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id="toc-Pagan_and_Dali" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pagan_and_Dali"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Pagan and Dali</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pagan_and_Dali-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_conquest_of_Dali" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_conquest_of_Dali"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Mongol conquest of Dali</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_conquest_of_Dali-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_of_Pagan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_Pagan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Decline of Pagan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_Pagan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prelude_to_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prelude_to_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Prelude to war</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prelude_to_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prelude to war subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prelude_to_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Mongol_mission_(1271–1272)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Mongol_mission_(1271–1272)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>First Mongol mission (1271–1272)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Mongol_mission_(1271–1272)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Mongol_mission_(1273)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Mongol_mission_(1273)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Second Mongol mission (1273)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Mongol_mission_(1273)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_consolidation_of_borderlands_(1275–1276)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_consolidation_of_borderlands_(1275–1276)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Mongol consolidation of borderlands (1275–1276)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_consolidation_of_borderlands_(1275–1276)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Border_war_(1277–1278)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Border_war_(1277–1278)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Border war (1277–1278)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Border_war_(1277–1278)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Border war (1277–1278) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Border_war_(1277–1278)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Battle of Ngasaunggyan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Raid_of_Kaungsin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raid_of_Kaungsin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Raid of Kaungsin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raid_of_Kaungsin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interlude_(1278–1283)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interlude_(1278–1283)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Interlude (1278–1283)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interlude_(1278–1283)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion_(1283–1285)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_(1283–1285)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Invasion (1283–1285)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Invasion_(1283–1285)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Invasion (1283–1285) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Invasion_(1283–1285)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan_(1283)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan_(1283)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Battle of Ngasaunggyan (1283)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan_(1283)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion_of_northern_Burma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_of_northern_Burma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Invasion of northern Burma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_of_northern_Burma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_negotiations_(1285–1287)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_negotiations_(1285–1287)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Peace negotiations (1285–1287)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Peace_negotiations_(1285–1287)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Peace negotiations (1285–1287) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Peace_negotiations_(1285–1287)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ceasefire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ceasefire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Ceasefire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ceasefire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaty_of_Beijing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_of_Beijing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Treaty of Beijing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_of_Beijing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breakdown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breakdown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Breakdown</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breakdown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_last_push_for_Pagan_(1287)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_last_push_for_Pagan_(1287)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Mongol last push for Pagan (1287)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_last_push_for_Pagan_(1287)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Age_of_political_fragmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_political_fragmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Age of political fragmentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_political_fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Tai-Shan_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Tai-Shan_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Rise of Tai-Shan states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Tai-Shan_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_of_China_on_the_Burmese_border" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_of_China_on_the_Burmese_border"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Arrival of China on the Burmese border</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_of_China_on_the_Burmese_border-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Modern relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">First Mongol invasion of Burma</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84_%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7" title="الغزو المغولي الأول لبورما – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الغزو المغولي الأول لبورما" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%87_%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="برمه یه بیرینجی موغول سالدیریسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="برمه یه بیرینجی موغول سالدیریسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primera_invasi%C3%B3n_mongola_de_Birmania" title="Primera invasión mongola de Birmania – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Primera invasión mongola de Birmania" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%87" title="حمله مغول به برمه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حمله مغول به برمه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premi%C3%A8res_invasions_mongoles_en_Birmanie" title="Premières invasions mongoles en Birmanie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Premières invasions mongoles en Birmanie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi_Burma_pertama_oleh_Mongol" title="Invasi Burma pertama oleh Mongol – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Invasi Burma pertama oleh Mongol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_invasione_mongola_della_Birmania" title="Prima invasione mongola della Birmania – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Prima invasione mongola della Birmania" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%82%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF-%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="မွန်ဂို-မြန်မာ စစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မွန်ဂို-မြန်မာ စစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E3%83%AB%E3%81%AE%E3%83%93%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E4%BE%B5%E6%94%BB" title="モンゴルのビルマ侵攻 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="モンゴルのビルマ侵攻" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Монгольское завоевание Бирмы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Монгольское завоевание Бирмы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolernas_f%C3%B6rsta_invasion_av_Burma" title="Mongolernas första invasion av Burma – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mongolernas första invasion av Burma" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="பர்மா மீதான முதல் மங்கோலியப் படையெடுப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பர்மா மீதான முதல் மங்கோலியப் படையெடுப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" 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typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1277–1287 Yuan conquest of the Pagan kingdom</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">First Mongol invasions of Burma</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol invasions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan%27s_campaigns" title="Kublai Khan's campaigns">Kublai Khan's campaigns</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_(1277-87).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png/220px-Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="436" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png/330px-Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png/440px-Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="939" /></a></span><br />Sites of battles (1277–1287) <br /> Pagan might have also seen a battle in 1287</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>1277–1278, 1283–1285 and 1287</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Upper_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Burma">Upper Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dehong_Dai_and_Jingpo_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture">Dehong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baoshan,_Yunnan" title="Baoshan, Yunnan">Baoshan, Yunnan</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Mongol victory</li></ul></div> <ul><li>Collapse of Pagan Empire</li> <li>Rise of <a href="/wiki/Shan_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Shan states">Shan states</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Northern <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tagaung" title="Tagaung">Tagaung</a> added to the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">Pagan Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a></li><li>Huthukh <small>(1277)</small></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nasr_al-Din_(Yunnan)" title="Nasr al-Din (Yunnan)">Nasr al-Din</a> <small>(1277–1278)</small></li><li>Sangudar <small>(1283–1285)</small></li><li>Ye-sin Timour <small>(1287)</small></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narathihapate" title="Narathihapate">Narathihapate</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Pyissi" title="Ananda Pyissi">Ananda Pyissi</a> <small>(1277–1285)</small></li><li><a href="/wiki/Yanda_Pyissi" title="Yanda Pyissi">Yanda Pyissi</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a> <small>(1277–1284?)</small></li><li>Maha Bo <small>(1283–1285)</small></li><li><a href="/wiki/Athinkhaya" title="Athinkhaya">Athinkhaya</a> <small>(1287)</small></li><li><a href="/wiki/Yazathingyan" title="Yazathingyan">Yazathingyan</a> <small>(1287)</small></li><li><a href="/wiki/Thihathu" title="Thihathu">Thihathu</a> <small>(1287)</small></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Units involved</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol Army">Imperial Mongol Army</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> regiments</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asian</a> regiments</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> regiments</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> regiments</li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Burmese_armed_forces" title="Royal Burmese armed forces">Royal Burmese Army</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><b>1277–1278:</b> 12,000 </p> <hr /> <p><b>1283–1285:</b> 24,000+<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>10,000 Sichuan troops</li> <li>14,000 Persian troops</li> <li>Other regiments</li></ul> <hr /> <b>1287:</b> 20,000+<sup id="cite_ref-gw-27_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gw-27-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>1277–1278:</b> Unknown </p> <hr /> <p><b>1283–1285:</b> 10,000+ </p> <hr /> <b>1287:</b> Unknown</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><b>1277–1278:</b> Unknown </p> <hr /> <p><b>1283–1285:</b> Unknown </p> <hr /> <b>1287:</b> 7,000</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>1277–1278:</b> Unknown </p> <hr /> <p><b>1283–1285:</b> 10,000+ </p> <hr /> <b>1287:</b> Unknown</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Mongol invasions and conquests"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_invasions_andconquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol invasions and<br />conquests</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightsteelblue;">Asia</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Central_Asia" title="Mongol campaigns in Central Asia">Central Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezm</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia">Caucassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Anatolia" title="Mongol conquest of Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" title="Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia">Persia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaign_against_the_Nizaris" title="Mongol campaign against the Nizaris">Nizari state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Levant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_raids_into_Palestine" title="Mongol raids into Palestine">Palestine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia">Western Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Eastern_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Eastern Xia">Eastern Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Song</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li>Burma (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;">Other invasions</th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Siberia" title="Mongol campaigns in Siberia">Siberia</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightsteelblue;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Volga_Bulgaria" title="Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumans#Mongol_invasions" title="Cumans">Cumania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Durdzuketi" title="Mongol invasions of Durdzuketi">Durdzuketi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Circassia" title="Mongol invasion of Circassia">Circassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alania#Mongol_conquest_and_aftermath_(13th–14th_centuries)" title="Alania">Alania</a></li> <li>Poland and Bohemia (<a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Second Mongol invasion of Poland">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Third Mongol invasion of Poland">Third</a>)</li> <li>Hungary and Croatia (<a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="First Mongol invasion of Hungary">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="Second Mongol invasion of Hungary">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_incursions_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Mongol incursions in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">Bulgaria and Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Latin_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Lithuania" title="Mongol invasions of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Byzantine_Thrace" title="Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace">Byzantine Thrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_conflict_with_the_Nogai_Horde" title="Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese%E2%80%93Mongol_Wars" title="Genoese–Mongol Wars">Gazaria</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mongol_invasions_of_Burma" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Mongol_conquest_of_Burma" title="Template:Campaignbox Mongol conquest of Burma"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Mongol_conquest_of_Burma" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Mongol conquest of Burma"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Mongol_conquest_of_Burma" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Mongol conquest of Burma"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_invasions_of_Burma" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Mongol invasions of Burma</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1st invasion (1277–1287)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan" title="Battle of Ngasaunggyan">Ngasaunggyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pagan" title="Battle of Pagan">Pagan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">2nd invasion (1301–1302)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>first Mongol invasions of Burma</b> (<a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>: မွန်ဂို–မြန်မာ စစ် (၁၂၇၇–၁၂၈၇); <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 元緬戰爭) were a series of military conflicts between <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, a division of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">Pagan Empire</a> that took place between 1277 and 1287. The invasions toppled the 250-year-old Pagan Empire, and the Mongol army seized Pagan territories in present-day <a href="/wiki/Dehong_Dai_and_Jingpo_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture">Dehong, Yunnan</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tagaung" title="Tagaung">Tagaung</a>. The invasions ushered in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Burma#Small_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Burma">250 years of political fragmentation</a> in Burma and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">ethnic Tai-Shan</a> states throughout <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">mainland Southeast Asia</a>. </p><p>The Mongols first demanded <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tribute</a> from Pagan in 1271–1272, as part of their drive to encircle the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> of China. When King <a href="/wiki/Narathihapate" title="Narathihapate">Narathihapate</a> refused, Emperor Kublai Khan himself sent another mission in 1273, again demanding tribute. It too was rejected. In 1275, the emperor ordered the Yunnan government to secure the borderlands in order to block an escape path for the Song, and permitted a limited border war if Pagan contested. Pagan did contest but its army was driven back at the frontier by the Mongol army in 1277–1278. After a brief lull, Kublai Khan in 1281 again turned his attention to Southeast Asia, demanding tribute from Pagan, the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Đại Việt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a>. When the Burmese king again refused, the emperor ordered an invasion of northern Burma. Two dry season campaigns (1283–1285) later, the Mongols had occupied down to Tagaung and <a href="/wiki/Hanlin,_Burma" title="Hanlin, Burma">Hanlin</a>, forcing the Burmese king to flee to Lower Burma. The Mongols organized northern Burma as the province of Zhengmian. </p><p>Truce negotiations began in 1285, and ended with Narathihapate finally agreeing to submit in June 1286. The Burmese embassy, received by the emperor in Beijing in January 1287, agreed to a treaty that acknowledged the suzerainty of the Mongol Empire over the Pagan Empire and annual payments in taxes to the Yunnan government in exchange for the evacuation of Mongol troops from northern Burma. But the treaty never really took effect as Narathihapate was assassinated in July 1287, and no authority who could honor the treaty emerged. The Mongol command at Yunnan now deemed the imperial order to withdraw void, and ordered an invasion of central Burma. They may not have reached Pagan, and even if they did, after having suffered heavy casualties, they returned to Tagaung. </p><p>The Pagan Empire disintegrated and anarchy ensued. The Mongols, who probably preferred the situation, did nothing to restore order in the next ten years. In March 1297, they accepted the voluntary submission of King <a href="/wiki/Kyawswa_of_Pagan" title="Kyawswa of Pagan">Kyawswa of Pagan</a> although he controlled little beyond the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Bagan" title="Bagan">Pagan</a> (Bagan). But Kyawswa was overthrown nine months later, and the Mongols were forced to intervene, leading to their <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">second invasion</a> in 1300–1301. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> reported the first invasions (1277–1287) in his travelogue, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo" title="The Travels of Marco Polo">Il Milione</a></i>. The Burmese referred to the invaders as the <i>Taruk</i> (after the central Asian <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> troops that largely made up the Mongol invasion army); today, the term <i>Taruk</i> (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">တရုတ်</span></span>) refers to the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> instead. King Narathihapate is unkindly remembered in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Burma">Burmese history</a> as Taruk-Pye Min, ("the King who Fled from the <i>Taruk</i>").<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pagan_and_Dali">Pagan and Dali</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pagan and Dali"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pagan_Empire_--_Sithu_II.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Pagan_Empire_--_Sithu_II.PNG/150px-Pagan_Empire_--_Sithu_II.PNG" decoding="async" width="150" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Pagan_Empire_--_Sithu_II.PNG/225px-Pagan_Empire_--_Sithu_II.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Pagan_Empire_--_Sithu_II.PNG 2x" data-file-width="264" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption>Pagan Empire during <a href="/wiki/Sithu_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Sithu II">Sithu II</a>'s reign. Burmese chronicles also claim Kengtung and Chiang Mai. Core areas shown in darker yellow. Peripheral areas in light yellow.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_China_1142.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Map_of_China_1142.jpg/220px-Map_of_China_1142.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Map_of_China_1142.jpg/330px-Map_of_China_1142.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Map_of_China_1142.jpg/440px-Map_of_China_1142.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Dali Kingdom c. mid-12th century</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 13th century, the <a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">Pagan Empire</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a>, was one of the two main empires in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">mainland Southeast Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vbl-24_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vbl-24-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For much of its history, Pagan's neighbor to the northeast was not China but the independent <a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali Kingdom</a> and its predecessor <a href="/wiki/Nanzhao" title="Nanzhao">Nanzhao</a>, both with <a href="/wiki/Dali_City" title="Dali City">Dali</a> as their <a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">capital city</a>. Dali-based kingdoms were a power in their own right, at times allying themselves with the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a> to their west and at other times with China's <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> dynasties. Indeed, Nanzhao's mounted armies ventured deep into what is today Burma and may have been behind the founding of the medieval city of <a href="/wiki/Bagan" title="Bagan">Pagan</a> and the Pagan dynasty itself.<sup id="cite_ref-tmu-2011-165_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tmu-2011-165-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between the newly conquered Mongol territory and Pagan were a wide swath of borderlands stretching from present-day <a href="/wiki/Dehong_Dai_and_Jingpo_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture">Dehong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baoshan,_Yunnan" title="Baoshan, Yunnan">Baoshan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lincang" title="Lincang">Lincang</a> prefectures in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Wa_people" title="Wa people">Wa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palaung_people" title="Palaung people">Palaung</a> regions (presumably in present-day northern <a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan State</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which Pagan and Dali had both claimed and exercised overlapping spheres of influence.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then as now, the borderlands mostly consist of forbidding terrains of high mountain ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-tmu-2011-173_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tmu-2011-173-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongol_conquest_of_Dali">Mongol conquest of Dali</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mongol conquest of Dali"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> first arrived at the doorstep of the Pagan Empire in 1252 by invading the Dali Kingdom in its attempt to outflank Song China. The Mongol armies captured the capital, Dali, on 7 January 1253, and went on to pacify much of the kingdom by 1257.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-190_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-190-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The arrival of the Mongols did not initially upset the existing order at the borderlands as the Mongols were intent on <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">finishing off the Song</a>. For the next dozen years, they consolidated their hold over the newly conquered land, which not only provided them with a base from which to attack the Song from the rear but also was strategically located on the trade routes from China to Burma and India. The Mongols set up military garrisons, manned mostly by <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>-speaking Muslims from Central Asia, in 37 <a href="/wiki/Circuit_(administrative_division)" title="Circuit (administrative division)">circuits</a> of the former Dali Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-mr-289_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mr-289-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_of_Pagan">Decline of Pagan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Decline of Pagan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By then, the Pagan Empire, despite outward appearances of calmness, had been in long and slow decline since the early 13th century. The continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth had greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom. The crown had lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen, inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges.<sup id="cite_ref-vbl-119-120_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vbl-119-120-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it was able to put down the first batch of serious rebellions in 1258–1260 in <a href="/wiki/Kyaukpyu_District" title="Kyaukpyu District">South Arakan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a> (Mottama), the decline continued. On the eve of the Mongol invasions, between one and two-thirds of Upper Burma's cultivable land had been donated to religion. The crown's ability to mobilize defenses was in serious jeopardy.<sup id="cite_ref-vbl-119-120_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vbl-119-120-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prelude_to_war">Prelude to war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prelude to war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bagan,_Burma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bagan%2C_Burma.jpg/220px-Bagan%2C_Burma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bagan%2C_Burma.jpg/330px-Bagan%2C_Burma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bagan%2C_Burma.jpg/440px-Bagan%2C_Burma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1424" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>Bagan plains today</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Mongol_mission_(1271–1272)"><span id="First_Mongol_mission_.281271.E2.80.931272.29"></span>First Mongol mission (1271–1272)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: First Mongol mission (1271–1272)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period of calm for Pagan ended in the early 1270s. By then, the Song were on the ropes, and Emperor <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>, who officially founded the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> on 18 December 1271, sought to cut off the retreat of Song refugees in all directions.<sup id="cite_ref-krh-255_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krh-255-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Pagan's case, he had ordered the Mongol governor of Dali to tighten control of the borderlands, and in January 1271<sup id="cite_ref-gw-20_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gw-20-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to send a mission to Pagan to demand tribute.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-64_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-64-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tribute he demanded was nominal. Given his higher priority preoccupations elsewhere, the emperor was not looking to replace the regime at Pagan.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-64_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-64-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the border, the ruler of the Wa and Palaung regions submitted to the Mongols.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Mongol envoys led by Qidai Tuoyin showed up,<sup id="cite_ref-gw-20_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gw-20-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Pagan court led by Chief Minister <a href="/wiki/Ananda_Pyissi" title="Ananda Pyissi">Ananda Pyissi</a> was well aware of the military power of the Mongols and advised King <a href="/wiki/Narathihapate" title="Narathihapate">Narathihapate</a> to use diplomacy. The king was furious at the demand and kept the Mongol envoys waiting for weeks. The court finally devised a compromise: the envoys were sent back without ever seeing the king. Accompanying them was a Burmese envoy who carried a letter expressing friendly sentiments and the Burmese king's wish to one day worship a <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aar%C4%ABra" title="Śarīra">Buddha tooth</a> at Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-64_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-64-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king then promptly ordered an expedition, which retook the rebellious borderland regions in April 1272.<sup id="cite_ref-gw-20_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gw-20-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebel leader A-Pi (အပိ) was brought back to Pagan. Dali relayed the news to Beijing but did not carry out any military action.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Mongol_mission_(1273)"><span id="Second_Mongol_mission_.281273.29"></span>Second Mongol mission (1273)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Second Mongol mission (1273)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> At Beijing, Kublai Khan, who was preparing an <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan#First_invasion_(1274)" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">invasion of Japan</a>, decided against a war with Pagan—for the time being. On 3 March 1273, he sent a 4-member delegation led by an imperial ambassador, the First Secretary to the Board Rites, to Pagan.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-geh-64_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-64-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The delegation carried a letter from the emperor. The letter says:<sup id="cite_ref-geh-64_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-64-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p><i>"If you have finally decided to fulfill your duties towards the All-Highest, send one of your brothers or senior ministers, to show men that all the world is linked with Us, and enter into a perpetual alliance. This will add to your reputation, and be in your own interests; for if it comes to war, who will be the victor? Ponder well, O king, Our words."</i></p></blockquote><p>This time, the Burmese king received the imperial envoys but still refused to submit. The <a href="/wiki/Burmese_chronicles" title="Burmese chronicles">Burmese chronicles</a> say that the king was so insulted that he had the envoys executed,<sup id="cite_ref-hy-1-352_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hy-1-352-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although both Burmese inscriptional evidence and Yuan records indicate to the contrary.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gw-20_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gw-20-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At any rate, the imperial envoys did not return to Yunnan in due time. The newly formed Yunnan government sent another delegation to investigate the whereabouts of the delegation, but the delegation could not reach Pagan because of an ongoing rebellion en route.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-193_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-193-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongol_consolidation_of_borderlands_(1275–1276)"><span id="Mongol_consolidation_of_borderlands_.281275.E2.80.931276.29"></span>Mongol consolidation of borderlands (1275–1276)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mongol consolidation of borderlands (1275–1276)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meanwhile, in 1274, the former Dali Kingdom was officially reorganized as the province of Yunnan, with <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Ajjal_Shams_al-Din_Omar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar">Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar</a> as governor.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 1275,<sup id="cite_ref-gw-20_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gw-20-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the governor sent a report to the emperor stating that the embassy had not returned;<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the Burmese evidently had no intention of submitting; and that war was the only way forward.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-geh-65_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-65-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But the emperor rejected an outright invasion. Just coming off a disastrous Japanese campaign, the emperor was unwilling to commit the central government troops to what he considered a low priority affair. He was now focused on delivering the final blow against the Song; the emperor ordered the Yunnan provincial army to secure the borderlands in order to block the escape path of the Song refugees. He also sanctioned a limited border war if Pagan contested the takeover.<sup id="cite_ref-krh-255_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krh-255-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-geh-65_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-65-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As planned, the Yunnan army proceeded to consolidate the borderlands in 1275–1276. Elsewhere, the main Mongol armies had captured most of the Song territory by 1276. </p><p>By 1277, at least one Burmese vassal state named "Gold Teeth" (modern <a href="/wiki/Yingjiang_County" title="Yingjiang County">Yingjiang</a>) had submitted to the Mongols.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like in 1272, the Burmese government responded by sending an army to reclaim the rebellious state; but unlike in 1272, the Mongols had posted a sizable garrison there.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-geh-65_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-65-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though it was ultimately under Mongol command, many of the officers and most of the soldiers of the garrison were <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic-speaking</a> peoples or people from the further west: <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a> from <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, but also captive soldiers from the <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmid empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a> from the lower <a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tmu-2011-171_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tmu-2011-171-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Border_war_(1277–1278)"><span id="Border_war_.281277.E2.80.931278.29"></span>Border war (1277–1278)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Border war (1277–1278)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_(1277-87).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png/270px-Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="535" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png/405px-Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Mongol_invasions_of_Burma_%281277-87%29.png 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption>Mongol invasions 1277–1287</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MongolArcher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/MongolArcher.jpg/220px-MongolArcher.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/MongolArcher.jpg/330px-MongolArcher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/MongolArcher.jpg/440px-MongolArcher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="539" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Mongol mounted archer</figcaption></figure> <p>What followed was a border war in 1277–1278. It was reported mainly in the Yuan dynasty chronicle and the <a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo" title="The Travels of Marco Polo">travelogue of Marco Polo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_chronicles" title="Burmese chronicles">Burmese chronicles</a> have no record of the border war, a 1278 Burmese inscription mentions the army's defeat at Ngasaunggyan.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongol accounts of the border war contain certain errors of location and numbers although the overall narrative is probably accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan">Battle of Ngasaunggyan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Battle of Ngasaunggyan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan" title="Battle of Ngasaunggyan">Battle of Ngasaunggyan</a></div> <p>According to the Yuan dynasty chronicle and Marco Polo's accounts, a Burmese army "invaded" the Mongol territory of Gold Teeth, and was defeated by the Mongol army in April 1277. The battle took place either at the Vochang valley (in present-day <a href="/wiki/Baoshan_Prefecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Baoshan Prefecture">Baoshan Prefecture</a>) or 110 km southwest at Kanngai (present-day <a href="/wiki/Yingjiang_County" title="Yingjiang County">Yingjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dehong_Prefecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Dehong Prefecture">Dehong Prefecture</a>), which the Burmese called <i>Ngasaunggyan</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Yuan Chronicle reports that only 700 men defeated a Burmese army of 40,000 to 50,000 with 10,000 horses and 800 elephants. It also reports only one Mongol was killed, in trying to catch an elephant.<sup id="cite_ref-sgh-104_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sgh-104-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-geh-65-67_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-65-67-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Marco Polo, the Mongol army consisted of 12,000 mounted archers, and the Burmese army numbered 60,000 men with 2,000 elephants, "on each of which was set a tower of timber, well-framed and strong, and carrying from 12 to 16 well-armed fighting men."<sup id="cite_ref-sgh-104_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sgh-104-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tmu-2006-60-61_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tmu-2006-60-61-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even then, the 40,000 to 60,000 figures of the Burmese army strength were likely eye estimates and may still be too high; the Mongols may have erred "on the side of generosity" not to "diminish their glory in defeating superior numbers."<sup id="cite_ref-geh-333_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-333-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Marco Polo's account, in the early stages of the battle, the Turkish and Mongol horsemen "took such fright at the sight of the elephants that they would not be got to face the foe, but always swerved and turned back," while the Burmese forces pressed on. But the Mongol commander Huthukh<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> did not panic; he ordered his troops to dismount, and from the cover of the nearby treelines, aim their bows directly at the advancing elephants. The Mongol archers' arrows threw the animals into such pain that they fled.<sup id="cite_ref-tmu-2006-60-61_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tmu-2006-60-61-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raid_of_Kaungsin">Raid of Kaungsin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Raid of Kaungsin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mongol army pressed on after the monsoon season. In the following dry season of 1277–1278, c. December 1277, a Mongol army of 3,800 men led by <a href="/wiki/Nasr_al-Din_(Yunnan)" title="Nasr al-Din (Yunnan)">Nasr al-Din</a>, son of Gov. Sayyid Ajjal, advanced to Kaungsin, which defended the <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo Pass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-193_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-193-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hy-87_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hy-87-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They occupied the fort and destroyed a large number of abandoned stockades. But they found the heat excessive and returned.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-67_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-67-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interlude_(1278–1283)"><span id="Interlude_.281278.E2.80.931283.29"></span>Interlude (1278–1283)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Interlude (1278–1283)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the Mongol military success, the control of the borderlands remained contested. Pagan did not relinquish its claim to the frontier regions, and the Burmese, apparently taking advantage of Mongol preoccupations elsewhere, rebuilt their forts at Kaungsin and Ngasaunggyan later in 1278, posting permanent garrisons commanded by Einda Pyissi.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-1964-277_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-1964-277-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But their control was short-lived. The Great Khan's attention turned to Southeast Asia once more in 1281.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-192_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-192-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had mixed success: his vaunted forces finished off the last of the Song in 1279 but had again failed to take Japan in 1281. That year, the Mongol emperor sent another mission to Pagan, demanding tribute yet again. The Burmese king was to send his ten senior ministers accompanied by one thousand cavalry officers to the emperor's court.<sup id="cite_ref-hy-1-351_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hy-1-351-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (With Champa, the emperor summoned the king of Champa himself to Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-192_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-192-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>At Pagan, Narathihapate deliberated with his court for an appropriate response but ultimately refused to submit. The Burmese court may have been counting on another limited border war but the emperor now ordered an invasion of northern Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-193_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-193-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also ordered an invasion of Champa, whose king too had refused to submit.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-192_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-192-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout 1282, the Mongol command made preparations for the upcoming invasions of Champa and northern Burma. The objective of the Burma campaign was to take over northern Burma but no further; the emperor did not sanction an attack on Pagan itself.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-68_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-68-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least one army consisted of 14,000 men of the erstwhile <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarezmid Empire</a> under the command of Yalu Beg was sent to Yunnan to reinforce the Burma invasion force, which again was made up of Turks and other central Asians.<sup id="cite_ref-tmu-2011-171_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tmu-2011-171-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the Burmese side, the king managed to raise an army although given his low standing with his vassals, he probably could not have raised a large one. By mid-1283, a Burmese army led by generals Ananda Pyissi and Yanda Pyissi was deployed at a fort at Ngasaunggyan.<sup id="cite_ref-hy-1-352_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hy-1-352-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invasion_(1283–1285)"><span id="Invasion_.281283.E2.80.931285.29"></span>Invasion (1283–1285)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Invasion (1283–1285)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_warrior_of_Genghis_Khan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Mongol_warrior_of_Genghis_Khan.jpg/220px-Mongol_warrior_of_Genghis_Khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Mongol_warrior_of_Genghis_Khan.jpg/330px-Mongol_warrior_of_Genghis_Khan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Mongol_warrior_of_Genghis_Khan.jpg/440px-Mongol_warrior_of_Genghis_Khan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption>Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan_(1283)"><span id="Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan_.281283.29"></span>Battle of Ngasaunggyan (1283)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Battle of Ngasaunggyan (1283)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The invasion began on 22 September 1283. Prince Sangqudar was the commander-in-chief of the invasion force; his deputies were Vice Governor Taipn, and commander Yagan Tegin.<sup id="cite_ref-yt-1-147-fn3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yt-1-147-fn3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongol armies marched to the border in two columns. One column advanced along the <a href="/wiki/Taping_River" title="Taping River">Taping River</a> using over 200 boats; the other proceeded by land and joined the first column at the Burmese fort at Ngasaunggyan.<sup id="cite_ref-swc-24-25_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swc-24-25-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese chronicles report an overwhelming number of Mongol forces laying siege to the fort although their numbers are greatly exaggerated. (The chronicles say that the Burmese army numbered 400,000 men while the Mongol army numbered 20 million men and 6 million horses.)<sup id="cite_ref-hy-1-352_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hy-1-352-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese withstood the siege for over two months but the fort fell on 3 December 1283.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gc-193_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-193-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion_of_northern_Burma">Invasion of northern Burma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Invasion of northern Burma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The defeat at Ngasaunggyan broke the back of Burmese defenses. The Burmese army lost several thousand men as well as senior commanders. Kaungsin, the next fort in line, fell just six days later on 9 December 1283.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-194_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongol sources say that the Burmese lost 10,000 men at Kaungsin.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-67_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-67-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongol armies pushed farther south into the Irrawaddy valley. They took the ancient Burmese capital of <a href="/wiki/Tagaung" title="Tagaung">Tagaung</a>, about 380 km north of Pagan on 5 February 1284.<sup id="cite_ref-msk-5-263_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-msk-5-263-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, the invaders paused their advance. They "found the heat of the searing Irrawaddy valley excessive", and evacuated Tagaung, allowing the Burmese to return to Tagaung on 10 May 1284.<sup id="cite_ref-mat-1985-195_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mat-1985-195-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the Mongol army renewed their offensive in the following dry season. They retook Tagaung, and defeated another Burmese stand south of Tagaung, probably near <a href="/wiki/Hanlin,_Burma" title="Hanlin, Burma">Hanlin</a>, on 26 January 1285, opening the way to Pagan, about 270 km south.<sup id="cite_ref-yt-1-148-7_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yt-1-148-7-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tt-2002-66_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-2002-66-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the defeat, the king panicked, and fled to Lower Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-194_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evacuation proved premature. The Mongol forces did not advance on Pagan as it was not part of their invasion plan.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-68_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-68-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The country fell into chaos. In Lower Burma, the king found himself isolated, let alone plan a counterattack. Although the king's three sons ruled the nearby regions (<a href="/wiki/Pathein" title="Pathein">Bassein</a> (Pathein), <a href="/wiki/Pyay" title="Pyay">Prome</a> (Pyay), and <a href="/wiki/Twante_township" class="mw-redirect" title="Twante township">Dala-Twante</a>), the king did not trust any of them, and he and his court settled at Hlegya, west of Prome.<sup id="cite_ref-yt-1-148-10_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yt-1-148-10-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without the full support of his sons, the presence of the king and his small army impressed no one. A usurper named <a href="/wiki/Wareru" title="Wareru">Wareru</a> seized the southern port city of <a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a> (Mottama) by killing its Pagan-appointed governor.<sup id="cite_ref-hy-1-351_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hy-1-351-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gov. <a href="/wiki/Akhamaman" title="Akhamaman">Akhamaman</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bago,_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Bago, Burma">Pegu</a> also revolted; the king managed to send two small expeditions to Pegu but they both failed. Now, the entire eastern half of Lower Burma (Pegu and Martaban) was in open revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-npl-28-29_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npl-28-29-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peace_negotiations_(1285–1287)"><span id="Peace_negotiations_.281285.E2.80.931287.29"></span>Peace negotiations (1285–1287)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Peace negotiations (1285–1287)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg/220px-YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg/330px-YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg/440px-YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3221" data-file-height="4018" /></a><figcaption>Kublai Khan, founder and first emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ceasefire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Given his precarious position, Narathihapate decided to buy time, and sue for peace with the Mongols.<sup id="cite_ref-msf-88-90_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-msf-88-90-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November/December 1285,<sup id="cite_ref-gw-20_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gw-20-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mat-1985-195_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mat-1985-195-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the king ordered his generals Ananda Pyissi and Maha Bo to enter into ceasefire negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongol commanders at Hanlin, who had organized northern Burma as a protectorate named Zhengmian (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">征緬</span>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Cheng-Mien</span></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> agreed to a ceasefire but insisted on a full submission. They repeated their 1281 demand that the Burmese king send a formal delegation to the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gc-194_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two sides had reached a tentative agreement by 3 March 1286,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which calls for a full submission of the Pagan Empire, and central Burma to be organized as the province of Mianzhong (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">緬中</span>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Mien-Chung</span></i>). After a long deliberation, the king agreed to submit but wanted the Mongol troops to withdraw. In June 1286, he sent an embassy led by <a href="/wiki/Shin_Ditha_Pamauk" title="Shin Ditha Pamauk">Shin Ditha Pamauk</a>, a learned monk, to the emperor's court.<sup id="cite_ref-yt-1-148-10_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yt-1-148-10-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaty_of_Beijing">Treaty of Beijing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Treaty of Beijing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In January 1287, the embassy arrived at Beijing, and was received by the Yuan emperor. The Burmese delegation formally acknowledged Mongol suzerainty of their kingdom, and agreed to pay annual tribute tied to the agricultural output of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-136_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Indeed, the tribute was no longer nominal.) In exchange, the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-194_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the emperor, the Burma campaign was the only bright spot; his other Southeast Asian expeditions had gone badly. He did not want to invest more troops to pacify the rest of the kingdom. He preferred a vassal ruler. The Burmese embassy arrived back at Hlegya in May 1287, and reported the terms to the king.<sup id="cite_ref-yt-1-148-10_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yt-1-148-10-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakdown">Breakdown</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Breakdown"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>But the agreement broke down a month later. In late June, the defeated king and his small retinue left their temporary capital for Pagan. But on 1 July 1287, King Narathihapate was captured en route and assassinated by his second son <a href="/wiki/Thihathu_of_Prome" title="Thihathu of Prome">Thihathu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Prome" title="List of rulers of Prome">Viceroy of Prome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-yt-1-149-3_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yt-1-149-3-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anarchy ensued. Each region in the country which had not revolted broke away. No successor to Narathihapate, who could honor and enforce the terms of the treaty of Beijing, emerged. Indeed, a king would not emerge until May 1289.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-137_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-137-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mongol_last_push_for_Pagan_(1287)"><span id="Mongol_last_push_for_Pagan_.281287.29"></span>Mongol last push for Pagan (1287)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Mongol last push for Pagan (1287)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Given the chaos, the governor of Yunnan ignored the imperial orders of evacuation. The Mongol army commanded by Prince Ye-sin Timour, a grandson of the emperor, marched south toward Pagan.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-194_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to mainstream traditional (<a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">colonial-era</a>) scholarship, the Mongol army ignored the imperial orders to evacuate; fought its way down to Pagan with the loss of 7000 men; occupied the city; and sent out detachments to receive homage, one of which reached south of Prome.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-69_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-69-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But not all colonial period scholars agreed with the assessment as none of the contemporary Mongol/Chinese records specifically mentioned the conquest of Pagan or the temporary completeness of the conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-hy-95_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hy-95-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent research shows that the Mongol forces most probably never reached Pagan.<sup id="cite_ref-ath-34-35_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ath-34-35-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vbl-121_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vbl-121-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were held at bay by the Burmese defenses led by commanders <a href="/wiki/Athinkhaya" title="Athinkhaya">Athinkhaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yazathingyan" title="Yazathingyan">Yazathingyan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thihathu" title="Thihathu">Thihathu</a>, and probably never got closer than 160 km north of Pagan.<sup id="cite_ref-msf-88-90_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-msf-88-90-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ath-34-35_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ath-34-35-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (An inscription dated 16 February 1293 by the three brothers claimed that they defeated the Mongol army.<sup id="cite_ref-mha-72_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mha-72-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tt-1959-121_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-1959-121-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) Even if the Mongols did reach Pagan, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal.<sup id="cite_ref-vbl-119_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vbl-119-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At any rate, the Mongol army suffered heavy casualties, and retreated north to Tagaung. They remained there as the treaty was now void.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-137_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-137-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The disintegration of the Pagan Empire was now complete. But the Mongols refused to fill in the power vacuum they had created. They would send no more expeditions to restore order. The emperor apparently had no interest in committing troops that would be required to pacify the fragmented country. Indeed, his real aim all along may have been "to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented."<sup id="cite_ref-mha-83_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mha-83-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would be another two years until one of Narathihapate's sons, <a href="/wiki/Kyawswa_of_Pagan" title="Kyawswa of Pagan">Kyawswa</a>, emerged as king of Pagan in May 1289. But the new "king" controlled just a small area around the capital, and had no real army. The real power in central Burma now rested with the three commander brothers.<sup id="cite_ref-mha-72_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mha-72-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The uneasy arrangement would persist until 1297. The Mongols continued to occupy northern Burma to Tagaung as the province of Zhengmian (Cheng-Mien) but ended the fictional central Burma province of Mianzhong on 18 August 1290.<sup id="cite_ref-gc-194_38-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gc-194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the power struggle in central Burma continued with the three brothers blatantly consolidating support. To check their rising power, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognized by the Yuan emperor <a href="/wiki/Tem%C3%BCr_Khan" title="Temür Khan">Temür Khan</a> as King of Pagan on 20 March 1297. The emperor also gave Chinese titles to the brothers as subordinates of Kyawswa. The brothers resented the new arrangement as it directly reduced their power. On 17 December 1297, the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the <a href="/wiki/Myinsaing_Kingdom" title="Myinsaing Kingdom">Myinsaing Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-1959-119-120_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-1959-119-120-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mha-74_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mha-74-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dethronement forced the Mongol government to intervene again, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">second Mongol invasion of Burma</a> (1300–1301). The invasion failed. Two years later, on 4 April 1303, the Mongols abolished the province of Zhengmian (Cheng-Mien), evacuated Tagaung, and returned to Yunnan.<sup id="cite_ref-tt-137_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tt-137-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burma_in_1450.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Burma_in_1450.png/220px-Burma_in_1450.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="436" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Burma_in_1450.png/330px-Burma_in_1450.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Burma_in_1450.png/440px-Burma_in_1450.png 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption>Burma c. 1450 with Ava at its peak, nearer Shan states paid tribute to Ava</figcaption></figure> <p>The war was one of several near simultaneous wars waged by the Mongol Empire in the late 13th century. Though it was never more than a minor frontier war to the Mongols, the war set off a series of enduring developments in Burma. The invasions ushered in a period of political fragmentation, and the rise of Tai-Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_political_fragmentation">Age of political fragmentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Age of political fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The immediate result of the war was the collapse of the Pagan Empire. However, the war merely accelerated the collapse but did not cause it.<sup id="cite_ref-atat-105_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atat-105-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pagan's disintegration was "in fact more prolonged and agonized."<sup id="cite_ref-vbl-119_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vbl-119-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kingdom had been in long gradual decline since the early 13th century. Had Pagan possessed a stronger central government, the collapse could have been temporary, and the country "could have risen again".<sup id="cite_ref-geh-74_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-74-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the dynasty could not recover, and because the Mongols refused to fill the power vacuum, no viable center emerged in the immediate aftermath.<sup id="cite_ref-atat-105_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atat-105-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, several minor states fought it out for supremacy for the better part of the 14th century. It was only in the late 14th century that two relatively strong powers emerged in the Irrawaddy basin, restoring some semblance of normalcy.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast region surrounding the Irrawaddy valley would continue to be made up of several small Tai-Shan states well into the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-atat-115-116_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atat-115-116-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_Tai-Shan_states">Rise of Tai-Shan states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Rise of Tai-Shan states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Perhaps the most enduring legacy of the Mongol invasions was the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai-Shan</a> states in mainland Southeast Asia. The Tai-Shan people who came down with the Mongol invasions stayed. By the early 14th century, several Tai-Shan states had come to dominate a vast region from present-day Assam to present-day northern and eastern Myanmar to northern and central Thailand and Laos. Their rise was encouraged by the Mongols, who viewed the states as a useful buffer between Yunnan and the rest of Southeast Asia. The Mongols, who were still trying to incorporate Yunnan into the central administration, were unwilling or unable to make necessary sustained investments to bring the vast regions south of Yunnan into the fold. (The integration of Yunnan itself into "China proper" was to take several more centuries, and continues to today.<sup id="cite_ref-tmu-2011-171_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tmu-2011-171-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) As such, from the newly formed Tai-Shan states in western and central Southeast Asia to Dai Viet and Champa in eastern Southeast Asia, the Mongols elected to receive nominal tribute.<sup id="cite_ref-geh-69_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-69-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-maat-2011-34-35_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maat-2011-34-35-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the rulers of these states were technically governors of the Yuan government, they were the native chieftains, "who would have ruled there in any case, and they did as they pleased."<sup id="cite_ref-geh-73_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geh-73-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrival_of_China_on_the_Burmese_border">Arrival of China on the Burmese border</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Arrival of China on the Burmese border"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The war also marked the arrival of China at the doorstep of Burma. The old Dali Kingdom, known to the Burmese as Gandalarit (<span title="Burmese-language text"><span lang="my">ဂန္တလရာဇ်</span></span>, after <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara Raj</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-tmu-2011-167_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tmu-2011-167-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was now a Mongol Chinese province. (The Burmese now called the new powers at Yunnan "Taruk" after the Turkic-speaking soldiers of Yunnan. Over the years, the term Taruk came to be used to refer to the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a>. Today, King Narathihapate is remembered as Taruk-Pye Min, ("the King who fled from the Taruk [Chinese]).<sup id="cite_ref-hy-94_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hy-94-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-app-8-9_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-app-8-9-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) From a geopolitical standpoint, the Mongol–Chinese presence in Yunnan pushed the Shan migrations in the direction of Burma (and parts of the Khmer Empire).<sup id="cite_ref-vbl-123_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vbl-123-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The raids by various Shan states into Upper Burma would continue until the mid-16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-vbl-124-125_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vbl-124-125-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_relations">Modern relations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Modern relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the official visit by the Mongolian President <a href="/wiki/Tsakhiagiin_Elbegdorj" title="Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj">Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj</a> to Myanmar in November 2013, <a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a>, the chairwoman of the <a href="/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a>, said this was the first ever Mongol mission since the Mongols came 730 years earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/32px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/48px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/64px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Myanmar" title="Portal:Myanmar">Myanmar portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Second Mongol invasion of Burma</a> (1300–1301)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Wade 2009: 36–37): The exact strength of the 1283 invasion force is not known. The Yunnan command initially requested 10,000 men from the high command, which determined that the invasion required 60,000 men. The high command sent troops from Sichaun, Helazhang, Sizhou, Bozhou and Xuzhou. It is not clear if the number of troops totaled 60,000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burmese sources per (Than Tun 1964: 136) simply refer to Wa and Palaung regions. It is unclear if the regions in the 13th century were located in the same <a href="/wiki/Wa_Self-Administered_Division" title="Wa Self-Administered Division">Wa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pa_Laung_Self-Administered_Zone" title="Pa Laung Self-Administered Zone">Palaung regions</a> of the present day. According to Marco Polo (Yule 1874: 81) (Haw 2006: 104), Pagan attacked Zardandan or the Gold Teeth state in 1272; if it is true, the Wa and Palaung regions may have been the same as the Gold Teeth region in present-day Dehong and Baoshan prefectures.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Myint-U 2011: 172): Ajjall's official title was "Director of Political Affairs of the Regional Secretariat of Yunnan."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Wade 2009: 20): The envoys were located in November/December 1275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Haw 2006: 104): Marco Polo called the state as Zardandan, Persian for Gold Teeth. According to the Burmese records, it seems to be the same Wa and Palaung states where the Army had put down a rebellion in 1272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Harvey 1925: 65): Marco Polo, who served a Privy Councillor on the Emperor's staff, claimed to have witnessed the war but he "doubtless heard the tale from the officers who took part in the action."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Haw 2006: 104): The Yuan account of the war seems "far-fetched". (Turnbull 2003: 84): Marco Polo's description of the battle in 1277 "actually compresses a decade of history into one episode, and contains certain errors of location and numbers, but the overall impression of what happened is probably quite accurate." (Harvey 1925: 336): Regarding the battle of Ngasaunggyan, "Marco Polo catches the spirit of it all but his details need modification."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some historians such as <a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Haw" title="Stephen G. Haw">Stephen Haw</a> (Haw 2006: 104) accept Marco Polo's account. But others such as G.E. Harvey (Harvey 1925: 336–337) believe the Burmese army never made it to Vochang, and was stopped en route at Ngasaunggyan, which according to Harvey was about 110 km southwest of Vochang.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Harvey 1925: 336): Marco Polo's account that Nasr al-Din commanded the Mongol army at the battle of Ngasaunggyan is incorrect. Nasr al-Din led the raid on Kaungsin in the following dry-season. According to (Yule 1874: 87), the initial 1277 expedition was led by the Commandant of Dali-fu, Huthukh, which may refer to Kutuka.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burmese chronicles (Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 354) say that <a href="/wiki/Ananda_Pyissi" title="Ananda Pyissi">Ananda Pyissi</a> died in action during the 1283–1284 campaign. Per (Than Tun 1964: 136), Ananda Pyissi was still alive in 1285 according to a contemporary inscription. The general who died may have been Ananda Pyissi's brother <a href="/wiki/Yanda_Pyissi" title="Yanda Pyissi">Yanda Pyissi</a> since Gen. Maha Bo presumably had become the second in command in 1285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Wade-Giles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wade-Giles">Wade-Giles</a> transcription per (Than Tun 1959: 121); (Htin Aung 1967: 70) gives it as Chiang-Mien, "the Burmese province".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>jiachen</i> day of the 2nd month of the 23rd year of the Zhiyuan reign = 3 March 1286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King <a href="/wiki/Thado_Minbya" title="Thado Minbya">Thado Minbya</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ava_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ava Kingdom">Ava</a> reunified central Burma in 1364–1367. King <a href="/wiki/Razadarit" title="Razadarit">Razadarit</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hanthawaddy_Kingdom" title="Hanthawaddy Kingdom">Pegu</a> unified Lower Burma's three Mon-speaking provinces in 1388–1389.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-gw-27-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gw-27_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade 2009: 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yian, Goh Geok. 2010. “The Question of 'china' in Burmese Chronicles”. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 41 (1). [Cambridge University Press, Department of History, National University of Singapore]: 125. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27751606">https://www.jstor.org/stable/27751606</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vbl-24-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vbl-24_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lieberman 2003: 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tmu-2011-165-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tmu-2011-165_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Myint-U 2011: 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tt-136-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-136_7-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Than Tun 1964: 136</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tmu-2011-173-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tmu-2011-173_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Myint-U 2011: 173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gc-190-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gc-190_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coedes 1968: 190</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mr-289-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mr-289_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rossabi 2014: 289</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vbl-119-120-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vbl-119-120_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vbl-119-120_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lieberman 2003: 119–120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-krh-255-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-krh-255_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krh-255_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall 255</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gw-20-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gw-20_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gw-20_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gw-20_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gw-20_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gw-20_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gw-20_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade 2009: 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-64-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geh-64_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-64_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-64_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-64_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-64_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hy-1-352-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hy-1-352_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hy-1-352_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hy-1-352_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 352</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gc-193-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gc-193_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-193_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-193_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-193_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coedes 1968: 193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-65-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geh-65_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-65_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-65_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tmu-2011-171-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tmu-2011-171_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tmu-2011-171_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tmu-2011-171_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Myint-U 2011: 171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sgh-104-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sgh-104_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sgh-104_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Haw 2006: 104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-65-67-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-geh-65-67_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 65–67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tmu-2006-60-61-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tmu-2006-60-61_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tmu-2006-60-61_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Myint-U 2006: 60–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-333-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-geh-333_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 333</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hy-87-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hy-87_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yule 1874: 87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-67-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geh-67_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-67_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tt-1964-277-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tt-1964-277_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Than Tun 1964: 277): Einda Pyissaya or Einda Pyissi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gc-192-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gc-192_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-192_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-192_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coedes 1968: 192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hy-1-351-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hy-1-351_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hy-1-351_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 351</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-68-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geh-68_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-68_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yt-1-147-fn3-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yt-1-147-fn3_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 147, footnote 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-swc-24-25-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-swc-24-25_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cocks 1919: 24–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gc-194-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gc-194_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-194_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-194_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-194_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-194_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gc-194_38-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Coedès 1968: 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-msk-5-263-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-msk-5-263_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luce in MSK 1961: 263</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mat-1985-195-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mat-1985-195_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mat-1985-195_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aung-Thwin 1985: 195</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yt-1-148-7-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yt-1-148-7_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 148, footnote 7): 5th waning of Tabodwe 646 ME = 26 January 1285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tt-2002-66-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tt-2002-66_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Than Tun 2002: 66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yt-1-148-10-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yt-1-148-10_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yt-1-148-10_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yt-1-148-10_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 148, footnote 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-npl-28-29-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-npl-28-29_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pan Hla 2005: 28–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-msf-88-90-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-msf-88-90_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-msf-88-90_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stuart-Fox 2001: 88–90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yt-1-149-3-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yt-1-149-3_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 149, footnote 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tt-137-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tt-137_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-137_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tt-137_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Than Tun 1964: 137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-69-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geh-69_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geh-69_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hy-95-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hy-95_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yule 1874: 95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ath-34-35-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ath-34-35_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ath-34-35_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aung-Thwin and Hall 2011: 34–35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vbl-121-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vbl-121_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lieberman 2003: 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mha-72-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mha-72_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mha-72_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Htin Aung 1967: 72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tt-1959-121-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tt-1959-121_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Than Tun 1959: 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vbl-119-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vbl-119_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vbl-119_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lieberman 2003: 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mha-83-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mha-83_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Htin Aung 1967: 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tt-1959-119-120-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tt-1959-119-120_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Than Tun 1959: 119–120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mha-74-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mha-74_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Htin Aung 1967: 74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-atat-105-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-atat-105_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atat-105_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-74-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-geh-74_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-atat-115-116-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-atat-115-116_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 115–116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-maat-2011-34-35-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-maat-2011-34-35_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aung-Thwin 2011: 34–35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geh-73-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-geh-73_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey 1925: 73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tmu-2011-167-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tmu-2011-167_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Myint-U 2011: 167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hy-94-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hy-94_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yule 1874: 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-app-8-9-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-app-8-9_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phayre 1967: 8–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vbl-123-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vbl-123_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lieberman 2003: 123</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vbl-124-125-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vbl-124-125_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lieberman 2003: 124–125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021206/http://politics.news.mn/content/162714.shtml">"Ан Сан Су Чи: Та бүхэн Мьянмарт 730 жилийн дараа хөл тавьсан Монголын анхны төлөөлөгчид"</a>. <i>politics.news.mn</i> (in Mongolian). May 20, 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://politics.news.mn/content/162714.shtml">the original</a> on December 3, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=politics.news.mn&rft.atitle=%D0%90%D0%BD+%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD+%D0%A1%D1%83+%D0%A7%D0%B8%3A+%D0%A2%D0%B0+%D0%B1%D2%AF%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BD+%D0%9C%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82+730+%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD+%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B0+%D1%85%D3%A9%D0%BB+%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD+%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D1%82%D3%A9%D0%BB%D3%A9%D3%A9%D0%BB%D3%A9%D0%B3%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B4&rft.date=2013-05-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpolitics.news.mn%2Fcontent%2F162714.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAung-Thwin1985" class="citation book cs1">Aung-Thwin, Michael (1985). <i>Pagan: The Origins of Modern Burma</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-0960-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-0960-2"><bdi>0-8248-0960-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pagan%3A+The+Origins+of+Modern+Burma&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-8248-0960-2&rft.aulast=Aung-Thwin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAung-ThwinHall2011" class="citation book cs1">Aung-Thwin, Michael Arthur; Hall, Kenneth R. (2011). <i>New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136819643" title="Special:BookSources/9781136819643"><bdi>9781136819643</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+the+History+and+Historiography+of+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781136819643&rft.aulast=Aung-Thwin&rft.aufirst=Michael+Arthur&rft.au=Hall%2C+Kenneth+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAung-ThwinMaitrii_Aung-Thwin2012" class="citation book cs1">Aung-Thwin, Michael A.; Maitrii Aung-Thwin (2012). <i>A History of Myanmar Since Ancient Times</i> (illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-901-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-901-9"><bdi>978-1-86189-901-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Myanmar+Since+Ancient+Times&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-86189-901-9&rft.aulast=Aung-Thwin&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Maitrii+Aung-Thwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoedès1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Coed%C3%A8s" class="mw-redirect" title="George Coedès">Coedès, George</a> (1968). <i>The Indianized States of South-East Asia</i>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824803681" title="Special:BookSources/9780824803681"><bdi>9780824803681</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indianized+States+of+South-East+Asia&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9780824803681&rft.aulast=Coed%C3%A8s&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCocks1919" class="citation book cs1">Cocks, Samuel W. (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924022998623"><i>A Short History of Burma</i></a> (2 ed.). London: Macmillan and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Burma&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Cocks&rft.aufirst=Samuel+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924022998623&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2010" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Kenneth R. (2010). <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500</i> (illustrated ed.). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742567627" title="Special:BookSources/9780742567627"><bdi>9780742567627</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Early+Southeast+Asia%3A+Maritime+Trade+and+Societal+Development%2C+100%E2%80%931500&rft.place=Lanham&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780742567627&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1925" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, G. E. (1925). <i>History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824</i>. London: Frank Cass & Co. 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New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134275427" title="Special:BookSources/9781134275427"><bdi>9781134275427</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marco+Polo%27s+China%3A+A+Venetian+in+the+Realm+of+Khubilai+Khan&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781134275427&rft.aulast=Haw&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHtin_Aung1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Htin_Aung" title="Htin Aung">Htin Aung, Maung</a> (1967). <i>A History of Burma</i>. 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Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400854097" title="Special:BookSources/9781400854097"><bdi>9781400854097</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Muslims+in+the+Early+Yuan+Dynasty&rft.btitle=China+Under+Mongol+Rule&rft.edition=2014&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9781400854097&rft.aulast=Rossabi&rft.aufirst=Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyal_Historical_Commission_of_Burma1832" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Historical_Commission_of_Burma" title="Royal Historical Commission of Burma">Royal Historical Commission of Burma</a> (1832). <i><a href="/wiki/Hmannan_Yazawin" title="Hmannan Yazawin">Hmannan Yazawin</a></i> (in Burmese). 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Heartford, Heartfordshire: Stephen Austin & Sons, Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myanma+Swezon+Kyan&rft.place=Heartford%2C+Heartfordshire&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Stephen+Austin+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart-Fox2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Stuart-Fox" title="Martin Stuart-Fox">Stuart-Fox, Martin</a> (2001). "Review of "Myth and History in the Historiography of Early Burma" by Michael A. Aung-Thwin". <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>. <b>44</b> (1). Brill: 88–90. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3632565">3632565</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Review+of+%22Myth+and+History+in+the+Historiography+of+Early+Burma%22+by+Michael+A.+Aung-Thwin&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=88-90&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3632565%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stuart-Fox&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThan_Tun1959" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Than_Tun" title="Than Tun">Than Tun</a> (December 1959). 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Yangon: Maha Dagon.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Burmese+History&rft.place=Yangon&rft.pub=Maha+Dagon&rft.date=1964&rft.au=Than+Tun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2009" class="citation book cs1">Wade, Geoff (2009). Eugene Perry Link (ed.). <i>The Scholar's Mind: Essays in Honor of Frederick W. Mote</i>. Chinese University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629964030" title="Special:BookSources/9789629964030"><bdi>9789629964030</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scholar%27s+Mind%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Frederick+W.+Mote&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789629964030&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Mongol+invasion+of+Burma" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Yuan_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" 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topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="History of the Yuan dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Division of the Mongol Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">Kaidu–Kublai war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan%27s_campaigns" title="Kublai Khan's campaigns">Kublai Khan's campaigns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">Mongol conquest of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_anti-Mongol_fortresses" title="Sichuan anti-Mongol fortresses">anti-Mongol fortresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">conquest of the Song dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiangyang" title="Battle of Xiangyang">Battle of Xiangyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Yamen</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_B%E1%BA%A1ch_%C4%90%E1%BA%B1ng_(1288)" title="Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)">Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java invasion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Burma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ngasaunggyan" title="Battle of Ngasaunggyan">Battle of Ngasaunggyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pagan" title="Battle of Pagan">Pagan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Second Mongol invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esen_Buqa%E2%80%93Ayurbarwada_war" title="Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war">Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Two_Capitals" title="War of the Two Capitals">War of the Two Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1344_Yellow_River_flood" title="1344 Yellow River flood">1344 Yellow River flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellions" title="Red Turban Rebellions">Red Turban Rebellions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_invasions_of_Goryeo" title="Red Turban invasions of Goryeo">Red Turban invasions of Goryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Poyang" title="Battle of Lake Poyang">Battle of Lake Poyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ispah_rebellion" title="Ispah rebellion">Ispah rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty">Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Yuan_dynasty_and_Northern_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empresses_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="List of empresses of the Yuan dynasty">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Preceptor" title="Imperial Preceptor">Imperial Preceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshu_Sheng" title="Zhongshu Sheng">Zhongshu Sheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Buddhist_and_Tibetan_Affairs" title="Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs">Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty">Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Yuan_rule" title="Mongolia under Yuan rule">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Yuan_rule" title="Manchuria under Yuan rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dpon-chen" title="Dpon-chen">Dpon-chen</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_rule" title="Goryeo under Mongol rule">Goryeo under Mongol rule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Yuan dynasty">Science and technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Jade_Mirror_of_the_Four_Unknowns" title="Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns">Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaochao" title="Jiaochao">Jiaochao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_coinage" title="Yuan dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wei_Yilin" title="Wei Yilin">Shiyi Dexiaofang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(inventor)" title="Wang Zhen (inventor)">Nong Shu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_Platform_at_Juyong_Pass" title="Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass">Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulou_and_Zhonglou_(Beijing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing)">Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaoying_Temple" title="Miaoying Temple">Miaoying Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda_of_Bailin_Temple" title="Pagoda of Bailin Temple">Pagoda of Bailin Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Azure_Clouds" title="Temple of Azure Clouds">Temple of Azure Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_Great_Southern_Mosque" title="Jinan Great Southern Mosque">Jinan Great Southern Mosque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_poetry" title="Yuan poetry">Yuan poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liao" title="History of Liao">History of Liao</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jin" title="History of Jin">Jin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Song_(Yuan_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Song (Yuan dynasty)">Song</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shilin_Guangji" title="Shilin Guangji">Shilin Guangji</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menggu_Ziyun" title="Menggu Ziyun">Menggu Ziyun</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wenxian_Tongkao" title="Wenxian Tongkao">Wenxian Tongkao</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan_Yinyun" title="Zhongyuan Yinyun">Zhongyuan Yinyun</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Twenty-four_Filial_Exemplars" title="The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars">The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaju" title="Zaju">Zaju</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Chalk_Circle" title="The Chalk Circle">The Chalk Circle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Injustice_to_Dou_E" title="The Injustice to Dou E">The Injustice to Dou E</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Orphan_of_Zhao" title="The Orphan of Zhao">The Orphan of Zhao</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_the_Western_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="The Story of the Western Wing">The Story of the Western Wing</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semu" title="Semu">Semu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Islam during the Yuan dynasty">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in Yuan dynasty">Fashion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa script</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mongol_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mongol_Empire" title="Template:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mongol_Empire" title="Template talk:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mongol_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Terminology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Terminology</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_nobility" title="Mongolian nobility">Titles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khatun" title="Khatun">Khatun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanum" title="Khanum">Khanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinong" title="Jinong">Jinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khong_Tayiji" title="Khong Tayiji">Khong Tayiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noyan" title="Noyan">Noyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarkhan" title="Tarkhan">Tarkhan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Political</li><li>Military</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jarlig" title="Jarlig">Jarlig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_(route)" title="Yam (route)">Örtöö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orda_(organization)" title="Orda (organization)">Orda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurultai" title="Kurultai">Kurultai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiza" title="Paiza">Paiza / Gerege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manghud" title="Manghud">Manghit / Mangudai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">Tümen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kheshig" title="Kheshig">Kheshig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darughachi" title="Darughachi">Darughachi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="PoliticsOrganizationLife" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Politics</li><li>Organization</li><li>Life</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_and_vassals_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire">Administrative divisions and vassals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tug_(banner)" title="Tug (banner)">Banner/Bunchuk/Tug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Invasions and conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Destructiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_the_Mongols" title="Imperial Seal of the Mongols">Imperial Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Military of the Mongol Empire">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Religion in the Mongol Empire">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Society of the Mongol Empire">Society and economy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">House of Borjigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">House of Ögedei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Armenia" title="Mongol Armenia">Mongol Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Mongol_Alliance" title="Byzantine–Mongol Alliance">Byzantine–Mongol Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Mongol_alliance" title="Franco-Mongol alliance">Franco-Mongol alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe">Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_states" title="List of Mongol states">Khanates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">House of Ögedei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wings_of_the_Golden_Horde" title="Wings of the Golden Horde">Wings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almaliq,_Xinjiang" title="Almaliq, Xinjiang">Almalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarga" title="Avarga">Avarga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azov" title="Azov">Azov (Azaq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolghar" title="Bolghar">Bolghar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Dadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majar_(Golden_Horde)" title="Majar (Golden Horde)">Majar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maragheh" title="Maragheh">Maragheh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarshi" title="Qarshi">Qarshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai Batu/Berke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saray-J%C3%BCk" title="Saray-Jük">Saray-Jük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu (Xanadu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soltaniyeh" title="Soltaniyeh">Soltaniyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukek" title="Ukek">Ukek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xacitarxan" title="Xacitarxan">Xacitarxan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="CampaignsBattles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Asia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Siberia" title="Mongol campaigns in Siberia">Siberia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1207-1308)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin <span style="font-size:85%;">(1264–1308)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai <span style="font-size:85%;">(1216–18)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1219–1221)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" title="Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia">Persia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1219–1256)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests#East_Asia" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia"><span class="wrap">Western Xia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1205 / 1207 / 1209–10 / 1225–27)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Northern China <span style="font-size:85%;">(1211–34)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Korea <span style="font-size:85%;">(1231–60)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Southern China <span style="font-size:85%;">(1235–79)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet"><span class="wrap">Tibet <span style="font-size:85%;">(1236 / 1240 / 1252)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China#Conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Mongol conquest of China">Yunnan <span style="font-size:85%;">(1253–56)</span></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan <span style="font-size:85%;">(1274 / 1281)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests#Southeast_Asian_and_Korean_vassals" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Southeast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Burma <span style="font-size:85%;">(1277 / 1283 / 1287)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java <span style="font-size:85%;">(1293)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam <span style="font-size:85%;">(1257 / 1284–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Burma <span style="font-size:85%;">(1300–02)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">India <span style="font-size:85%;">(1221–1327)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia"><span class="wrap">Georgia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1220–22 / 1226–31 / 1237–64)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Circassia" title="Mongol invasion of Circassia">Circassia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1237–1300s)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Durdzuketi" title="Mongol invasions of Durdzuketi">Chechnya <span style="font-size:85%;">(1237–1300s)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Volga_Bulgaria" title="Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1229–36)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_Alania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mongol invasion of Alania (page does not exist)">Alania <span style="font-size:85%;">(1238–1239)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus' <span style="font-size:85%;">(1223 / 1236–40)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland and Bohemia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1240–41)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="First Mongol invasion of Hungary">Hungary <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–42)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_incursions_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Mongol incursions in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–42)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">Serbia and Bulgaria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1242)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Latin_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Latin Empire">Latin Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1242)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Lithuania" title="Mongol invasions of Lithuania">Lithuania <span style="font-size:85%;">(1258–59)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Second Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland <span style="font-size:85%;">(1259–60)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Byzantine_Thrace" title="Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace">Thrace <span style="font-size:85%;">(1264–65)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="Second Mongol invasion of Hungary">Hungary <span style="font-size:85%;">(1285–86)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Third Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland <span style="font-size:85%;">(1287–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_conflict_with_the_Nogai_Horde" title="Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde">Serbia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1291)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Anatolia" title="Mongol conquest of Anatolia">Anatolia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–43)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaign_against_the_Nizaris" title="Mongol campaign against the Nizaris">Alamut <span style="font-size:85%;">(1253–1256)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Baghdad <span style="font-size:85%;">(1258)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Syria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260–1323)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_raids_into_Palestine" title="Mongol raids into Palestine">Palestine <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260 / 1301)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civil wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Division of the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260–64)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berke%E2%80%93Hulagu_war" title="Berke–Hulagu war">Berke–Hulagu war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1262)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">Kaidu–Kublai war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1268–1301)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esen_Buqa%E2%80%93Ayurbarwada_war" title="Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war">Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1314–1318)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">People</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_rulers" title="List of Mongol rulers">Great Khans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%B6regene_Khatun" title="Töregene Khatun">Töregene Khatun <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Khan" title="Güyük Khan">Güyük Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghul_Qaimish" title="Oghul Qaimish">Oghul Qaimish <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Yuan_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Yuan emperors">Khagans of the Yuan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Khans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batu_Khan" title="Batu Khan">Batu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sartaq_Khan" title="Sartaq Khan">Sartaq Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orda_Khan" title="Orda Khan">Orda Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berke" title="Berke">Berke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toqta" title="Toqta">Toqta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96zbeg_Khan" title="Özbeg Khan">Özbeg Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duwa" title="Duwa">Duwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebek" title="Kebek">Kebek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulegu_Khan" title="Hulegu Khan">Hulegu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abaqa_Khan" title="Abaqa Khan">Abaqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghun" title="Arghun">Arghun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqali" title="Muqali">Muqali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negudar" title="Negudar">Negudar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo%27orchu" title="Bo'orchu">Bo'orchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Kan" title="Guo Kan">Guo Kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boroqul" title="Boroqul">Boroqul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelme" title="Jelme">Jelme</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khubilai_Noyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khubilai Noyon (page does not exist)">Khubilai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aju" title="Aju">Aju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayan_of_the_Baarin" title="Bayan of the Baarin">Bayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadan" title="Kadan">Kadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boroldai" title="Boroldai">Boroldai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_Khan" title="Nogai Khan">Nogai Khan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Timeline of the Mongol Empire">Timeline of the Mongol Empire</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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