisposed to having a sick-souled religion are unable to ignore evil and suffering and need a unifying experience, religious or otherwise, to reconcile good and evil. James included quotations from <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a> to illustrate the sick soul. </p><p>William James' hypothesis of <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a> stems from the efficacy of religion. If an individual believes in and performs religious activities, and those actions happen to work, then that practice appears the proper choice for the individual. However, if the processes of religion have little efficacy, then there is no rationality for continuing the practice. </p><p> James also believed that the different religious experiences could bring benefits and positive outcomes to society. In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Varieties_of_Religious_Experience" title="The Varieties of Religious Experience">Varieties of Religious Experience</a>,</i> he says: </p><blockquote><p>"We must judge the tree by its fruit. The best fruits of the religious experience are the best things history has to offer. The highest flights of charity, devotion, trust, patience, and bravery to which the wings of human nature have spread themselves, have all been flown for religious ideals.” ― <b>William James,</b> The Varieties of Religious Experience</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_early_theorists">Other early theorists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other early theorists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="G.W.F._Hegel">G.W.F. Hegel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: G.W.F. Hegel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> (1770–1831) described all systems of religion, philosophy, and social science as expressions of the basic urge of consciousness to learn about itself and its surroundings, and record its findings and hypotheses. Thus, religion is only a form of that search for knowledge, within which humans record various experiences and reflections. Others, compiling and categorizing these writings in various ways, form the consolidated worldview as articulated by that religion, philosophy, social science, etc. His work <i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> was a study of how various types of writing and thinking draw from and re-combine with the individual and group experiences of various places and times, influencing the current forms of knowledge and worldviews that are operative in a population. This activity is the functioning of an incomplete group mind, where each is accessing the recorded wisdom of others. His works often include detailed descriptions of the psychological motivations involved in thought and behavior, e.g., the struggle of a community or nation to know itself and thus correctly govern itself. In Hegel's system, Religion is one of the major repositories of wisdom to be used in these struggles, representing a huge body of recollections from humanity's past in various stages of its development. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sigmund_Freud">Sigmund Freud</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sigmund Freud"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg/290px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg/435px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg/580px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>Group photo 1909 in front of <a href="/wiki/Clark_University" title="Clark University">Clark University</a>. Front row: <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" title="G. Stanley Hall">G. Stanley Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>. Back row: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Brill" title="Abraham Brill">Abraham Brill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Jones" title="Ernest Jones">Ernest Jones</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1ndor_Ferenczi" title="Sándor Ferenczi">Sándor Ferenczi</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> (1856–1939) gave explanations of the genesis of religion in his various writings. In <i><a href="/wiki/Totem_and_Taboo" title="Totem and Taboo">Totem and Taboo</a></i>, he applied the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a> (involving unresolved sexual feelings of, for example, a son toward his mother and hostility toward his father) and postulated its emergence in the primordial stage of human development.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Moses_and_Monotheism" title="Moses and Monotheism">Moses and Monotheism</a></i>, Freud reconstructed biblical history by his general theory.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ideas were also developed in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Future_of_an_Illusion" title="The Future of an Illusion">The Future of an Illusion</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Freud spoke of religion as an <a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">illusion</a>, he maintained that it "is a fantasy structure from which a man must be set free if he is to grow to maturity." </p><p>Freud views the idea of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> as being a version of the <a href="/wiki/Father" title="Father">father</a> image, and religious belief as at bottom infantile and <a href="/wiki/Neurosis" title="Neurosis">neurotic</a>. Authoritarian religion, Freud believed, is dysfunctional and alienates man from himself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carl_Jung">Carl Jung</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Carl Jung"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jungian_interpretation_of_religion" title="Jungian interpretation of religion">Jungian interpretation of religion</a></div> <p>The Swiss psychoanalyst <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a> (1875–1961) adopted a very different posture, one that was more sympathetic to religion and more concerned with a positive appreciation of <a href="/wiki/Religious_symbolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious symbolism">religious symbolism</a>. Jung considered the question of the metaphysical existence of God to be unanswerable by the psychologist and adopted a kind of <a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">agnosticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jung postulated, in addition to the personal <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconscious</a> (roughly adopting Freud's concept), the <a href="/wiki/Collective_unconscious" title="Collective unconscious">collective unconscious</a>, which is the repository of human experience and which contains "<a href="/wiki/Jungian_archetypes" title="Jungian archetypes">archetypes</a>" (i.e. basic images that are universal in that they recur regardless of culture). The irruption of these images from the unconscious into the realm of consciousness he viewed as the basis of <a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">religious experience</a> and often of artistic creativity. Some of Jung's writings have been devoted to elucidating some of the archetypal <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a>, and include his work in <a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative mythology">comparative mythology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alfred_Adler">Alfred Adler</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Alfred Adler"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Austrian psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Alfred Adler</a> (1870–1937), who parted ways with Freud, emphasized the role of goals and motivation in his <i>Individual Psychology</i>. One of Adler's most famous ideas is that we try to compensate for inferiorities that we perceive in ourselves. A lack of power often lies at the root of feelings of inferiority. One way that religion enters into this picture is through our beliefs in God, which are characteristic of our tendency to strive for perfection and superiority. For example, in many religions, God is considered to be perfect and omnipotent, and commands people likewise to be perfect. If we, too, achieve perfection, we become one with God. By identifying with God in this way, we compensate for our imperfections and feelings of inferiority. </p><p>Our ideas about <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> are important indicators of how we view the world. According to Adler, these ideas have changed over time, as our vision of the world – and our place in it – has changed. Consider this example that Adler offers: the traditional belief that people were placed deliberately on earth as God's ultimate creation is being replaced with the idea that people have evolved by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. This coincides with a view of God not as a real being, but as an abstract representation of nature's forces. In this way, our view of God has changed from one that was concrete and specific to one that is more general. From Adler's vantage point, this is a relatively ineffective perception of God because it is so general that it fails to convey a strong sense of direction and purpose. </p><p>An important thing for Adler is that God (or the idea of God) motivates people to act and that those actions do have real consequences for ourselves and others. Our view of God is important because it embodies our goals and directs our social interactions. </p><p>Compared to <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, another social movement, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> is more efficient because it motivates people more effectively. According to Adler, only when science begins to capture the same religious fervor, and promotes the welfare of all segments of society, will the two be more equal in peoples' eyes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gordon_Allport">Gordon Allport</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gordon Allport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his 1950 book <i>The Individual and His Religion</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllport1950_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllport1950-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a> (1897–1967) illustrates how people may use religion in different ways.<sup id="cite_ref-Leak_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leak-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He makes a distinction between <i>Mature religion</i> and <i>Immature religion</i>. Mature religious sentiment is how Allport characterized the person whose approach to religion is dynamic, open-minded, and able to maintain links between inconsistencies. In contrast, immature religion is <a href="/wiki/Vanity" title="Vanity">self-serving</a> and generally represents the negative stereotypes that people have about religion. </p><p>More recently, this distinction has been encapsulated in the terms "intrinsic religion", referring to a genuine, heartfelt devout <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>, and "extrinsic religion", referring to a more utilitarian use of religion as a means to an end, such as <a href="/wiki/Church_attendance" title="Church attendance">church attendance</a> to gain <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a>. These dimensions of religion were measured on the <a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_religious_orientation" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrinsic religious orientation">Religious Orientation Scale</a> of Allport and Ross.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllportRoss1967_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllportRoss1967-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third form of religious orientation has been described by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Batson" title="Daniel Batson">Daniel Batson</a>. This refers to treatment of religion as an open-ended search.<sup id="cite_ref-Batson_1993_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Batson_1993-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More specifically, it has been seen by Batson as comprising a willingness to view religious doubts positively, acceptance that religious orientation can change and existential complexity, the belief that one's religious beliefs should be shaped from personal crises that one has experienced in one's life. Batson refers to extrinsic, intrinsic and quests respectively as religion-as-means, religion-as-end, and religion-as-quest, and measures these constructs on the Religious Life Inventory.<sup id="cite_ref-Batson_1993_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Batson_1993-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Erik_H._Erikson">Erik H. Erikson</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Erik H. Erikson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a> (1902–1994) is best known for his theory of psychological development, which has its roots in the psychoanalytic importance of <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a> in personality. His biographies of <a href="/wiki/Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi">Gandhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> reveal Erikson's positive view of religion. He considered religions to be important influences in successful <a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">personality development</a> because they are the primary way that cultures promote the <a href="/wiki/Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtues">virtues</a> associated with each stage of life. Religious <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">rituals</a> facilitate this development. Erikson's theory has not benefited from systematic empirical study, but it remains an influential and well-regarded theory in the psychological study of religion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Erich_Fromm">Erich Fromm</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Erich Fromm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American scholar <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a> (1900–1980) modified the Freudian theory and produced a more complex account of the functions of religion. In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis_and_Religion" title="Psychoanalysis and Religion">Psychoanalysis and Religion</a></i> he responded to Freud's theories by explaining that part of the modification is viewing the <a href="/wiki/Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a> as based not so much on sexuality as on a "much more profound desire", namely, the childish desire to remain attached to protecting figures. The right religion, in Fromm's estimation, can, in principle, foster an individual's highest potentialities, but religion in practice tends to relapse into being neurotic.<sup id="cite_ref-PsyRel_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PsyRel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Fromm, humans need a stable frame of reference. Religion fills this need. In effect, humans crave answers to questions that no other source of knowledge has an answer to, which only religion may seem to answer. However, a sense of free will must be given for religion to appear healthy. An authoritarian notion of religion appears detrimental.<sup id="cite_ref-Personality_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Personality-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rudolf_Otto">Rudolf Otto</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Rudolf Otto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a> (1869–1937) was a German <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> theologian and scholar of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">comparative religion</a>. Otto's most famous work, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Idea_of_the_Holy" title="The Idea of the Holy">The Idea of the Holy</a></i> (published first in 1917 as <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Das Heilige</i></span>), defines the concept of the holy as that which is <i><a href="/wiki/Numinous" title="Numinous">numinous</a></i>. Otto explained the numinous as a "non-rational, non-sensory experience or feeling whose primary and immediate object is outside the self." It is a mystery (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">mysterium tremendum</i>) that is both fascinating (<i>fascinans</i>) and terrifying at the same time; A mystery that causes trembling and fascination, attempting to explain that inexpressible and perhaps supernatural emotional reaction of <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_wonder" title="Sense of wonder">wonder</a> drawing us to seemingly ordinary and/or religious experiences of <a href="/wiki/Divine_grace" title="Divine grace">grace</a>. This sense of emotional wonder appears evident at the root of all religious experiences. Through this emotional wonder, we suspend our rational mind for non-rational possibilities. </p><p><i>The Idea of the Holy</i> also set out a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> for the study of religion that focuses on the need to realize the religious as a non-reducible, original category in its own right. This paradigm was under much attack between approximately 1950 and 1990 but has made a strong comeback since then. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_thinkers">Modern thinkers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Modern thinkers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Autobiographal accounts of 20th-century psychology of religion as a field have been supplied by numerous modern psychologists of religion, primarily based in Europe, but also by several US-based psychologists such as <a href="/wiki/Ralph_W._Hood" title="Ralph W. Hood">Ralph W. Hood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Eric_Capps" title="Donald Eric Capps">Donald Capps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-belzen2012_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-belzen2012-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allen_Bergin">Allen Bergin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Allen Bergin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Allen_Bergin" title="Allen Bergin">Allen Bergin</a> is noted for his 1980 paper "Psychotherapy and Religious Values", which is known as a landmark in scholarly acceptance that religious values do, in practice, influence psychotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received the Distinguished Professional Contributions to Knowledge award from the American Psychological Association in 1989 and was cited as challenging "psychological orthodoxy to emphasize the importance of values and religion in therapy."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Robert_A._Emmons">Robert A. Emmons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Robert A. Emmons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Emmons" title="Robert A. Emmons">Robert A. Emmons</a> offered a theory of "spiritual strivings" in his 1999 book, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Psychology_of_Ultimate_Concerns_(book)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Psychology of Ultimate Concerns (book) (page does not exist)">The Psychology of Ultimate Concerns</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-emmons99_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmons99-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With support from empirical studies, Emmons argued that spiritual strivings foster personality integration because they exist at a higher level of the personality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ralph_W._Hood_Jr.">Ralph W. Hood Jr.</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ralph W. Hood Jr."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ralph_W._Hood" title="Ralph W. Hood">Ralph W. Hood Jr.</a> is a professor of psychology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tennessee_at_Chattanooga" title="University of Tennessee at Chattanooga">University of Tennessee at Chattanooga</a>. He is a former editor of the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion and a former co-editor of the Archive for the Psychology of Religion and The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion. He is Past President of Division 36 of the American Psychological Association and a recipient of its William James Award. He has published several hundred articles and book chapters on the psychology of religion and has authored, co-authored, or edited thirteen volumes, all dealing with the psychology of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kenneth_Pargament">Kenneth Pargament</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Kenneth Pargament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pargament" title="Kenneth Pargament">Kenneth Pargament</a> is noted for his book <i><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_Religion_and_Coping_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of Religion and Coping (book)">Psychology of Religion and Coping</a></i> (1997),<sup id="cite_ref-pargament97_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pargament97-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as for a 2007 book on religion and psychotherapy, and a sustained research program on religious coping. He is professor of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bowling_Green_State_University" title="Bowling Green State University">Bowling Green State University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, <a href="/wiki/US" class="mw-redirect" title="US">US</a>), and has published more than 100 papers on the subject of religion and spirituality in psychology. Pargament led the design of a <a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">questionnaire</a> called the "RCOPE" to measure Religious Coping strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-rcope_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rcope-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pargament has distinguished between three types of styles for <a href="/wiki/Coping_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coping (psychology)">coping</a> with <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (biological)">stress</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-styyle3_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-styyle3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Collaborative, in which people co-operate with God to deal with stressful events;</li> <li>Deferring, in which people leave everything to God; and</li> <li>Self-directed, in which people do not rely on God and try exclusively to solve problems by their own efforts. He also describes four major stances toward religion that have been adopted by psychotherapists in their work with clients, which he calls the religiously <i>rejectionist</i>, <i>exclusivist</i>, <i>constructivist</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">pluralist</a></i> stances.<sup id="cite_ref-pargament97_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pargament97-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zp_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zp-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="James_Hillman">James Hillman</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: James Hillman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Hillman" title="James Hillman">James Hillman</a>, at the end of his book <i>Re-Visioning Psychology</i>, reverses James' position of viewing religion through psychology, urging instead that we view psychology as a variety of religious experience. He concludes: "Psychology as religion implies imagining all psychological events as effects of Gods in the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>" </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Julian_Jaynes">Julian Jaynes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Julian Jaynes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bicameral_mentality" title="Bicameral mentality">Bicameral mentality</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Julian_Jaynes" title="Julian Jaynes">Julian Jaynes</a>, primarily in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Consciousness_in_the_Breakdown_of_the_Bicameral_Mind" title="The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind">The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind</a></i>, proposed that religion (and some other psychological phenomena such as hypnosis and schizophrenia) is a remnant of a relatively recent time in human development, prior to the advent of consciousness. Jaynes hypothesized that hallucinated verbal commands helped non-conscious early man to perform tasks promoting human survival. Starting about 10,000 BCE, selective pressures favored the hallucinated verbal commands for social control, and they came to be perceived as an external, rather than internal, voice commanding the person to take some action. These were hence often explained as originating from invisible gods, spirits, and ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hypotheses_on_the_role_of_religion">Hypotheses on the role of religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Hypotheses on the role of religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three primary hypotheses on the role of religion in the modern world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secularization">Secularization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Secularization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first hypothesis, <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>, holds that science and technology will take the place of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secularization supports the separation of religion from politics, ethics, and psychology. Taking this position even further, Taylor explains that secularization denies transcendence, divinity, and rationality in religious beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_transformation">Religious transformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Religious transformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Challenges to the secularization hypothesis led to significant revisions, resulting in the religious transformation hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This perspective holds that general trends towards individualism and social disintegration will produce changes in religion, making religious practice more individualized and spiritually focused.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This in turn is expected to produce more spiritual seeking, although not exclusive to religious institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism#Religion_and_philosophy" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a>, which draws from multiple religious/spiritual systems and <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> movements are also predicted to result.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_divide">Cultural divide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cultural divide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In response to the religious transformation hypothesis, Ronald Inglehart piloted the renewal of the secularization hypothesis. His argument hinges on the premise that religion develops to fill the human need for security. Therefore, the development of social and economic security in Europe explains its corresponding secularization due to a lack of need for religion.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, religion continues in the third world where social and economic insecurity is rampant. The overall effect is expected to be a growing cultural disparity.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea that <a href="/wiki/Religiosity" title="Religiosity">religiosity</a> arises from the human need for security has also been furthered by studies examining religious beliefs as a compensatory mechanism of control. These studies are motivated by the idea that people are invested in maintaining beliefs in order and structure to prevent beliefs in chaos and randomness.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the experimental setting, researchers have also tested compensatory control in regard to individuals' perceptions of external systems, such as religion or government. For example, Kay and colleagues<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that in a laboratory setting, individuals are more likely to endorse broad external systems (e.g., religion or sociopolitical systems) that impose order and control on their lives when they are induced with lowered levels of personal control. In this study, researchers suggest that when a person's personal control is lessened, their motivation to believe in order is threatened, resulting in compensation of this threat through adherence to other external sources of control. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychometric_approaches_to_religion">Psychometric approaches to religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Psychometric approaches to religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the 1960s psychologists of religion have used the methodology of <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">psychometrics</a> to assess ways in which a person may be religious. An example is the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Orientation_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Orientation Scale">Religious Orientation Scale</a> of Allport and Ross,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllportRoss1967_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllportRoss1967-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which measures how respondents stand on intrinsic and extrinsic religion as described by Allport. More recent questionnaires include the Age-Universal I-E Scale of Gorsuch and Venable,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Religious Life Inventory of Batson, Schoenrade and Ventis,<sup id="cite_ref-Batson_1993_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Batson_1993-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Spiritual Experiences Index-Revised of Genia.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first provides an age-independent measure of Allport and Ross's two religious orientations. The second measures three forms of religious orientation: religion as means (intrinsic), religion as end (extrinsic), and religion as quest. The third assesses spiritual maturity using two factors: Spiritual Support and Spiritual Openness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_orientations_and_religious_dimensions">Religious orientations and religious dimensions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Religious orientations and religious dimensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology of religion</a></div> <p>Some questionnaires, such as the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Orientation_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Orientation Scale">Religious Orientation Scale</a>, relate to different religious orientations, such as intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness, referring to different motivations for religious allegiance. A rather different approach, taken, for example, by Glock and Stark (1965), has been to list different dimensions of religion rather than different religious orientations, which relates to how an individual may manifest different forms of being religious.<sup id="cite_ref-Glock_and_Stark_1965_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glock_and_Stark_1965-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glock and Stark's typology described five dimensions of religion – the doctrinal, the intellectual, the ethical-consequential, the ritual, and the experiential.<sup id="cite_ref-Glock_and_Stark_1965_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glock_and_Stark_1965-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In later works, these authors subdivided the ritual dimension into devotional and public ritual, and also clarified that their distinction of religion along multiple dimensions was not identical to distinguishing religious orientations. Although some psychologists of religion have found it helpful to take a multidimensional approach to religion for the purpose of psychometric scale design, there has been, as Wulff explains, considerable controversy about whether religion should really be seen as multidimensional.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWulff1997_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWulff1997-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Questionnaires_to_assess_religious_experience">Questionnaires to assess religious experience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Questionnaires to assess religious experience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>What we call religious experiences can differ greatly. Some reports exist of supernatural happenings that it would be difficult to explain from a rational, scientific point of view. On the other hand, there also exist the sort of testimonies that simply seem to convey a feeling of peace or oneness – something which most of us, religious or not, may possibly relate to. In categorizing religious experiences it is perhaps helpful to look at them as explicable through one of two theories: the objectivist thesis or the subjectivist thesis. </p><p>An objectivist would argue that the religious experience is a proof of God's existence. However, others have criticised the reliability of religious experiences. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes asked how it was possible to tell the difference between talking to God in a dream, and dreaming about talking to God.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Subjectivist view argues that it is not necessary to think of religious experiences as evidence for the existence of an actual being whom we call God. From this point of view, the important thing is the experience itself and the effect that it has on the individual.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developmental_approaches_to_religion">Developmental approaches to religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Developmental approaches to religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/James_W._Fowler" title="James W. Fowler">James W. Fowler</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religious_conversion" title="Psychology of religious conversion">Psychology of religious conversion</a></div> <p>Many have looked at stage models, like those of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a>, to explain how children develop ideas about God and religion in general. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="James_Fowler's_model"><span id="James_Fowler.27s_model"></span>James Fowler's model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: James Fowler's model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The best-known stage model of spiritual or religious development is that of <a href="/wiki/James_W._Fowler" title="James W. Fowler">James W. Fowler</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychologist</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Candler_School_of_Theology" title="Candler School of Theology">Candler School of Theology</a>, in his <i>Stages of Faith</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvansForneyGuidoPatton2010196_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvansForneyGuidoPatton2010196-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He follows Piaget and Kohlberg and has proposed a holistic staged development of <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> (or spiritual development) across the lifespan. These <a href="/wiki/Stages_of_faith_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Stages of faith development">stages of faith development</a> were along the lines of Piaget's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">theory of cognitive development</a> and Kohlberg's <a href="/wiki/Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohlberg's stages of moral development">stages of moral development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvansForneyGuidoPatton2010196–197_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvansForneyGuidoPatton2010196–197-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The book-length study contains six stages of faith development proposed by James Fowler: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <th>No. </th> <th>Fowler </th> <th>Age </th> <th>Piaget </th></tr> <tr> <td>0 </td> <td rowspan="1">Undifferentiated<br />Faith </td> <td rowspan="1">0–2 years </td> <td rowspan="1">Sensoric-motorical </td></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>Intuitive-<br />Projective </td> <td>2–7 years </td> <td>Pre-operational </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>Mythic-<br />Literal </td> <td>7–12 years </td> <td>Concrete operational </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>Synthetic-<br />Conventional </td> <td>12+ years </td> <td rowspan="4">Formal-operational </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td>Individual-Reflective </td> <td>21+ years </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td rowspan="1">Conjunctive </td> <td rowspan="1">35+ years </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td>Universalizing </td> <td>45+ </td></tr> </tbody></table> <ul><li>Stage 0 – "Primal or Undifferentiated" faith (birth to two years), is characterized by an early learning of the safety of their environment (i.e. warm, safe and secure vs. hurt, neglect and abuse). If consistent nurture is experienced, one will develop a sense of trust and safety about the universe and the divine. Conversely, negative experiences will cause one to develop distrust about the universe and the divine. Transition to the next stage begins with integration of thought and language which facilitates the use of symbols in speech and play.</li> <li>Stage 1 – "Intuitive-Projective" faith (ages of three to seven), is characterized by the psyche's unprotected exposure to the <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">Unconscious</a>, and marked by a relative fluidity of thought patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolski_Conn1986226–232_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolski_Conn1986226–232-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religion is learned mainly through experiences, stories, images, and the people that one comes in contact with.</li> <li>Stage 2 – "Mythic-Literal" faith (mostly in school children), is characterized by persons have a strong belief in the <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> and reciprocity of the universe, and their <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deities</a> are almost always <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic">anthropomorphic</a>. During this time <a href="/wiki/Metaphors" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphors">metaphors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_language_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic language (literature)">symbolic language</a> are often misunderstood and are taken literally.</li> <li>Stage 3 – "Synthetic-Conventional" faith (arising in adolescence; aged 12 to adulthood), is characterized by <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a> to authority and the religious development of a personal identity. Any conflicts with one's beliefs are ignored at this stage due to the fear of threat from inconsistencies.</li> <li>Stage 4 – "Individuative-Reflective" faith (usually mid-twenties to late thirties), is a stage of <a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">angst</a> and struggle. The individual takes personal responsibility for his or her <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">feelings</a>. As one is able to reflect on one's own beliefs, there is an openness to a new complexity of faith, but this also increases the awareness of conflicts in one's belief.</li> <li>Stage 5 – "Conjunctive" faith (mid-life crisis), acknowledges paradox and <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(philosophy)" title="Transcendence (philosophy)">transcendence</a> relating reality behind the symbols of inherited systems. The individual resolves conflicts from previous stages by a complex understanding of a multidimensional, interdependent "truth" that cannot be explained by any particular statement.</li> <li>Stage 6 – "Universalizing" faith: The individual would treat any person with compassion as he or she views people as from a universal community, and should be treated with universal principles of love and justice.</li></ul> <p>Fowler's model has inspired a considerable body of empirical research into faith development, although little of such research was ever conducted by Fowler himself. Gary Leak's Faith Development Scale (FDS) has been subject to <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor analysis</a> by Leak.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeak2008_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeak2008-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_hypotheses">Other hypotheses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Other hypotheses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other theorists in developmental psychology have suggested that religiosity <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_children" title="Religion and children">comes naturally to young children</a>. Specifically, children may have a natural-born conception of mind-body dualism, which lends itself to beliefs that the mind may live on after the body dies. In addition, children have a tendency to see agency and human design where there is not, and prefer a creationist explanation of the world even when raised by parents who do not.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers have also investigated attachment system dynamics as a predictor of the religious conversion experience throughout childhood and adolescence. One hypothesis is the correspondence hypothesis,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which posits that individuals with secure parental attachment are more likely to experience a gradual conversion experience. Under the correspondence hypothesis, internal working models of a person's attachment figure is thought to perpetuate his or her perception of God as a secure base. Another hypothesis relating attachment style to the conversion experience is the compensation hypothesis,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which states that individuals with insecure attachments are more likely to have a sudden conversion experience as they compensate for their insecure attachment relationship by seeking a relationship with God. Researchers have tested these hypotheses using longitudinal studies and individuals' self narratives of their conversion experience. For example, one study investigating attachment styles and adolescent conversions at Young Life religious summer camps resulted in evidence supporting the correspondence hypothesis through analysis of personal narratives and a prospective longitudinal follow-up of Young Life campers, with mixed results for the compensation hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Alcock" title="James Alcock">James Alcock</a> summarizes a number of components of what he calls the "God engine", a "number of automatic processes and cognitive biases [that] combine to make supernatural belief the automatic default." These include <a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">magical thinking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agent_detection" title="Agent detection">agency detection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a> that leads to <a href="/wiki/Mind-body_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-body dualism">dualism</a>, the notion that <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">"objects and events [serve] an intentional purpose",</a> etc.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_and_cognitive_psychology_of_religion">Evolutionary and cognitive psychology of religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Evolutionary and cognitive psychology of religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neuroscience of religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Psychology_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Psychology of religion">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Psychology+of+religion%22">"Psychology of religion"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Psychology+of+religion%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Psychology+of+religion%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Psychology+of+religion%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Psychology+of+religion%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Psychology+of+religion%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a> is based on the hypothesis that, just as the cardiac, pulmonary, urinary, and immune systems, <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> has a functional structure with a genetic basis, and therefore appeared through <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared among humans and should solve important problems of survival and reproduction. Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand cognitive processes by understanding the survival and reproductive functions they might serve, and with this lens, apply the same concept to religion. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pascal_Boyer" title="Pascal Boyer">Pascal Boyer</a> is one of the leading figures in the cognitive psychology of religion, a new field of inquiry that is less than fifteen years old, which accounts for the psychological processes that underlie religious thought and practice. In his book <i>Religion Explained</i>, Boyer shows that there is no simple explanation for religious <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>. Boyer is mainly concerned with explaining the various psychological processes involved in the acquisition and transmission of ideas concerning the gods. Boyer builds on the ideas of cognitive anthropologists <a href="/wiki/Dan_Sperber" title="Dan Sperber">Dan Sperber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scott_Atran" title="Scott Atran">Scott Atran</a>, who first argued that religious cognition represents a by-product of various evolutionary adaptations, including folk psychology, and purposeful violations of innate expectations about how the world is constructed (for example, bodiless beings with thoughts and emotions) that make religious cognitions striking and memorable. </p><p>Religious persons acquire religious ideas and practices through social exposure. The child of a <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> will not become an evangelical <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">Zulu</a> warrior without the relevant cultural experience. While mere exposure does not cause a particular religious outlook (a person may have been raised a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> but leave the church), nevertheless some exposure seems required – this person will never invent Roman Catholicism out of thin air. Boyer says <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> can help us to understand the psychological mechanisms that account for these manifest correlations and in so doing enable us to better understand the nature of religious belief and practice. </p><p>Boyer moves outside the leading currents in mainstream <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> and suggests that we can use evolutionary biology to unravel the relevant mental architecture. Our brains are, after all, biological objects, and the best naturalistic account of their development in nature is Darwin's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a>. To the extent that mental architecture exhibits intricate processes and structures, it is plausible to think that this is the result of evolutionary processes working over vast periods of time. Like all biological systems, the mind is optimised to promote survival and reproduction in the evolutionary environment. On this view all specialised cognitive functions broadly serve those <a href="/wiki/Reproductive" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive">reproductive</a> ends. </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a> the universal propensity toward religious belief is a genuine scientific puzzle. He thinks that <a href="/wiki/Adaptationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptationist">adaptationist</a> explanations for religion do not meet the criteria for adaptations. An alternative explanation is that religious psychology is a by-product of many parts of the mind that originally evolved for other purposes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_prayer">Religion and prayer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Religion and prayer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Religious practice often manifests itself in some form of <a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayer</a>. Recent studies have focused specifically on the effects of prayer on health. Measures of prayer and the above measures of spirituality evaluate different characteristics and should not be considered synonymous. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a> is fairly prevalent in the United States. About 55% of Americans report praying daily.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the practice of prayer is more prevalent and practiced more consistently among Americans who perform other religious practices.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are four primary types of prayer in the West. Poloma and Pendleton,<sup id="cite_ref-Poloma_and_Pendleton_1989_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poloma_and_Pendleton_1989-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Poloma_and_Pendleton_1991_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poloma_and_Pendleton_1991-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> utilized factor analysis to delineate these four types of prayer: meditative (more spiritual, silent thinking), ritualistic (reciting), petitionary (making requests to God), and colloquial (general conversing with God). Further scientific study of prayer using factor analysis has revealed three dimensions of prayer.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ladd and Spilka's first factor was awareness of self, inward reaching. Their second and third factors were upward reaching (toward God) and outward reaching (toward others). This study appears to support the contemporary model of prayer as connection (whether to the self, higher being, or others). </p><p>Dein and Littlewood (2008) suggest that an individual's prayer life can be viewed on a spectrum ranging from immature to mature. A progression on the scale is characterized by a change in the perspective of the purpose of prayer. Rather than using prayer as a means of changing the reality of a situation, a more mature individual will use prayer to request assistance in coping with immutable problems and draw closer to God or others. This change in perspective has been shown to be associated with an individual's passage through adolescence.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prayer appears to have health implications. Empirical studies suggest that mindfully reading and reciting the Psalms (from scripture) can help a person calm down and focus.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prayer is also positively correlated with happiness and religious satisfaction.<sup id="cite_ref-Poloma_and_Pendleton_1989_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poloma_and_Pendleton_1989-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Poloma_and_Pendleton_1991_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poloma_and_Pendleton_1991-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study conducted by Francis, Robbins, Lewis, and Barnes investigated the relationship between self-reported prayer frequency and measures of psychoticism and neuroticism according to the abbreviated form of the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQR-A). The study included a sample size of 2306 students attending Protestant and Catholic schools in the highly religious culture of Northern Ireland. The data shows a negative correlation between prayer frequency and psychoticism. The data also shows that, in Catholic students, frequent prayer has a positive correlation to neuroticism scores.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ladd and McIntosh suggest that prayer-related behaviors, such as bowing the head and clasping the hands together in an almost fetal position, are suggestive of "social touch" actions. Prayer in this manner may prepare an individual to carry out positive pro-social behavior after praying, due to factors such as increased blood flow to the head and nasal breathing.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, slight health benefits have been found fairly consistently across studies.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three main pathways to explain this trend have been offered: placebo effect, focus and attitude adjustment, and activation of healing processes.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These offerings have been expanded by Breslin and Lewis (2008) who have constructed a five pathway model between prayer and health with the following mediators: physiological, psychological, placebo, social support, and spiritual. The spiritual mediator is a departure from the rest in that its potential for empirical investigation is not currently feasible. Although the conceptualizations of chi, the universal mind, divine intervention, and the like breach the boundaries of scientific observation, they are included in this model as possible links between prayer and health so as to not unnecessarily exclude the supernatural from the broader conversation of psychology and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_ritual">Religion and ritual</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Religion and ritual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another significant form of religious practice is ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious rituals encompass a wide array of practices, but can be defined as the performance of similar actions and vocal expressions based on prescribed tradition and cultural norms.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scheff suggests that ritual provides <a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">catharsis</a>, emotional purging, through distancing.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This emotional distancing enables an individual to experience feelings with an amount of separation, and thus with less intensity. However, the conception of religious ritual as an interactive process has since matured and become more scientifically established. From this view, ritual offers a means to catharsis through behaviors that foster connection with others, allowing for emotional expression.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This focus on connection contrasts to the separation that seems to underlie Scheff's view. </p><p>Additional research suggests a social component of ritual. For instance, findings suggest that ritual performance indicates group commitment and prevents the uncommitted from gaining membership benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritual may aid in emphasizing moral values that serve as group norms and regulate societies.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may also strengthen commitment to moral convictions and the likelihood of upholding these social expectations.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, performance of rituals may foster social-group stability. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sapolsky" title="Robert Sapolsky">Robert Sapolsky</a> sees a similarity between the rituals accompanying <a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a> and religious rituals. According to him, religious ritual reduces the tension and anxiety associated with the disorder and provides relief resulting from practicing in a social community.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_personal_functioning">Religion and personal functioning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Religion and personal functioning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_health">Religion and health</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Religion and health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_health" title="Religion and health">Religion and health</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Well-being_contributing_factors#Religion_and_spirituality" title="Well-being contributing factors">Well-being and religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Happiness#Religion" title="Happiness">Happiness and religion</a></div> <p>There is considerable literature on the relationship between religion and health. More than 3000 empirical studies have examined relationships between religion and health, including more than 1200 in the 20th century,<sup id="cite_ref-khandbook2001_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-khandbook2001-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more than 2000 additional studies between 2000 and 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-khandbook2012_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-khandbook2012-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychologists consider that religion may benefit both physical and mental health in various ways, including encouraging healthy lifestyles, providing social support networks and encouraging an optimistic outlook on life; prayer and meditation may also benefit physiological functioning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevin2001_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin2001-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, religion is not a unique source of health and well-being, and there are benefits to nonreligiosity as well.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haber, Jacob and Spangler have considered how different dimensions of religiosity may relate to health benefits in different ways.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberJacobSpangler2007_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberJacobSpangler2007-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_personality">Religion and personality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Religion and personality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_personality" title="Religion and personality">Religion and personality</a></div> <p>Some studies have examined whether there is a "religious personality." Research on the five factor model of personality suggests that people who identify as religious are more likely to be agreeable and conscientious.<sup id="cite_ref-Saroglou,_V._2002_15–25_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saroglou,_V._2002_15–25-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, people who identify as spiritual are more likely to be extrovert and open, although this varies based on the type of spirituality endorsed.<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_DA_153–97_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_DA_153–97-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, people endorsing fundamentalist religious beliefs are more likely to measure low on the Openness factor.<sup id="cite_ref-Saroglou,_V._2002_15–25_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saroglou,_V._2002_15–25-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_prejudice">Religion and prejudice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Religion and prejudice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To investigate the salience of religious beliefs in establishing group identity, researchers have also conducted studies looking at religion and prejudice. Some studies have shown that greater religious attitudes may be significant predictors of negative attitudes towards racial or social outgroups.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These effects are often conceptualized under the framework of intergroup bias, where religious individuals favor members of their ingroup (ingroup favoritism) and exhibit disfavor towards members of their outgroup (outgroup derogation). Evidence supporting religious intergroup bias has been supported in multiple religious groups, including non-Christian groups (after all, religion is not only related to Christianity, but others like Islamism, Buddhism, Paganism, and more), and is thought to reflect the role of group dynamics in religious identification. Many studies regarding religion and prejudice implement religious priming both in the laboratory and in naturalistic settings<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with evidence supporting the perpetuation of ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation in individuals who are high in religiosity. </p><p>Recently, <a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">reparative or conversion therapy</a>, a religiously motivated process intended to change an individual's sexuality, has been the subject of scrutiny and has been condemned by some governments, LGBT charities, and therapy/counselling professional bodies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_drugs">Religion and drugs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Religion and drugs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_drugs" title="Religion and drugs">Religion and drugs</a></div> <p>The American psychologist <a href="/wiki/James_H._Leuba" title="James H. Leuba">James H. Leuba</a> (1868–1946), in <i>A Psychological Study of Religion</i>, accounts for mystical experience psychologically and physiologically, pointing to analogies with certain drug-induced experiences. Leuba argued forcibly for a naturalistic treatment of religion, which he considered to be necessary if religious psychology were to be looked at scientifically. Shamans all over the world and in different cultures have traditionally used drugs, especially <a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">psychedelics</a>, for their religious experiences. In these communities the absorption of <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">drugs</a> leads to dreams (visions) through sensory distortion. The psychedelic experience is often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as those experienced in <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Robin_L_2018_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robin_L_2018-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mystical_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystical experience">mystical experiences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robin_L_2018_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robin_L_2018-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ego_dissolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Ego dissolution">Ego dissolution</a> is often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> was also interested in mystical experiences from a drug-induced perspective, leading him to make some experiments with <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> and even peyote. He concludes that while the revelations of the mystic hold true, they hold true only for the mystic; for others they are certainly ideas to be considered, but hold no claim to truth without personal experience of such. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_mental_illness">Religion and mental illness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Religion and mental illness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_schizophrenia" title="Religion and schizophrenia">Religion and schizophrenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mental_health_of_Jesus" title="Mental health of Jesus">Mental health of Jesus</a></div> <p>Although many researchers have brought evidence for a positive role that religion plays in health, others have shown that religious beliefs, practices, and experiences may be linked to <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illnesses</a> of various kinds<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Mood_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Mood disorders">mood disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality disorders">personality disorders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric disorders">psychiatric disorders</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012 a team of <a href="/wiki/Psychiatrists" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatrists">psychiatrists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behavioral psychologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurologists">neurologists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">neuropsychiatrists</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a> published research which suggested the development of a new diagnostic category of psychiatric disorders related to <a href="/wiki/Religious_delusion" title="Religious delusion">religious delusion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hyperreligiosity" title="Hyperreligiosity">hyperreligiosity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They compared the thoughts and behaviors of the most important figures in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">Paul</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with patients affected by mental disorders related to the <a href="/wiki/Spectrum_disorder#Psychosis" title="Spectrum disorder">psychotic spectrum</a> using different clusters of disorders and diagnostic criteria (<a href="/wiki/DSM-IV-TR" class="mw-redirect" title="DSM-IV-TR">DSM-IV-TR</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and concluded that these Biblical figures "may have had psychotic symptoms that contributed inspiration for their revelations",<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">schizoaffective disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">manic depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">delusional disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grandiose_delusions" title="Grandiose delusions">delusions of grandeur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auditory_hallucination" title="Auditory hallucination">auditory</a>-<a href="/wiki/Visual_hallucination" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual hallucination">visual hallucinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geschwind_syndrome" title="Geschwind syndrome">Geschwind syndrome</a> (Paul especially), and abnormal experiences associated with <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe_epilepsy" title="Temporal lobe epilepsy">temporal lobe epilepsy</a> (TLE).<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors suggest that Jesus sought to condemn himself to death ("<a href="/wiki/Suicide_methods#Indirect" title="Suicide methods">suicide by proxy</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The research went further and also focused on <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social models</a> of <a href="/wiki/Psychopathology" title="Psychopathology">psychopathology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> analyzing <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="New religious movements">new religious movements</a> and charismatic <a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">cult leaders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/David_Koresh" title="David Koresh">David Koresh</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Branch_Davidians" title="Branch Davidians">Branch Davidians</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Applewhite" title="Marshall Applewhite">Marshall Applewhite</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Heaven%27s_Gate_(religious_group)" title="Heaven's Gate (religious group)">Heaven's Gate cult</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The researchers concluded that "If David Koresh and Marshall Applewhite are appreciated as having psychotic-spectrum beliefs, then the premise becomes untenable that the diagnosis of psychosis must rigidly rely upon an inability to maintain a social group. A subset of individuals with psychotic symptoms appears able to form intense social bonds and communities despite having an extremely distorted view of reality. The existence of a better socially functioning subset of individuals with psychotic-type symptoms is corroborated by research indicating that psychotic-like experiences, including both bizarre and non-bizarre delusion-like beliefs, are frequently found in the general population. This supports the idea that psychotic symptoms likely lie on a continuum."<sup id="cite_ref-JNCN_99-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_psychotherapy">Religion and psychotherapy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Religion and psychotherapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Clients' religious beliefs are increasingly being considered in psychotherapy with the goal of improving service and effectiveness of treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A resulting development was theistic psychotherapy. Conceptually, it consists of theological principles, a theistic view of personality, and a theistic view of psychotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following an explicit minimizing strategy, therapists attempt to minimize conflict by acknowledging their religious views while being respectful of client's religious views.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is argued to up the potential for therapists to directly utilize religious practices and principles in therapy, such as prayer, forgiveness, and grace. In contrast to such an approach, psychoanalyst <a href="/wiki/Robin_S._Brown" title="Robin S. Brown">Robin S. Brown</a> argues for the extent to which our spiritual commitments remain unconscious. Drawing from the work of Jung, Brown suggests that "our biases can only be suspended in the extent to which they are no longer our biases".<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pastoral_psychology">Pastoral psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Pastoral psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One application of the psychology of religion is in pastoral psychology, the use of psychological findings to improve the <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_care" title="Pastoral care">pastoral care</a> provided by <a href="/wiki/Pastor" title="Pastor">pastors</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>, especially in how they support ordinary members of their <a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">congregations</a>. Pastoral psychology is also concerned with improving the practice of <a href="/wiki/Chaplain" title="Chaplain">chaplains</a> in <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a>. One major concern of pastoral psychology is to improve the practice of <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_counseling" title="Pastoral counseling">pastoral counseling</a>. Pastoral psychology is a topic of interest for professional journals such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Psychology_and_Christianity" title="Journal of Psychology and Christianity">Journal of Psychology and Christianity</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Psychology_and_Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Psychology and Theology">Journal of Psychology and Theology</a></i>. In 1984, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._Oden" title="Thomas C. Oden">Thomas Oden</a> severely criticized mid-20th-century <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_care" title="Pastoral care">pastoral care</a> and the pastoral psychology that guided it as having entirely abandoned its classical/traditional sources, and having become overwhelmingly dominated by modern psychological influences from <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Rogers</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-oden84_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oden84-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, others have described pastoral psychology as a field that experiences a tension between psychology and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory_and_psychology_of_religion" title="Attachment theory and psychology of religion">Attachment theory and psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_God" title="Fear of God">Fear of God</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Issues_in_Science_and_Religion" title="Issues in Science and Religion">Issues in Science and Religion</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythopoeic_thought" title="Mythopoeic thought">Mythopoeic thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_of_religion_journals" title="Category:Psychology of religion journals">Psychology of religion journals</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_for_the_Psychology_of_Religion" title="International Journal for the Psychology of Religion">International Journal for the Psychology of Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and religion">Science and religion</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Wulff,_D._M._2010_pp._732-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wulff,_D._M._2010_pp._732_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wulff,_D._M._2010_pp._732_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wulff, D. M. (2010). Psychology of Religion. In D. A. Leeming, K. Madden, & S. Marian (Eds.), <i>Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion</i> (pp. 732–735). New York; London: Springer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJames1902" class="citation book cs1">James, William (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.apa.org/books/10004-000"><i>The varieties of religious experience: A study in human nature</i></a>. New York: Longmans, Green and Co. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F10004-000">10.1037/10004-000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+varieties+of+religious+experience%3A+A+study+in+human+nature.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Co&rft.date=1902&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F10004-000&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontent.apa.org%2Fbooks%2F10004-000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, W. C. (1963). <i>The Meaning and End of Religion: A New Approach to the Religious Traditions of Mankind.</i> New York: Macmillan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wulff, D. M. (1999). Psychologists Define Religion: Patterns and Prospects of a Century-Long Quest. In J. G. Platvoet and A. L. Molendijk (Eds.), <i>The Pragmatics of Defining Religion: Contexts, Concepts, and Contests</i> (pp. 207–224). Leiden: Brill</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, P. C., and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_W._Hood" title="Ralph W. Hood">Hood, R. W., Jr.</a> (Eds.). (1999). <i>Measures of Religiosity." 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Emmons">Emmons, Robert A.</a> (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychologyofulti00emm_2w1"><i>The psychology of ultimate concerns: Motivation and spirituality in personality</i></a></span>. New York: Guilford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-935-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-935-7"><bdi>978-1-57230-935-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+psychology+of+ultimate+concerns%3A+Motivation+and+spirituality+in+personality&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Guilford&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-57230-935-7&rft.aulast=Emmons&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpsychologyofulti00emm_2w1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utc.edu/psychology/profiles/faculty/hood.php">"Professor, Member of Graduate Faculty"</a>. <i>www.utc.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-02-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.utc.edu&rft.atitle=Professor%2C+Member+of+Graduate+Faculty&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utc.edu%2Fpsychology%2Fprofiles%2Ffaculty%2Fhood.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pargament97-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pargament97_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pargament97_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth I. Pargament (1997). <i><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_Religion_and_Coping_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of Religion and Coping (book)">The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice</a></i>. New York: Guilford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-664-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-664-6">978-1-57230-664-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rcope-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rcope_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPargament_Kenneth_I.Koenig_Harold_G.Perez_Lisa_M.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Pargament Kenneth I.; Koenig Harold G.; Perez Lisa M. (2000). "The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the RCOPE". <i>Journal of Clinical Psychology</i>. <b>56</b> (4): 519–543. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-4679%28200004%2956%3A4%3C519%3A%3AAID-JCLP6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-1">10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(200004)56:4<519::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10775045">10775045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5100797">5100797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+many+methods+of+religious+coping%3A+Development+and+initial+validation+of+the+RCOPE&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=519-543&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5100797%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10775045&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-4679%28200004%2956%3A4%3C519%3A%3AAID-JCLP6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-1&rft.au=Pargament+Kenneth+I.&rft.au=Koenig+Harold+G.&rft.au=Perez+Lisa+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-styyle3-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-styyle3_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPargament_Kenneth_I.Kennell_JosephHathaway_WilliamGrevengoed_Nancy1988" class="citation journal cs1">Pargament Kenneth I.; Kennell Joseph; Hathaway William; Grevengoed Nancy; Newman Jon; Jones Wendy (1988). "Religion and the problem-solving process: Three styles of coping". <i>Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 90–104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1387404">10.2307/1387404</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1387404">1387404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Scientific+Study+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Religion+and+the+problem-solving+process%3A+Three+styles+of+coping&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=90-104&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1387404&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1387404%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Pargament+Kenneth+I.&rft.au=Kennell+Joseph&rft.au=Hathaway+William&rft.au=Grevengoed+Nancy&rft.au=Newman+Jon&rft.au=Jones+Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zp-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zp_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian J. Zinnbauer & Kenneth I. Pargament (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2995869&site=ehost-live">Working with the sacred: Four approaches to religious and spiritual issues in counseling</a>. <i>Journal of Counseling & Development</i>, v78 n2, pp. 162–171. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0748-9633">0748-9633</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Hillman, <i>Re-Visioning Psychology</i>, HarperCollins, NY, 1977, p. 227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaynes1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julian_Jaynes" title="Julian Jaynes">Jaynes, Julian</a> (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originofconsciou0000unse"><i>The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind</i></a></span> (1st ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 131–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0395329320" title="Special:BookSources/978-0395329320"><bdi>978-0395329320</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Consciousness+in+the+Breakdown+of+the+Bicameral+Mind&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=131-143&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0395329320&rft.aulast=Jaynes&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginofconsciou0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill,_R.2001" class="citation book cs1">Gill, R. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I9NI8dvVObEC&q=gill+2001+future+of+religious+participation&pg=PA279">"The future of religious participation and belief in Britain and beyond"</a>. In R. K. Fenn (ed.). <i>The Blackwell companion to the sociology of religion</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 279–291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21241-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21241-6"><bdi>978-0-631-21241-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+future+of+religious+participation+and+belief+in+Britain+and+beyond&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+companion+to+the+sociology+of+religion&rft.pages=279-291&rft.pub=Oxford%3A+Blackwell&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21241-6&rft.au=Gill%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI9NI8dvVObEC%26q%3Dgill%2B2001%2Bfuture%2Bof%2Breligious%2Bparticipation%26pg%3DPA279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_C.2007" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, C. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hWRXYY3HRFoC&q=taylor%202007%20a%20secular%20age&pg=PR9"><i><span></span></i>A secular age<i><span></span></i></a>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02676-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02676-6"><bdi>978-0-674-02676-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generationofseek00roof"><i><span></span></i>A generation of seekers: The spiritual journeys of the baby boom generation<i><span></span></i></a>. San Francisco: HaperSanFrancisco. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-066963-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-066963-8"><bdi>978-0-06-066963-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+generation+of+seekers%3A+The+spiritual+journeys+of+the+baby+boom+generation&rft.pub=San+Francisco%3A+HaperSanFrancisco&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-06-066963-8&rft.au=Roof%2C+W.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenerationofseek00roof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill,_P._C.Pargament,_K._I.Hood,_R._W.McCullough,_M._E.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hill, P. C.; <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pargament" title="Kenneth Pargament">Pargament, K. I.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ralph_W._Hood" title="Ralph W. Hood">Hood, R. W.</a>; McCullough, M. E.; Swyers, J. P.; Larson, D. B.; et al. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Papers/conceptualizing_religion_and_spirituality_jtsb.pdf">"Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour</i>. <b>30</b>: 51–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-5914.00119">10.1111/1468-5914.00119</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22228-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22228-1"><bdi>978-0-520-22228-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2010</span>. <q>wuthnow 1988 after heaven.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+heaven%3A+Spirituality+in+America+since+the+1950s&rft.pub=Berkeley%2C+CA%3A+University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22228-1&rft.au=Wuthnow%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafterheavenspiri00wuth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBesecke,_K.2007" class="citation book cs1">Besecke, K. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rituals+and+social+structure%3A+The+moral+dimension.&rft.btitle=Current+studies+on+rituals%3A+Perspectives+for+the+psychology+of+religion&rft.pages=121-134&rft.pub=Amsterdam%3A+Rodopi.&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-90-5183-178-8&rft.au=Reich%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyrWKN53cKZ0C%26q%3DCurrent%2Bstudies%2Bon%2Brituals%3A%2BPerspectives%2Bfor%2Bthe%2Bpsychology%2Bof%2Breligion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinde,_R._A.2005" class="citation book cs1">Hinde, R. A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s5lWhUPLFZQC&q=Mind+and+religion:+Psychological+and+cognitive+foundations+of+religiosity&pg=PR9">"Modes theory: Some theoretical considerations."</a>. In H. Whitehouse; R McCauley (eds.). <i>Mind and religion: Psychological and cognitive foundations of religiosity</i>. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira. pp. 31–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0619-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0619-2"><bdi>978-0-7591-0619-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Modes+theory%3A+Some+theoretical+considerations.&rft.btitle=Mind+and+religion%3A+Psychological+and+cognitive+foundations+of+religiosity&rft.pages=31-55&rft.pub=Walnut+Creek%2C+CA%3A+AltaMira.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0619-2&rft.au=Hinde%2C+R.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds5lWhUPLFZQC%26q%3DMind%2Band%2Breligion%3A%2BPsychological%2Band%2Bcognitive%2Bfoundations%2Bof%2Breligiosity%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapolsky,_R._M.1998" class="citation book cs1">Sapolsky, R. M. (1998). "Circling the Blanket for God". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/troublewithtesto00sapo"><i>The Trouble with Testosterone: and Other Essays on the Biology of the Human Predicament</i></a></span>. New York: A Touchstone Book, Simon & Schuster. pp. 263–270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83409-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83409-2"><bdi>978-0-684-83409-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2023</span>. <q>There is an unsettling similarity between the rituals of the obsessive-compulsive and the rituals of the observantly religious. [...] for the practitioners of most religious orthodoxies, rituals of cleansing of self and of food, of checking, of leaving and entering places, and of numerology consume each day. [...] Whether the numerology of the numbers of Hail Marys, the ritualistic use of rosaries, the details of baptism, the rules for entering and leaving churches, the magic invested in the number 3 or the number of Stations of the Cross, Roman Catholicism readily fits the patterns already discussed. The same is seen with the Protestant religions. Even among Lutherans (chosen for their lack of ornateness), there is no shortage of detailed rules - prayers differing as to time of day, prayers differing as to even and odd-numbered years, precise orderings of baptism and of confession, rituals of foot washing [...]. [...] Lutheranism is full of precise strictures about music. The hymnal companion to the Lutheran Book of Worship contains a stern checklist of dos and don'ts for the organist [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Circling+the+Blanket+for+God&rft.btitle=The+Trouble+with+Testosterone%3A+and+Other+Essays+on+the+Biology+of+the+Human+Predicament&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=263-270&rft.pub=A+Touchstone+Book%2C+Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-684-83409-2&rft.au=Sapolsky%2C+R.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftroublewithtesto00sapo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-khandbook2001-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-khandbook2001_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoenigMcCulloughLarson2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_G._Koenig" title="Harold G. Koenig">Koenig, Harold G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_McCullough_(psychologist)" title="Michael McCullough (psychologist)">McCullough, Michael E.</a>; Larson, David B. (2001). <a href="/wiki/Handbook_of_Religion_and_Health" title="Handbook of Religion and Health"><i>Handbook of Religion and Health</i></a> (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511866-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511866-7"><bdi>978-0-19-511866-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/468554547">468554547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Religion+and+Health&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F468554547&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511866-7&rft.aulast=Koenig&rft.aufirst=Harold+G.&rft.au=McCullough%2C+Michael+E.&rft.au=Larson%2C+David+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-khandbook2012-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-khandbook2012_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoenigKingCarson2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_G._Koenig" title="Harold G. Koenig">Koenig, Harold G.</a>; King, Dana E.; Carson, Verna Benner (2012). <a href="/wiki/Handbook_of_Religion_and_Health" title="Handbook of Religion and Health"><i>Handbook of Religion and Health</i></a> (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195335958" title="Special:BookSources/9780195335958"><bdi>9780195335958</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/691927968">691927968</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Religion+and+Health&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F691927968&rft.isbn=9780195335958&rft.aulast=Koenig&rft.aufirst=Harold+G.&rft.au=King%2C+Dana+E.&rft.au=Carson%2C+Verna+Benner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin2001-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevin2001_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevin2001">Levin 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalenKloet2011" class="citation journal cs1">Galen, Luke William; Kloet, James D. (2011-09-01). "Mental well-being in the religious and the non-religious: evidence for a curvilinear relationship". <i>Mental Health, Religion & Culture</i>. <b>14</b> (7): 673–689. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13674676.2010.510829">10.1080/13674676.2010.510829</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1367-4676">1367-4676</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145774074">145774074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mental+Health%2C+Religion+%26+Culture&rft.atitle=Mental+well-being+in+the+religious+and+the+non-religious%3A+evidence+for+a+curvilinear+relationship&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=673-689&rft.date=2011-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145774074%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1367-4676&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13674676.2010.510829&rft.aulast=Galen&rft.aufirst=Luke+William&rft.au=Kloet%2C+James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberJacobSpangler2007-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberJacobSpangler2007_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaberJacobSpangler2007">Haber, Jacob & Spangler 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saroglou,_V._2002_15–25-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saroglou,_V._2002_15–25_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saroglou,_V._2002_15–25_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaroglou,_V.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Saroglou, V. (2002). "Religion and the five factors of personality: A meta-analytic review". <i>Personality and Individual Differences</i>. <b>32</b>: 15–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0191-8869%2800%2900233-6">10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00233-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personality+and+Individual+Differences&rft.atitle=Religion+and+the+five+factors+of+personality%3A+A+meta-analytic+review&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=15-25&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0191-8869%2800%2900233-6&rft.au=Saroglou%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacDonald_DA_153–97-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MacDonald_DA_153–97_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonald_DA2000" class="citation journal cs1">MacDonald DA (February 2000). "Spirituality: description, measurement, and relation to the five factor model of personality". <i>Journal of Personality</i>. <b>68</b> (1): 153–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-6494.t01-1-00094">10.1111/1467-6494.t01-1-00094</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10820684">10820684</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23675899">23675899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality&rft.atitle=Spirituality%3A+description%2C+measurement%2C+and+relation+to+the+five+factor+model+of+personality&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=153-97&rft.date=2000-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23675899%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10820684&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-6494.t01-1-00094&rft.au=MacDonald+DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hall, D. L. (Feb 2010). "Why don't we practice what we preach? 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(2009). 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Carhart-Harris, Robin L.; Roseman, Leor; Trautwein, Fynn-Mathis; Berkovich-Ohana, Aviva (2018-09-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6137697">"Psychedelics, Meditation, and Self-Consciousness"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. <b>9</b>: 1475. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.01475">10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01475</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-1078">1664-1078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6137697">6137697</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30245648">30245648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Psychedelics%2C+Meditation%2C+and+Self-Consciousness&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=1475&rft.date=2018-09-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6137697%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30245648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.01475&rft.aulast=Milli%C3%A8re&rft.aufirst=Rapha%C3%ABl&rft.au=Carhart-Harris%2C+Robin+L.&rft.au=Roseman%2C+Leor&rft.au=Trautwein%2C+Fynn-Mathis&rft.au=Berkovich-Ohana%2C+Aviva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6137697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLethebyGerrans2017" class="citation journal cs1">Letheby, Chris; Gerrans, Philip (2017-06-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6007152">"Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience"</a>. <i>Neuroscience of Consciousness</i>. <b>2017</b> (1): nix016. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnc%2Fnix016">10.1093/nc/nix016</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2057-2107">2057-2107</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6007152">6007152</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30042848">30042848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+of+Consciousness&rft.atitle=Self+unbound%3A+ego+dissolution+in+psychedelic+experience&rft.volume=2017&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=nix016&rft.date=2017-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6007152%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2057-2107&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30042848&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fnc%2Fnix016&rft.aulast=Letheby&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Gerrans%2C+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6007152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JNCN-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JNCN_99-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurrayCunninghamPrice2012" class="citation journal cs1">Murray, Evan D.; Cunningham, Miles G.; Price, Bruce H. (October 2012). "The Role of Psychotic Disorders in Religious History Considered". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Neuropsychiatry_and_Clinical_Neurosciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences">Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences</a></i>. <b>24</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a>: 410–426. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.neuropsych.11090214">10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11090214</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-7222">1545-7222</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/823065628">823065628</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23224447">23224447</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207654711">207654711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neuropsychiatry+and+Clinical+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Psychotic+Disorders+in+Religious+History+Considered&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=410-426&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207654711%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.neuropsych.11090214&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F823065628&rft.issn=1545-7222&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23224447&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Evan+D.&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+Miles+G.&rft.au=Price%2C+Bruce+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergin,_A._E.1980" class="citation journal cs1">Bergin, A. E. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1079&context=irp">"Psychotherapy and religious values"</a>. <i>Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology</i>. <b>48</b> (1): 95–105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-006x.48.1.95">10.1037/0022-006x.48.1.95</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7365049">7365049</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consulting+and+Clinical+Psychology&rft.atitle=Psychotherapy+and+religious+values&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=95-105&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-006x.48.1.95&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7365049&rft.au=Bergin%2C+A.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1079%26context%3Dirp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards,_P._S.2005" class="citation book cs1">Richards, P. S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psycnet.apa.org/books/10886/011">"A theistic integrative psychotherapy."</a>. In L. Sperry; E. P. Shafranske (eds.). <i>Spiritually oriented psychotherapy</i>. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. pp. 259–285<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+theistic+integrative+psychotherapy.&rft.btitle=Spiritually+oriented+psychotherapy&rft.pages=259-285&rft.pub=Washington%2C+DC%3A+American+Psychological+Association.&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Richards%2C+P.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Fbooks%2F10886%2F011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards,_P._S.Bergin,_A.1997" class="citation book cs1">Richards, P. S.; Bergin, A. (1997). <i>A spiritual strategy for counseling and psychotherapy</i>. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55798-434-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55798-434-0"><bdi>978-1-55798-434-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+spiritual+strategy+for+counseling+and+psychotherapy&rft.pub=Washington%2C+DC%3A+American+Psychological+Association.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-55798-434-0&rft.au=Richards%2C+P.+S.&rft.au=Bergin%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, R.S. (2017). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Psychoanalysis-Beyond-the-End-of-Metaphysics-Thinking-Towards-the-Post-Relational/Brown/p/book/9781138935181">Psychoanalysis Beyond the End of Metaphysics: Thinking Towards the Post-Relational</a></i>. London & New York: Routledge (p. 68).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oden84-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oden84_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOden1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._Oden" title="Thomas C. Oden">Oden, Thomas C.</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050217211918/http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=1938"><i>Care of souls in the classic tradition</i></a>. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-1729-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-1729-5"><bdi>978-0-8006-1729-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=1938">the original</a> on 2005-02-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Care+of+souls+in+the+classic+tradition&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8006-1729-5&rft.aulast=Oden&rft.aufirst=Thomas+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.religion-online.org%2Fshowbook.asp%3Ftitle%3D1938&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span> (full text online). In Tables 1 through 3, he demonstrated that in pastoral care textbooks, citations to psychologists (such as <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Jung</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Rogers</a>) had entirely replaced citations to traditional pastoral care thinkers (such as <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory the Great">Gregory the Great</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a>) between the late 19th century and the mid-20th century.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErmanno_Pavesi2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ermanno Pavesi (2010). "Pastoral psychology as a field of tension between theology and psychology". <i>Christian Bioethics</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 9–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcb%2Fcbq001">10.1093/cb/cbq001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1744-4195">1744-4195</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Bioethics&rft.atitle=Pastoral+psychology+as+a+field+of+tension+between+theology+and+psychology&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=9-29&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcb%2Fcbq001&rft.issn=1744-4195&rft.au=Ermanno+Pavesi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllport1950" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Allport, G. W.</a> (1950), <i>The individual and his religion</i>, New York: Macmillan</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+individual+and+his+religion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Allport&rft.aufirst=G.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllportRoss1967" class="citation journal cs1">Allport, G. W.; Ross, J. M. (1967). "Personal Religious Orientation and Prejudice". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Personality_and_Social_Psychology" title="Journal of Personality and Social Psychology">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a></i>. <b>5</b> (4): 432–443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0021212">10.1037/h0021212</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6051769">6051769</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32594734">32594734</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Personal+Religious+Orientation+and+Prejudice&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=432-443&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32594734%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6051769&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0021212&rft.aulast=Allport&rft.aufirst=G.+W.&rft.au=Ross%2C+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansForneyGuidoPatton2010" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Nancy; Forney, Deanna; Guido, Florence; Patton, Lori; Renn, Kristen (2010). <i>Student Development in College: Theory, Research, and Practice</i> (2nd ed.). San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7879-7809-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7879-7809-9"><bdi>978-0-7879-7809-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Student+Development+in+College%3A+Theory%2C+Research%2C+and+Practice&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Jossey-Bass&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7879-7809-9&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft.au=Forney%2C+Deanna&rft.au=Guido%2C+Florence&rft.au=Patton%2C+Lori&rft.au=Renn%2C+Kristen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaberJacobSpangler2007" class="citation journal cs1">Haber, J.; Jacob, R.; Spangler, J.D.C. (2007). "Dimensions of religion and their relationship to health". <i><a href="/wiki/The_International_Journal_for_the_Psychology_of_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion">The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion</a></i>. <b>17</b> (4): 265–288. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10508610701572770">10.1080/10508610701572770</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144053898">144053898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+for+the+Psychology+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Dimensions+of+religion+and+their+relationship+to+health&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=265-288&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10508610701572770&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144053898%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Haber&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Jacob%2C+R.&rft.au=Spangler%2C+J.D.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeak2008" class="citation journal cs1">Leak, Gary K. (2008). "Factorial Validity of the Faith Development Scale". <i>The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion</i>. <b>18</b> (2): 123–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10508610701879399">10.1080/10508610701879399</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1532-7582">1532-7582</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143819966">143819966</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+for+the+Psychology+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Factorial+Validity+of+the+Faith+Development+Scale&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=123-131&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143819966%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1532-7582&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10508610701879399&rft.aulast=Leak&rft.aufirst=Gary+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2001" class="citation cs2">Levin, J. (2001), <i>God, Faith and Health: Exploring the Spirituality-Health Connection</i>, New York: Wiley, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781620456699" title="Special:BookSources/9781620456699"><bdi>9781620456699</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Faith+and+Health%3A+Exploring+the+Spirituality-Health+Connection&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781620456699&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaloutzianPark2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Paloutzian" title="Raymond Paloutzian">Paloutzian, R. F.</a>; Park, C. L. (2005), <i>Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality</i>, New York/London: Guilford Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Psychology+of+Religion+and+Spirituality&rft.place=New+York%2FLondon&rft.pub=Guilford+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Paloutzian&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rft.au=Park%2C+C.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolski_Conn1986" class="citation book cs1">Wolski Conn, Joann, ed. (1986). <i>Women's Spirituality: Resources for Christian Development</i>. New York: Paulist Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women%27s+Spirituality%3A+Resources+for+Christian+Development&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWulff1997" class="citation book cs1">Wulff, D. M. (1997). <i>Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary</i> (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-03706-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-03706-0"><bdi>0-471-03706-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+of+Religion%3A+Classic+and+Contemporary&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-471-03706-0&rft.aulast=Wulff&rft.aufirst=D.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Atran, S. (2002). <i>In Gods We Trust: The Evolutionary Landscape of Religion</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517803-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517803-6"><bdi>978-0-19-517803-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Gods+We+Trust%3A+The+Evolutionary+Landscape+of+Religion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517803-6&rft.aulast=Atran&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Aziz, Robert (1990). <i>C.G. Jung's Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity</i> (10th ed.). <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0166-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0166-8"><bdi>978-0-7914-0166-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=C.G.+Jung%27s+Psychology+of+Religion+and+Synchronicity&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-0166-8&rft.aulast=Aziz&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bendeck Sotillos, S., ed. (2013). <i>Psychology and the Perennial Philosophy: Studies in Comparative Religion</i>. Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-936597-20-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-936597-20-8"><bdi>978-1-936597-20-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+and+the+Perennial+Philosophy%3A+Studies+in+Comparative+Religion&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+IN&rft.pub=World+Wisdom&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-936597-20-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Erikson, E. (1958). <i>Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History</i>. New York: W. W. Norton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Young+Man+Luther%3A+A+Study+in+Psychoanalysis+and+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Erikson&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Fontana, D. (2003). <i>Psychology, Religion and Spirituality</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0806-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0806-5"><bdi>978-1-4051-0806-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology%2C+Religion+and+Spirituality&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-0806-5&rft.aulast=Fontana&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1994" class="citation book cs1">Fuller, A. R. (1994). <i>Psychology and Religion: Eight Points of View</i> (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Littlefield Adams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8226-3036-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8226-3036-2"><bdi>0-8226-3036-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+and+Religion%3A+Eight+Points+of+View&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Littlefield+Adams&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8226-3036-2&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=A.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_W._Hood" title="Ralph W. Hood">Hood, R. W.</a>; Spilka, B.; Hunsberger, B.; Gorsuch, R. (1996). <i>The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach</i>. New York: Guilford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57230-116-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-57230-116-3"><bdi>1-57230-116-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Religion%3A+An+Empirical+Approach&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Guilford&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=1-57230-116-3&rft.aulast=Hood&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft.au=Spilka%2C+B.&rft.au=Hunsberger%2C+B.&rft.au=Gorsuch%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Jones, David (2009). <i>The Psychology of Jesus</i>. Nashville: Valjean Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-09820757-2-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-09820757-2-2"><bdi>978-09820757-2-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Jesus&rft.place=Nashville&rft.pub=Valjean+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-09820757-2-2&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Jung, C. G.</a> (1933). <i>Modern Man in Search of a Soul</i>. New York: Harcourt Brace.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Man+in+Search+of+a+Soul&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Jung&rft.aufirst=C.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Jung, C. G. (1962). <i>Psychology and Religion</i>. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+and+Religion&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Jung&rft.aufirst=C.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Jung, C. G. (1984). <i>Psychology and Western Religion</i>. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+and+Western+Religion&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Jung&rft.aufirst=C.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Kugelmann, Robert (2011). <i>Psychology and Catholicism: Contested Boundaries</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00608-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00608-9"><bdi>978-1-107-00608-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+and+Catholicism%3A+Contested+Boundaries&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-107-00608-9&rft.aulast=Kugelmann&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Loewenthal, K. M. (2000). <i>Psychology of Religion: A Short Introduction</i>. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-212-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-212-6"><bdi>978-1-85168-212-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+of+Religion%3A+A+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85168-212-6&rft.aulast=Loewenthal&rft.aufirst=K.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Meissner, W. (1984). <i>Psychoanalysis and Religious Experience</i>. London & New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03751-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03751-7"><bdi>978-0-300-03751-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychoanalysis+and+Religious+Experience&rft.place=London+%26+New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-300-03751-7&rft.aulast=Meissner&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Paloutzian, R. (1996). <i>Invitation to the Psychology of Religion</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-14840-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-14840-9"><bdi>0-205-14840-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invitation+to+the+Psychology+of+Religion&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Allyn+and+Bacon&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-205-14840-9&rft.aulast=Paloutzian&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Saroglou, V., ed. (2014). <i>Religion, Personality, and Social Behavior</i>. New York: Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84872-665-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84872-665-9"><bdi>978-1-84872-665-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion%2C+Personality%2C+and+Social+Behavior&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-84872-665-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Saroglou, V. (2021). <i>The Psychology of Religion</i>. The Psychology of Everything. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-6812-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-6812-0"><bdi>978-0-8153-6812-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Religion&rft.series=The+Psychology+of+Everything&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-6812-0&rft.aulast=Saroglou&rft.aufirst=V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_of_religion&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality</a> on the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>'s official website <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apadivisions.org/division-36/">Society for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality</a>, official website</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iacsr.com">International Association for the Scientific Study of Religion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaprweb.org/">International Association for the Psychology of Religion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psyreli.org/">Centre for Psychology of Religion</a>, Institute IPSY, <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_catholique_de_Louvain" class="mw-redirect" title="Université catholique de Louvain">Université catholique de Louvain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180326064455/http://www.idesam.umu.se/english/about/subjects/religion/psychology-of-religion/">Psychology of religion</a>, Department of Historical, Philosophical and Religious studies, <a href="/wiki/Ume%C3%A5_University" title="Umeå University">Umeå University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.religiousstudiesproject.com/podcast/misplaced-faith-a-theory-of-supernatural-belief-as-misattribution/">Misplaced Faith?: A theory of supernatural belief as misattribution with Luke Galen</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Religiousity_and_emotion" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Religiousity and emotion">Religiosity and Emotion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li>Psychology of religion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native<br />American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional <br /> African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan<br />African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>:</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New<br /> religious<br /> movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern<br />paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion <br />and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> <br />and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews<br />and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" 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