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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Summary of strategic situation and forces</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Summary_of_strategic_situation_and_forces-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Summary of strategic situation and forces subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Summary_of_strategic_situation_and_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Piedmontese_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Piedmontese_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The Piedmontese army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Piedmontese_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Italian_armies_and_Volunteers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Italian_armies_and_Volunteers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Other Italian armies and Volunteers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Italian_armies_and_Volunteers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Austrian_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Austrian_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>The Austrian army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Austrian_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_initial_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(March–May_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_initial_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(March–May_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The initial phase of the first campaign (March–May 1848)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_initial_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(March–May_1848)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The initial phase of the first campaign (March–May 1848) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_initial_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(March–May_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Quadrilateral_(23_March_–_7_April_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Quadrilateral_(23_March_–_7_April_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Piedmontese advance towards the Quadrilateral (23 March – 7 April 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Quadrilateral_(23_March_–_7_April_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crossing_the_Mincio_River_(8–27_April_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crossing_the_Mincio_River_(8–27_April_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Crossing the Mincio River (8–27 April 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crossing_the_Mincio_River_(8–27_April_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Adige_(30_April_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Adige_(30_April_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Piedmontese advance towards the Adige (30 April 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Adige_(30_April_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Withdrawal_of_the_Papal_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Withdrawal_of_the_Papal_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Withdrawal of the Papal States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Withdrawal_of_the_Papal_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Santa_Lucia_(6_May_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Santa_Lucia_(6_May_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Battle of Santa Lucia (6 May 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Santa_Lucia_(6_May_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_of_Austrian_reinforcements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_of_Austrian_reinforcements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Arrival of Austrian reinforcements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arrival_of_Austrian_reinforcements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arrival of Austrian reinforcements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arrival_of_Austrian_reinforcements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Crossing_of_the_Soča_(17–29_April_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Crossing_of_the_Soča_(17–29_April_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>The Crossing of the Soča (17–29 April 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Crossing_of_the_Soča_(17–29_April_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Cornuda_(8_May_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Cornuda_(8_May_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Battle of Cornuda (8 May 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Cornuda_(8_May_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austrian_advance_to_Verona_(9–25_May_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austrian_advance_to_Verona_(9–25_May_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Austrian advance to Verona (9–25 May 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austrian_advance_to_Verona_(9–25_May_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_second_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(May–August_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_second_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(May–August_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The second phase of the first campaign (May–August 1848)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_second_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(May–August_1848)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The second phase of the first campaign (May–August 1848) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_second_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(May–August_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ferdinand_leaves_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ferdinand_leaves_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ferdinand leaves the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ferdinand_leaves_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Curtatone_and_Montanara_(29_May_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Curtatone_and_Montanara_(29_May_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Battle of Curtatone and Montanara (29 May 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Curtatone_and_Montanara_(29_May_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_insurrection_in_Cadore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_insurrection_in_Cadore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>The insurrection in Cadore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_insurrection_in_Cadore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Battle_of_Goito_and_the_fall_of_Peschiera_(30_May_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Battle_of_Goito_and_the_fall_of_Peschiera_(30_May_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>The Battle of Goito and the fall of Peschiera (30 May 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Battle_of_Goito_and_the_fall_of_Peschiera_(30_May_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austrian_conquest_of_Vicenza_(5–11_June_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austrian_conquest_of_Vicenza_(5–11_June_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Austrian conquest of Vicenza (5–11 June 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austrian_conquest_of_Vicenza_(5–11_June_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extension_of_the_Front_(June–July_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extension_of_the_Front_(June–July_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Extension of the Front (June–July 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extension_of_the_Front_(June–July_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Custoza_(22–27_July_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Custoza_(22–27_July_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Battle of Custoza (22–27 July 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Custoza_(22–27_July_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginning_of_the_Austrian_offensive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginning_of_the_Austrian_offensive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7.1</span> <span>Beginning of the Austrian offensive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginning_of_the_Austrian_offensive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failure_of_the_Piedmontese_counterattack" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failure_of_the_Piedmontese_counterattack"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7.2</span> <span>Failure of the Piedmontese counterattack</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failure_of_the_Piedmontese_counterattack-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volta_Mantovana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volta_Mantovana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7.3</span> <span>Volta Mantovana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volta_Mantovana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Piedmontese_retreat_towards_Milan_(27_July_–_3_August_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Piedmontese_retreat_towards_Milan_(27_July_–_3_August_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>The Piedmontese retreat towards Milan (27 July – 3 August 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Piedmontese_retreat_towards_Milan_(27_July_–_3_August_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_surrender_of_Milan_and_the_Salasco_armistice_(4_–_9_August_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_surrender_of_Milan_and_the_Salasco_armistice_(4_–_9_August_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>The surrender of Milan and the Salasco armistice (4 – 9 August 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_surrender_of_Milan_and_the_Salasco_armistice_(4_–_9_August_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Garibaldi's_first_command_(30_July_–_26_August_1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Garibaldi's_first_command_(30_July_–_26_August_1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Garibaldi's first command (30 July – 26 August 1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Garibaldi's_first_command_(30_July_–_26_August_1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_'war_of_the_people'_during_the_armistice_(9_August_1848_–_20_March_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_'war_of_the_people'_during_the_armistice_(9_August_1848_–_20_March_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>The 'war of the people' during the armistice (9 August 1848 – 20 March 1849)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_'war_of_the_people'_during_the_armistice_(9_August_1848_–_20_March_1849)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The 'war of the people' during the armistice (9 August 1848 – 20 March 1849) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_'war_of_the_people'_during_the_armistice_(9_August_1848_–_20_March_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proclamation_of_the_Tuscan_and_Roman_Republics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proclamation_of_the_Tuscan_and_Roman_Republics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Proclamation of the Tuscan and Roman Republics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proclamation_of_the_Tuscan_and_Roman_Republics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_second_campaign_(20_–_24_March_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_second_campaign_(20_–_24_March_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The second campaign (20 – 24 March 1849)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_second_campaign_(20_–_24_March_1849)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The second campaign (20 – 24 March 1849) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_second_campaign_(20_–_24_March_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forces_in_the_field" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forces_in_the_field"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Forces in the field</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forces_in_the_field-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(20_March)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(20_March)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Invasion of the Kingdom of Sardinia (20 March)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(20_March)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Sforzesca_(21_March_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Sforzesca_(21_March_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Battle of Sforzesca (21 March 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Sforzesca_(21_March_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austrian_advance_on_Novara_(22_March_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austrian_advance_on_Novara_(22_March_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Austrian advance on Novara (22 March 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austrian_advance_on_Novara_(22_March_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Novara_(23_March_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Novara_(23_March_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Battle of Novara (23 March 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Novara_(23_March_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forces_in_the_field_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forces_in_the_field_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5.1</span> <span>Forces in the field</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forces_in_the_field_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_decisive_defeat_of_Charles_Albert" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_decisive_defeat_of_Charles_Albert"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5.2</span> <span>The decisive defeat of Charles Albert</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_decisive_defeat_of_Charles_Albert-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vignale_Armistice_(23_–_24_March_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vignale_Armistice_(23_–_24_March_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Vignale Armistice (23 – 24 March 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vignale_Armistice_(23_–_24_March_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_of_the_Piedmontese_defeat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_of_the_Piedmontese_defeat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Aftermath of the Piedmontese defeat</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath_of_the_Piedmontese_defeat-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath of the Piedmontese defeat subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_of_the_Piedmontese_defeat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kingdom_of_Sardinia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_of_Sardinia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Kingdom of Sardinia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_of_Sardinia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austrian_invasion_of_the_Papal_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austrian_invasion_of_the_Papal_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Austrian invasion of the Papal States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austrian_invasion_of_the_Papal_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Siege_of_Bologna_(8–16_May_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_of_Bologna_(8–16_May_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>Siege of Bologna (8–16 May 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_of_Bologna_(8–16_May_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_of_Ancona_(25_May_–_21_June_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_of_Ancona_(25_May_–_21_June_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.2</span> <span>Siege of Ancona (25 May – 21 June 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_of_Ancona_(25_May_–_21_June_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sicily_(March_–_15_May_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sicily_(March_–_15_May_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Fall of the Kingdom of Sicily (March – 15 May 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sicily_(March_–_15_May_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Roman_Republic_(24_April_–_2_July_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Roman_Republic_(24_April_–_2_July_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>End of the Roman Republic (24 April – 2 July 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Roman_Republic_(24_April_–_2_July_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_and_fall_of_Venice_(28_April_–_22_August_1849)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_and_fall_of_Venice_(28_April_–_22_August_1849)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Siege and fall of Venice (28 April – 22 August 1849)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_and_fall_of_Venice_(28_April_–_22_August_1849)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Other secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">First Italian War of Independence</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%89" title="حرب الاستقلال الإيطالية الأولى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب الاستقلال الإيطالية الأولى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avstriya-%C4%B0taliya_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99si" title="Avstriya-İtaliya müharibəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Avstriya-İtaliya müharibəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="اوتریش-ایتالیا ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اوتریش-ایتالیا ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primera_guerra_d%27independ%C3%A8ncia_italiana" title="Primera guerra d'independència italiana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Primera guerra d'independència italiana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvn%C3%AD_italsk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka_za_nez%C3%A1vislost" title="První italská válka za nezávislost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="První italská válka za nezávislost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B8rste_Italienske_Uafh%C3%A6ngighedskrig" title="Første Italienske Uafhængighedskrig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Første Italienske Uafhængighedskrig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erster_italienischer_Unabh%C3%A4ngigkeitskrieg" title="Erster italienischer Unabhängigkeitskrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erster italienischer Unabhängigkeitskrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%99%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Πρώτος Ιταλικός Πόλεμος της Ανεξαρτησίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρώτος Ιταλικός Πόλεμος της Ανεξαρτησίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primera_guerra_de_Independencia_italiana" title="Primera guerra de Independencia italiana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Primera guerra de Independencia italiana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="نخستین جنگ استقلال ایتالیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نخستین جنگ استقلال ایتالیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premi%C3%A8re_guerre_d%27ind%C3%A9pendance_italienne" title="Première guerre d'indépendance italienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Première guerre d'indépendance italienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C1%EC%B0%A8_%EC%9D%B4%ED%83%88%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EB%8F%85%EB%A6%BD_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="제1차 이탈리아 독립 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제1차 이탈리아 독립 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1-%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%BD%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4_(1848-1849)" title="Իտալա-ավստրիական պատերազմ (1848-1849) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իտալա-ավստրիական պատերազմ (1848-1849)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इटली की स्वतंत्रता का प्रथम संग्राम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इटली की स्वतंत्रता का प्रथम संग्राम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Kemerdekaan_Italia_Pertama" title="Perang Kemerdekaan Italia Pertama – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Kemerdekaan Italia Pertama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_guerra_d%27indipendenza_italiana" title="Prima guerra d'indipendenza italiana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Prima guerra d'indipendenza italiana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94" title="מלחמת העצמאות האיטלקית הראשונה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת העצמאות האיטלקית הראשונה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Аустрия-Италия соғысы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аустрия-Италия соғысы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellum_primum_de_libertate_Italica" title="Bellum primum de libertate Italica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bellum primum de libertate Italica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_Guerra_de_Indipendenza_italiana" title="Prima Guerra de Indipendenza italiana – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Prima Guerra de Indipendenza italiana" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%C3%A1liai_forradalmak_1848%E2%80%9349-ben" title="Itáliai forradalmak 1848–49-ben – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Itáliai forradalmak 1848–49-ben" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Kemerdekaan_Itali_Pertama" title="Perang Kemerdekaan Itali Pertama – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Kemerdekaan Itali Pertama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerste_Italiaanse_Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog" title="Eerste Italiaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Eerste Italiaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%82%BF%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E7%8B%AC%E7%AB%8B%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="第一次イタリア独立戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="第一次イタリア独立戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_f%C3%B8rste_italienske_frigj%C3%B8ringskrig" title="Den første italienske frigjøringskrig – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den første italienske frigjøringskrig" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avstriya%E2%80%94Italiya_urushi" title="Avstriya—Italiya urushi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Avstriya—Italiya urushi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%BC%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8D_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%DA%93%DB%8D_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د ايټاليې د خپلواکۍ لومړۍ جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ايټاليې د خپلواکۍ لومړۍ جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_austriacko-piemoncka" title="Wojna austriacko-piemoncka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna austriacko-piemoncka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1848–1849 conflict in Europe</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">First Italian War of Independence</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg/300px-Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg/450px-Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg/600px-Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="417" /></a></span><br />The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novara_(1849)" title="Battle of Novara (1849)">Battle of Novara (1849)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>23 March 1848 – 22 August 1849<br />(1 year, 4 months, 4 weeks and 2 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lombardy–Venetia">Lombardy–Venetia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Piedmont</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <p>Austrian victory </p> <ul><li>French victory over Roman Republic</li> <li>Papal rule restored in Rome<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Return to the <i><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_ante_bellum" title="Status quo ante bellum">status quo ante bellum</a></i></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861-1946)_crowned.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/46px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_cockade.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Italy_cockade.svg/23px-Italy_cockade.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Italy_cockade.svg/35px-Italy_cockade.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Italy_cockade.svg/46px-Italy_cockade.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="722" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Italian Volunteer Army</a></li></ul> </div> Supported by:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg/46px-Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="1040" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Provisional Government of Milan</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848%E2%80%9349.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848%E2%80%9349.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848%E2%80%9349.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848%E2%80%9349.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848%E2%80%9349.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848%E2%80%9349.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848%E2%80%9349.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_independence_of_1848" class="mw-redirect" title="Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848">Kingdom of Sicily</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:State_Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_(1848-1849).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/State_Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848-1849%29.svg/23px-State_Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848-1849%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/State_Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848-1849%29.svg/35px-State_Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848-1849%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/State_Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848-1849%29.svg/46px-State_Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848-1849%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/46px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/46px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_(19th_century).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic"><img alt="French Second Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Republic">French Republic</a></li></ul> </div> (1849)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Albert of Sardinia">King Charles Albert</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Ferrero_La_Marmora" title="Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora">Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Radetzky_von_Radetz" title="Joseph Radetzky von Radetz">Joseph Radetzky von Radetz</a> </p> <hr /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic"><img alt="French Second Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> 115,000 men</li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_cockade.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Italy_cockade.svg/23px-Italy_cockade.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Italy_cockade.svg/35px-Italy_cockade.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Italy_cockade.svg/46px-Italy_cockade.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="722" /></a></span> 22,000 men</li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> 100,000 men</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic"><img alt="French Second Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> 40,000 men<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><b>1848:</b> Unknown</li> <li><b>1849:</b> 17,400+ <ul><li>2,400 killed</li> <li>5,000 wounded</li> <li>10,000 captured</li> <li>Unknown disease deaths<sup id="cite_ref-Micheal_Clodfelter_2017._Page_178_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Micheal_Clodfelter_2017._Page_178-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><b>1848:</b> 9,139 <ul><li>4,872 killed/missing</li> <li>3,348 wounded</li> <li>919 captured</li></ul></li> <li><b>1849:</b> 6,441 <ul><li>1,145 killed/missing</li> <li>2,944 wounded</li> <li>352 captured</li> <li>2,000+ disease deaths</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <b>Total: 15,580+</b><sup id="cite_ref-Micheal_Clodfelter_2017._Page_178_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Micheal_Clodfelter_2017._Page_178-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Template:Campaignbox First Italian War of Independence"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Template talk:Campaignbox First Italian War of Independence"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox First Italian War of Independence"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="First_ItalianWar_of_Independence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First Italian<br />War of Independence</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Milan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goito_Bridge" title="Battle of Goito Bridge">Goito Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Castelnuovo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Castelnuovo (page does not exist)">Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_battle_of_Governolo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First battle of Governolo (page does not exist)">1st Governolo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Osoppo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Osoppo (page does not exist)">Osoppo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Peschiera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Peschiera (page does not exist)">Peschiera</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assedio_di_Peschiera" class="extiw" title="it:Assedio di Peschiera">it</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skirmish_of_Pastrengo_(1848)" title="Skirmish of Pastrengo (1848)">Pastrengo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santa_Lucia" title="Battle of Santa Lucia">Santa Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cornuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Cornuda (page does not exist)">Cornuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curtatone_and_Montanara" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Curtatone and Montanara">Curtatone & Montanara</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goito" title="Battle of Goito">Goito</a></b></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Monte_Berico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Monte Berico (page does not exist)">Monte Berico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_battle_of_Governolo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Second battle of Governolo (page does not exist)">2nd Governolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vicenza" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vicenza">Vicenza</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Custoza_(1848)" title="Battle of Custoza (1848)">Custoza</a></b></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Invasion_of_Trentino_(1848)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Invasion of Trentino (1848) (page does not exist)">Trentino</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Austrian_invasion_of_the_Papal_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Austrian invasion of the Papal States (page does not exist)">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Volta_Mantovana_(1848)" title="Battle of Volta Mantovana (1848)">Volta Mantovana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mestre" title="Battle of Mestre">Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mortara" title="Battle of Mortara">Mortara</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novara_(1849)" title="Battle of Novara (1849)">Novara</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Days_of_Brescia" title="Ten Days of Brescia">Brescia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Austrian_invasion_of_Tuscany&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Austrian invasion of Tuscany (page does not exist)">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Velletri_(1849)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Velletri (1849) (page does not exist)">Velletri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rome_(1849)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Rome (1849)">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">Sicilian revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Five Days of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>First Italian War of Independence</b> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">Prima guerra d'indipendenza italiana</i>), part of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Unification">Italian Unification</a> (<i>Risorgimento</i>), was fought by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (Piedmont) and Italian volunteers against the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> and other conservative states from 23 March 1848 to 22 August 1849 in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a>. </p><p>The conflict was preceded by the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Revolution_of_1848" class="mw-redirect" title="Sicilian Revolution of 1848">Sicilian Revolution of 1848</a> against the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon-Two_Sicilies" title="House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies">House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies</a>. It was precipitated by riots in the cities of <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Five Days</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, which rebelled against Austria and established their own governments. </p><p>The part of the conflict which was fought by King <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Albert">Charles Albert</a> against Austria in northern Italy was a <a href="/wiki/Royal_war_and_popular_war" title="Royal war and popular war">royal war</a> and consisted of two campaigns. In both campaigns, the Kingdom of Sardinia attacked the Austrian Empire and after initial victories, Sardinia was decisively defeated and so lost the war. The decisive events of the first and second campaigns were the Battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Custoza_(1848)" title="Battle of Custoza (1848)">Custoza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novara_(1849)" title="Battle of Novara (1849)">Novara</a> respectively. </p><p>At the beginning of the royal war, the Kingdom of Sardinia was supported by the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>, which withdrew after they had barely participated in any of the fighting. However, volunteers from the Papal and the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Army of the Two Sicilies">Neapolitan</a> armies joined the other Italian volunteers and fought against Austria. </p><p>Besides the royal war, revolutionary movements took place in various Italian states (<a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a>, etc.), part of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states</a>, which could not be reconciled with the <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">liberal</a> ideals of Piedmont. Historiography treats those revolutions and the Sicilian Revolution of 23 March 1848 as a <a href="/wiki/Royal_war_and_popular_war" title="Royal war and popular war">popular war</a>. It also failed, ended in the restoration of traditional institutions and forced many rebels into exile.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the popular war with the internal revolutionaries, the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and the Papal States found themselves on the side opposite to the one on which they had been on during the royal war, when they had initially supported Piedmont. </p><p>The popular war gave prominence to the military commander <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, but he was defeated, as was King Charles Albert, who abdicated at the end of the war in favour of his eldest son, King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_revolutions_of_1848">The revolutions of 1848</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: The revolutions of 1848"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg/220px-Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg/330px-Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg/440px-Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="571" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a> carried in triumph following the liberation of Venice on 17 March 1848 (detail from a painting by <a href="/wiki/Napoleone_Nani" title="Napoleone Nani">Napoleone Nani</a>, 1876)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1848 revolutionary riots broke out in many parts of Europe, including numerous places in what is now <a href="/wiki/Emilia-Romagna" title="Emilia-Romagna">Emilia-Romagna</a> and other parts of Italy. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies">Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies</a> was forced to grant a constitution on 23 January and his example was followed by <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Tuscany" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold II of Tuscany">Leopold II of Tuscany</a> on 17 February, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Albert of Sardinia">Charles Albert of Sardinia</a> on 17 February (the <a href="/wiki/Albertine_Statute" class="mw-redirect" title="Albertine Statute">Albertine Statute</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> on 14 March (The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_Statute_for_the_Temporal_Government_of_the_Holy_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fundamental Statute for the Temporal Government of the Holy States (page does not exist)">Fundamental Statute</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statuto_fondamentale_pel_Governo_temporale_degli_Stati_di_Santa_Chiesa" class="extiw" title="it:Statuto fondamentale pel Governo temporale degli Stati di Santa Chiesa">it</a>]</span>). <a href="/wiki/Charles_II,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Charles II, Duke of Parma">Charles II, Duke of Parma</a> was ousted. <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, excepting <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a>, revolted against the Bourbon <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>. </p><p>On 23 February, the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a> broke out against <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Philippe">Louis Philippe</a>. In March, the revolts also spread into the Austrian Empire, where Milan (<a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Five Days of Milan</a>) and Venice (<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a>) rebelled against the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>. </p><p>The battles were particularly heated in Milan, where the commander of the army of <a href="/wiki/Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lombardy–Venetia">Lombardy–Venetia</a>, Marshal <a href="/wiki/Josef_Radetzky" class="mw-redirect" title="Josef Radetzky">Josef Radetzky</a>, was forced to abandon the city. As a result of this, other revolts broke out in Lombardy–Venetia, such as that at <a href="/wiki/Como" title="Como">Como</a>. With <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Uprising" title="Vienna Uprising">Vienna itself in revolt</a>, the Austrian Empire was tottering. </p><p>On 23 March, one day after the end of the Five Days of Milan, King Charles Albert of Sardinia declared war on Austria. He was probably spurred to this by the desire to avoid a revolution in his own country, which was itself a liberal monarchy, and by the hope that he could use the rebellions in Lombardy–Venetia as an opportunity to expand his own kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus began the first Italian war of independence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary_of_strategic_situation_and_forces">Summary of strategic situation and forces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Summary of strategic situation and forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlo_Alberto_busto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Carlo_Alberto_busto.jpg/150px-Carlo_Alberto_busto.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Carlo_Alberto_busto.jpg/225px-Carlo_Alberto_busto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Carlo_Alberto_busto.jpg/300px-Carlo_Alberto_busto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Albert of Sardinia">Charles Albert of Sardinia</a>, who declared war on Austria on 23 March 1848</figcaption></figure> <p>As a result of the revolts of Milan and Venice, from 23 March 1848, the Austrians had to retreat into the <a href="/wiki/Quadrilatero" title="Quadrilatero">Quadrilateral fortresses</a> (<a href="/wiki/Peschiera_del_Garda" title="Peschiera del Garda">Peschiera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mantua" title="Mantua">Mantua</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Legnago" title="Legnago">Legnago</a>) which formed the defensive nucleus of the Habsburg army in Lombardy–Venetia. To the east, west, and south of the Quadrilateral, forces of volunteers from the Italian states began to gather in order to fight against the Austrians. The Austrian forces were only able to maintain links to the motherland via a corridor to the north, running through the <a href="/wiki/Adige" title="Adige">Adige</a> valley on the eastern coast of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Garda" title="Lake Garda">Lake Garda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Piedmontese_army">The Piedmontese army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Piedmontese army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Sardinian_Army" title="Royal Sardinian Army">Royal Sardinian Army</a></div> <p>The army of the Kingdom of Sardinia was mobilized on 1 March 1848, at the beginning of the revolt in Milan, and was at 4/5 strength, with about 65,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-Cita|Pieri|p._198_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cita|Pieri|p._198-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Piedmontese army was headed by Charles Albert, Minister for War General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Franzini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Franzini (page does not exist)">Antonio Franzini</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Franzini" class="extiw" title="it:Antonio Franzini">it</a>]</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and General <a href="/wiki/Eusebio_Bava" title="Eusebio Bava">Eusebio Bava</a>. The latter directly commanded the 1st Army Corps, consisting of two divisions under Generals <a href="/w/index.php?title=Federico_Millet_d%27Arvillars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Federico Millet d'Arvillars (page does not exist)">Federico Millet d'Arvillars</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Millet_d%27Arvillars" class="extiw" title="it:Federico Millet d'Arvillars">it</a>]</span> and Vittorio Garretti di Ferrere. The 2nd Army Corps was directed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ettore_De_Sonnaz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ettore De Sonnaz (page does not exist)">Ettore De Sonnaz</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ettore_De_Sonnaz" class="extiw" title="it:Ettore De Sonnaz">it</a>]</span>, with Giovanni Battista Federici and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mario_Broglia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mario Broglia (page does not exist)">Mario Broglia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Broglia" class="extiw" title="it:Mario Broglia">it</a>]</span> commanding its two divisions. The 5th Division, containing the reserves, was under the command of Charles Albert's heir <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel</a>, Duke of Savoy.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, command of the artillery fell to <a href="/wiki/Prince_Ferdinando,_Duke_of_Genoa_(1822%E2%80%931855)" title="Prince Ferdinando, Duke of Genoa (1822–1855)">Ferdinand of Savoy, Duke of Genoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before crossing the <a href="/wiki/Ticino" title="Ticino">Ticino</a> river, which marked the border between the Kingdom of Sardinia and Lombardy–Venetia, Charles Albert decided that the war flag would be the <a href="/wiki/Italian_tricolor" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian tricolor">Italian tricolor</a> with the Savoyard arms at the centre.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Italian_armies_and_Volunteers">Other Italian armies and Volunteers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other Italian armies and Volunteers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:QuadrilateroAustriaco.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/QuadrilateroAustriaco.png/220px-QuadrilateroAustriaco.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/QuadrilateroAustriaco.png/330px-QuadrilateroAustriaco.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/QuadrilateroAustriaco.png 2x" data-file-width="434" data-file-height="255" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Quadrilatero" title="Quadrilatero">Quadrilateral fortresses</a>, the defensive core of the Austrian army in Lombardy–Venetia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_1843.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_1843.svg/220px-Italy_1843.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_1843.svg/330px-Italy_1843.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_1843.svg/440px-Italy_1843.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="4200" /></a><figcaption>Italy at the time of the First War of Independence</figcaption></figure> <p>All the other monarchies of the peninsula that had been forced to join the war against Austria due to public sentiment in their respective countries sent military contingents to Lombardy–Venetia, but without conviction. </p><p>The first to arrive was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_the_State_of_the_Church&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Army of the State of the Church (page does not exist)">Papal Army</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esercito_dello_Stato_della_Chiesa" class="extiw" title="it:Esercito dello Stato della Chiesa">it</a>]</span>, with a contingent of 17–18,000 men (including roughly 900 cavalry soldiers and 22 cannons). It consisted of a regular division (10–11,000 men including 3–4,000 volunteers) under the command of the Piedmontese <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Durando" title="Giovanni Durando">Giovanni Durando</a> and a second division (around 7,000 men) made up of the Mobile Civic Guard and of volunteers under the republican <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrea_Ferrari_(general)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrea Ferrari (general) (page does not exist)">Andrea Ferrari</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Ferrari_(generale)" class="extiw" title="it:Andrea Ferrari (generale)">it</a>]</span>. The Army Corps entered Lombardy–Venetia from the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_subdivisions_of_the_Papal_States_from_1816_to_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative subdivisions of the Papal States from 1816 to 1871">Apostolic legation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ferrara" title="Ferrara">Ferrara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A group of around 130 volunteers, called the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bersaglieri_del_Po&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bersaglieri del Po (page does not exist)">Bersaglieri del Po</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bersaglieri_del_Po" class="extiw" title="it:Bersaglieri del Po">it</a>]</span> also came from Ferrara. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> entered the war on 21 March and sent a Corps of around 6,400 men to Mantua, partially regular troops and partially volunteers. The contingent was commanded initially by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulisse_d%27Arco_Ferrari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ulisse d'Arco Ferrari (page does not exist)">Ulisse d'Arco Ferrari</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulisse_d%27Arco_Ferrari" class="extiw" title="it:Ulisse d'Arco Ferrari">it</a>]</span> and subsequently by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cesare_De_Laugier_de_Bellecour&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cesare De Laugier de Bellecour (page does not exist)">Cesare de Laugier</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_De_Laugier_de_Bellecour" class="extiw" title="it:Cesare De Laugier de Bellecour">it</a>]</span>. These troops had little technical training but were highly enthusiastic, especially the so-called "Battalion of Students", led by Astronomy professor <a href="/wiki/Ottaviano-Fabrizio_Mossotti" title="Ottaviano-Fabrizio Mossotti">Ottaviano-Fabrizio Mossotti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Parma">Parma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Modena</a>, the respective dukes, <a href="/wiki/Charles_II,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Charles II, Duke of Parma">Charles II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_V,_Duke_of_Modena" title="Francis V, Duke of Modena">Francis V</a>, had abandoned the throne in the face of popular riots, allowing the formation of provisional governments. A few hundred volunteers set out for Lombardy-Veneto.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major contribution to the war was to be made by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand II of Two Sicilies">Ferdinand II of Two Sicilies</a>, who promised to send a Corps of 25,000 men. This contingent did not leave on time and when it was sent in March it contained around 11,000 men. King Ferdinand II was politically very far from the Piedmontese liberal ideology and his highest priority was the reconquest of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, which had <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">revolted</a> on 26 March 1848 under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Ruggero_Settimo" title="Ruggero Settimo">Ruggero Settimo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commanded by <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a>, the Neapolitan troops arrived in the theatre of war only in mid-May, when, as they were crossing the <a href="/wiki/Po_(river)" title="Po (river)">Po</a> from the south, they received the order to return home. Only a few units loyal to Guglielmo Pepe entered Veneto and participated in the fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the anti-Austrian coalition could rely on other forces. There were Lombard volunteers (4,500 men), Neapolitan volunteers (1,600 men), and Venetian volunteers from the Republic of San Marco. The last group consisted of around 9,000 men, organised as regular units by <a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a> and directed principally against the enemy forces which had crossed the <a href="/wiki/So%C4%8Da" title="Soča">Soča</a> from the east in order to reinforce the Habsburg troops in Lombardy–Venetia. They were commanded by generals <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Zucchi_(general)" title="Carlo Zucchi (general)">Carlo Zucchi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alberto_della_Marmora" title="Alberto della Marmora">Alberto della Marmora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All these armies were completely uncoordinated with one another and were motivated by very different political ideals, ranging from those who sought to unite with the Kingdom of Sardinia, to those who desired an Italian republic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Austrian_army">The Austrian army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Austrian army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Field_Marshal_Johann_Josef_Wenzel_Graf_Radetzky_von_Radetz_(by_Georg_Decker)_-_Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Portrait_of_Field_Marshal_Johann_Josef_Wenzel_Graf_Radetzky_von_Radetz_%28by_Georg_Decker%29_-_Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum.jpg/150px-Portrait_of_Field_Marshal_Johann_Josef_Wenzel_Graf_Radetzky_von_Radetz_%28by_Georg_Decker%29_-_Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Portrait_of_Field_Marshal_Johann_Josef_Wenzel_Graf_Radetzky_von_Radetz_%28by_Georg_Decker%29_-_Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum.jpg/225px-Portrait_of_Field_Marshal_Johann_Josef_Wenzel_Graf_Radetzky_von_Radetz_%28by_Georg_Decker%29_-_Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Portrait_of_Field_Marshal_Johann_Josef_Wenzel_Graf_Radetzky_von_Radetz_%28by_Georg_Decker%29_-_Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum.jpg/300px-Portrait_of_Field_Marshal_Johann_Josef_Wenzel_Graf_Radetzky_von_Radetz_%28by_Georg_Decker%29_-_Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1326" data-file-height="1629" /></a><figcaption>General <a href="/wiki/Josef_Radetzky" class="mw-redirect" title="Josef Radetzky">Josef Radetzky</a>, commander of the Austrian army in Lombardy–Venetia, portrait by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Decker" title="Georg Decker">Georg Decker</a> (1818–1894)</figcaption></figure> <p>The multiethnic Austrian army in Lombardy–Venetia was commanded by the 81-year-old General <a href="/wiki/Josef_Radetzky" class="mw-redirect" title="Josef Radetzky">Josef Radetzky</a>, a man whose past experience had earned him exceptional autonomy from the Viennese bureaucracy. He had organised the army in Italy according to his own ideas, including the idea that army training was necessary even in times of peace – a theory that few followed in this period. The result was that when the war broke out his soldiers were ready and, in particular, were familiar with the territory in which they would need to fight.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the insurrections at Milan and Venice, Radetzky had 70,000 men in two armies: the 1st in Lombardy and the 2nd in Venetia, containing a total of 61 battalions of infantry. After the revolt, as a result of casualties, surrenders, and desertions, this was reduced to 41 effective battalions. There were also 35 squadrons of cavalry and 100 pieces of artillery. Given that the average force of the Austrian battalions was around 1,000 men, Radetzky had a total of around 50,000 men at the start of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He further ordered that a reserve force of 20,000 soldiers be gathered in a hurry under the command of <a href="/wiki/Laval_Nugent_von_Westmeath" title="Laval Nugent von Westmeath">Laval Nugent von Westmeath</a> from the Austrian side of the Soča and from <a href="/wiki/Carinthia" title="Carinthia">Carinthia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_initial_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(March–May_1848)"><span id="The_initial_phase_of_the_first_campaign_.28March.E2.80.93May_1848.29"></span>The initial phase of the first campaign (March–May 1848)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The initial phase of the first campaign (March–May 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiAsti_2012_052.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/WikiAsti_2012_052.jpg/220px-WikiAsti_2012_052.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/WikiAsti_2012_052.jpg/330px-WikiAsti_2012_052.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/WikiAsti_2012_052.jpg/440px-WikiAsti_2012_052.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption>King Charles Albert of Sardinia with his bicorne hat in his hand, at left, greets the Piedmontese troops after they have crossed the Ticino. Painting by Stanislao Grimaldi (1825–1903).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Quadrilateral_(23_March_–_7_April_1848)"><span id="Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Quadrilateral_.2823_March_.E2.80.93_7_April_1848.29"></span>Piedmontese advance towards the Quadrilateral (23 March – 7 April 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Piedmontese advance towards the Quadrilateral (23 March – 7 April 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 23 March, the Kingdom of Sardinia declared war on the Austrian Empire. On 25 and 26 March, two advance guards crossed the River Ticino, entering enemy territory. The body of the army crossed on 29 March.<sup id="cite_ref-Cita|Pieri|p._198_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cita|Pieri|p._198-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same day, the first three divisions entered <a href="/wiki/Pavia" title="Pavia">Pavia</a>, where they were acclaimed by the people. </p><p>Charles Albert decided to ignore these and advance towards <a href="/wiki/Cremona" title="Cremona">Cremona</a> on the Po. From there they advanced to <a href="/wiki/Marcaria" title="Marcaria">Marcaria</a> and crossed the <a href="/wiki/Oglio" title="Oglio">Oglio</a> on 7 April, some twenty kilometres from <a href="/wiki/Mantua" title="Mantua">Mantua</a>, the southernmost fortress of the Quadrilateral.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-166_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-166-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only one of the advance guards was sent to Brescia – this consisted of a brigade of infantry, a regiment of cavalry, and a battery of cannons and was commanded by general Michele Giuseppe Bes (1794–1853), who had already crossed the Ticino at <a href="/wiki/Boffalora_sopra_Ticino" title="Boffalora sopra Ticino">Boffalora</a> and entered Milan. </p><p>That same day, Radetzky retreated to Peschiera and two days after that to <a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a>. On 8 April, the majority of his troops (the 1st Army), was stationed in the Quadrilateral at <a href="/wiki/Villafranca_di_Verona" title="Villafranca di Verona">Villafranca</a>. The Piedmontese army, on the other hand, was arrayed along the west bank of the <a href="/wiki/Mincio" title="Mincio">Mincio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-166_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-166-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crossing_the_Mincio_River_(8–27_April_1848)"><span id="Crossing_the_Mincio_River_.288.E2.80.9327_April_1848.29"></span>Crossing the Mincio River (8–27 April 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Crossing the Mincio River (8–27 April 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prima_guerra_indipendenza_1_fase_mappa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Prima_guerra_indipendenza_1_fase_mappa.jpg/400px-Prima_guerra_indipendenza_1_fase_mappa.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Prima_guerra_indipendenza_1_fase_mappa.jpg/600px-Prima_guerra_indipendenza_1_fase_mappa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Prima_guerra_indipendenza_1_fase_mappa.jpg/800px-Prima_guerra_indipendenza_1_fase_mappa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="791" /></a><figcaption>Course of the first phase of the first campaign (up to 25 May 1848)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alessandro_La_Marmora.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Alessandro_La_Marmora.jpg/150px-Alessandro_La_Marmora.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Alessandro_La_Marmora.jpg/225px-Alessandro_La_Marmora.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Alessandro_La_Marmora.jpg/300px-Alessandro_La_Marmora.jpg 2x" data-file-width="749" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_La_Marmora" class="mw-redirect" title="Alessandro La Marmora">Alessandro La Marmora</a>, founder of the bersaglieri, was seriously wounded at the Battle of Goito Bridge.</figcaption></figure> <p>Since all the bridges over the Mincio were still held by the Austrian rear-guard, on 8 April, General Bava ordered the divisions of General d'Arvillars to seize the Bridge at <a href="/wiki/Goito" title="Goito">Goito</a>. After sharp clashes, during which the Austrian engineers managed to partially demolish the bridge, <a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">Bersaglieri</a> battalions and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Sardinian_Navy" title="Royal Sardinian Navy">Royal Sardinian Navy</a> managed to break through to the other bank. The engagement came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goito_Bridge" title="Battle of Goito Bridge">Battle of Goito Bridge</a> (<i>la Battaglia del Ponte di Goito</i>).Around 4pm the work of the Piedmontese engineers, enabled the passage of another 3 battalions, while the Austrians withdrew to Villafranca. In this first clash of the war, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_La_Marmora" class="mw-redirect" title="Alessandro La Marmora">Alessandro La Marmora</a>, founder of the Bersaglieri, was seriously wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 9 April, the Piedmontese took control of the bridge at <a href="/wiki/Monzambano" title="Monzambano">Monzambano</a> to the north. On 11 April, the Austrians finally abandoned the east bank of the Mincio and withdrew to Verona. The Piedmontese occupied <a href="/wiki/Valeggio_sul_Mincio" title="Valeggio sul Mincio">Valeggio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further east, on 17 April, the new Austrian army under Nugent crossed the <a href="/wiki/So%C4%8Da" title="Soča">Isonzo</a> with two goals: to reinforce Radetzky and to reoccupy Veneto. On 23 April, Nugent entered <a href="/wiki/Udine" title="Udine">Udine</a>. Meanwhile, on 26 April, half the Piedmontese army crossed the Mincio. Two days later, another two divisions crossed and the whole army was deployed in an arc to blockade Peschiera,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which the Piedmontese began to besiege on 27 April, and to simultaneously threaten Verona. The disposition also threatened the Austrian army, arrayed along the <a href="/wiki/Adige" title="Adige">Adige</a> and the main road from Verona to <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a> and Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Adige_(30_April_1848)"><span id="Piedmontese_advance_towards_the_Adige_.2830_April_1848.29"></span>Piedmontese advance towards the Adige (30 April 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Piedmontese advance towards the Adige (30 April 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Skirmish_of_Pastrengo_(1848)" title="Skirmish of Pastrengo (1848)">Skirmish of Pastrengo (1848)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Carica_di_Pastrengo,_Sebastiano_De_Albertis_-_Museo_Storico_dell%27Arma_dei_Carabinieri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/La_Carica_di_Pastrengo%2C_Sebastiano_De_Albertis_-_Museo_Storico_dell%27Arma_dei_Carabinieri.jpg/330px-La_Carica_di_Pastrengo%2C_Sebastiano_De_Albertis_-_Museo_Storico_dell%27Arma_dei_Carabinieri.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/La_Carica_di_Pastrengo%2C_Sebastiano_De_Albertis_-_Museo_Storico_dell%27Arma_dei_Carabinieri.jpg/495px-La_Carica_di_Pastrengo%2C_Sebastiano_De_Albertis_-_Museo_Storico_dell%27Arma_dei_Carabinieri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/La_Carica_di_Pastrengo%2C_Sebastiano_De_Albertis_-_Museo_Storico_dell%27Arma_dei_Carabinieri.jpg/660px-La_Carica_di_Pastrengo%2C_Sebastiano_De_Albertis_-_Museo_Storico_dell%27Arma_dei_Carabinieri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>The charge of the Carabinieri at Pastrengo. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Sebastiano_De_Albertis" title="Sebastiano De Albertis">Sebastiano De Albertis</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the face of the Piedmontese threat, Radetzky had occupied an advance position at <a href="/wiki/Pastrengo" title="Pastrengo">Pastrengo</a> on the west bank of the Adige. On 30 April, the 2nd Army under De Sonnaz advanced to eliminate the enemy bridgehead (14,000 Piedmontese against 8,000 Austrians). For three hours, from 11 am until 2 pm, the advance was slow and difficult. Charles Albert, growing impatient, pushed forward with three squadrons of mounted carabinieri, between the <a href="/wiki/Brigade_%22Cuneo%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigade "Cuneo"">Brigade "Cuneo"</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brigade_%22Piemonte%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigade "Piemonte"">Brigade "Piemonte"</a>. At that moment, the Piedmontese advance revived and some carabinieri came under Austrian fire. After a moment of confusion, Major <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alessandro_Negri_di_Sanfront&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alessandro Negri di Sanfront (page does not exist)">Alessandro Negri di Sanfront</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Negri_di_Sanfront" class="extiw" title="it:Alessandro Negri di Sanfront">it</a>]</span> spurred on the three squadrons of carabinieri against the enemy, with the king and his bodyguard joining the charge. The Austrian line was broken; the Piedmontese infantry forced the enemy to retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having reached the Adige, the Piedmontese were stopped by Radetzky, who had responded to the enemy advance with an attack on the centre of the Piedmontese formation. The attack was easily parried but succeeded in diverting Charles Albert from attempting to cross the Adige. The Battle of Pastrengo thus ended in a Piedmontese victory which raised the morale of the Savoyard troops, but their success in eliminating the Austrian bridgehead was incomplete since the east bank of the Adige remained firmly under Radetzky's control.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Withdrawal_of_the_Papal_States">Withdrawal of the Papal States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Withdrawal of the Papal States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In this situation, Pope Pius IX gave the address <i>Non-semel</i> ("Not once") to the <a href="/wiki/Papal_consistory" title="Papal consistory">Papal consistory</a> on 29 April 1848, in which he disavowed his army's invasion of Veneto. The change of position resulted from the impossibility of fighting a major Catholic power like Austria. Pius feared the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a> with the Austrian Catholics, declaring, "We have learnt also that some enemies of the Catholic religion have taken this opportunity to inflame the minds of the Germans against the unity of this Holy See."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Papal troops and their commander, Giovanni Durando, ignored the wishes of the Pope and continued the campaign, but the impact of Pius' action was considerable. Report of the speech reached the Piedmontese general staff on 2 May, producing great concern. Charles Albert was most affected of all by it, writing to minister <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottavio_Thaon_di_Revel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottavio Thaon di Revel (page does not exist)">Ottavio Thaon di Revel</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottavio_Thaon_di_Revel" class="extiw" title="it:Ottavio Thaon di Revel">it</a>]</span>, "The Pope's speech is an act which could have immense consequences. Certainly, it will do damage to the cause of Italian independence."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Santa_Lucia_(6_May_1848)"><span id="Battle_of_Santa_Lucia_.286_May_1848.29"></span>Battle of Santa Lucia (6 May 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Battle of Santa Lucia (6 May 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santa_Lucia" title="Battle of Santa Lucia">Battle of Santa Lucia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LombVen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/LombVen.jpg/220px-LombVen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/LombVen.jpg/330px-LombVen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/LombVen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption>The Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, theatre of operations for the first campaign of the war</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayot_lith._-_Battaglia_di_Santa_Lucia_-_Parigi_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bayot_lith._-_Battaglia_di_Santa_Lucia_-_Parigi_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg/220px-Bayot_lith._-_Battaglia_di_Santa_Lucia_-_Parigi_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bayot_lith._-_Battaglia_di_Santa_Lucia_-_Parigi_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg/330px-Bayot_lith._-_Battaglia_di_Santa_Lucia_-_Parigi_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bayot_lith._-_Battaglia_di_Santa_Lucia_-_Parigi_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg/440px-Bayot_lith._-_Battaglia_di_Santa_Lucia_-_Parigi_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Santa Lucia. The Piedmontese grenadiers attack and are opposed by effectively stationed Austrian forces.</figcaption></figure> <p>As a result of Pastrengo, Charles Albert had brought his left-wing up to the Adige. Now he sought to push the Austrians back to Verona with a spectacular battle, so that he could announce a brilliant success in time for the start of the new session of the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Kingdom_of_Sardinia)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Kingdom of Sardinia)">Chamber of Deputies</a>. The army he faced was divided into three parts: the first on the east bank of the Adige up to Pastrengo to the north, the second in the villages west of Verona, and the third part inside the walls of Verona itself.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It seemed to the Piedmontese that they could pretty easily defeat the Austrian forces in front of Verona, ignoring or underestimating the fact that the villages had been skillfully and systematically fortified by the Austrians. At Charles Albert's request, General Bava prepared a plan, which was then modified by Franzini, for an "armed reconnaissance" in the direction of Verona in order to provoke a battle in the open. The 1st Army, the reserve division and the 3rd Division of the 2nd Army (i.e. 4/5 of the whole Piedmontese army) were to take part in the attack, whose principal target was the village of <a href="/wiki/San_Massimo" title="San Massimo">San Massimo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 6 May 1848, the Piedmontese army began its advance. The movement of the various units was not synchronised. At the village of San Massimo, where the main attack was to be concentrated, the <a href="/wiki/Brigade_%22Re%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigade "Re"">Brigade "Re"</a> from the 1st Division of the 1st Army came under heavy enemy fire. The other brigade in its division, the <a href="/wiki/Brigade_%22Aosta%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigade "Aosta"">Brigade "Aosta"</a>, also encountered heavy fire in front of the village of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Lucia_(Verona)" title="Santa Lucia (Verona)">Santa Lucia</a>, which became the focus of the Piedmontese assault, as a result, the breakdown of the plan of attack.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Charles Albert was in an exposed forward position, General Bava contravened the plan which required him to wait for the other units and attacked Santa Lucia at 10 am with the Brigade "Aosta", exposing it to intense Austrian fire. Only at 11 am, did the <a href="/wiki/Mechanized_Brigade_%22Granatieri_di_Sardegna%22" title="Mechanized Brigade "Granatieri di Sardegna"">Guards Brigade</a> from the reserve division arrive to assist. With this, he was able to flank the village. Parts of the Brigade "Re" and the 2nd Division of the 1st Army began to arrive between 12 and 1:30 pm, at which point Bava launched an assault, which was focused on the cemetery of Santa Lucia, doggedly defended by the Austrians. However, the latter were overcome by the enemy and eventually had to abandon their positions and withdraw to Verona.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Piedmontese stalled rather than taking advantage of the situation. At 2pm they received notice that the 3rd Division of the 2nd Piedmontese Army's attack on the hamlets of Croce Bianca and <a href="/wiki/Chievo" title="Chievo">Chievo</a> had failed. The news led Charles Albert to order a retreat. Simultaneously, an energetic Austrian counter-offensive was launched, in which Radetzky's men made it to Santa Lucia, which they found abandoned by the Piedmontese. At 6 pm the battle was over. The Austrians had rebuffed the enemy attack, suffering 72 dead, 190 wounded, and 87 captured. The Piedmontese had lost 110 men and suffered 776 wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The failure marked the loss of Piedmontese initiative, which now passed to the Austrians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arrival_of_Austrian_reinforcements">Arrival of Austrian reinforcements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Arrival of Austrian reinforcements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Crossing_of_the_Soča_(17–29_April_1848)"><span id="The_Crossing_of_the_So.C4.8Da_.2817.E2.80.9329_April_1848.29"></span>The Crossing of the Soča (17–29 April 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Crossing of the Soča (17–29 April 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rijeka050.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Rijeka050.jpg/150px-Rijeka050.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Rijeka050.jpg/225px-Rijeka050.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Rijeka050.jpg/300px-Rijeka050.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1558" data-file-height="2183" /></a><figcaption>The Austrian general <a href="/wiki/Laval_Nugent_von_Westmeath" title="Laval Nugent von Westmeath">Laval Nugent</a>, who led the Austrian reinforcements from the Soča to the Piave</figcaption></figure> <p>While Charles Albert was fighting in the Quadrilateral, another conflict took place in parallel in Veneto, which remained completely separate from the Piedmontese campaign. The government of the Republic of San Marco barely managed to keep the various local committees co-ordinated. Searching for a commander to organise their troops, they obtained the Piedmontese general <a href="/wiki/Alberto_La_Marmora" class="mw-redirect" title="Alberto La Marmora">Alberto La Marmora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other side, the Austrian general Laval Nugent, concentrated his forces at <a href="/wiki/Gorizia" title="Gorizia">Gorizia</a> and crossed the Soča into Veneto on 17 April 1848 with 12–13,000 men. He substantially outnumbered the forces opposing his passage. That same day, Nugent locked down <a href="/wiki/Palmanova" title="Palmanova">Palmanova</a>, moving on to <a href="/wiki/Udine" title="Udine">Udine</a> which surrendered on 22 April after an artillery bombardment. On 23 April, the Austrians occupied the city. Nugent then moved on towards <a href="/wiki/Tagliamento" title="Tagliamento">Tagliamento</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>La Marmora had just 1,300 men at the river against the Austrian force, which had grown to 16–17,000 men. After destroying a bridge, he decided to withdraw west to the <a href="/wiki/Piave_(river)" title="Piave (river)">Piave</a>. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Durando" title="Giovanni Durando">Giovanni Durando</a> crossed over the Po and arrived at <a href="/wiki/Ostiglia" title="Ostiglia">Ostiglia</a> on 23 April with the 10–11,000 Papal regulars, while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrea_Ferrari_(general)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrea Ferrari (general) (page does not exist)">Andrea Ferrari</a> was also on the way with volunteers and the Papal national guard (7,000 men).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Durando and his men proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Treviso" title="Treviso">Treviso</a> on 29 April, while La Marmora was ordered to defend eastern Venetia. Pius IX's order to withdraw was made the same day, but Durando and the troops chose to ignore it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Cornuda_(8_May_1848)"><span id="Battle_of_Cornuda_.288_May_1848.29"></span>Battle of Cornuda (8 May 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Battle of Cornuda (8 May 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giovanni_Durando.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Giovanni_Durando.jpg/150px-Giovanni_Durando.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Giovanni_Durando.jpg/225px-Giovanni_Durando.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Giovanni_Durando.jpg 2x" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>General <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Durando" title="Giovanni Durando">Giovanni Durando</a>, commander of the ex-Papal regulars</figcaption></figure> <p>In the north, the Austrians entered <a href="/wiki/Belluno" title="Belluno">Belluno</a> on 5 May and on 6 May a brigade crossed the Piave at <a href="/wiki/Feltre" title="Feltre">Feltre</a>. Meanwhile, the first divisions of Ferrari's force arrived at Treviso. Convinced that the Austrians were advancing on <a href="/wiki/Bassano_del_Grappa" title="Bassano del Grappa">Bassano del Grappa</a> from the north, Durando stationed his troops there and arranged for Ferrari and his forces to be stationed near <a href="/wiki/Montebelluna" title="Montebelluna">Montebelluna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the afternoon of 8 May, however, Nugent's vanguard of 1,000 men made contact with an advance force of Ferrari, 300 men stationed at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Onigo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Onigo (page does not exist)">Onigo</a>, which was 10 km northwest of Montebelluna. Ferrari pulled back a little bit to <a href="/wiki/Cornuda" title="Cornuda">Cornuda</a> hill, the last natural obstacle between the enemy and the plain. On the morning of 9 May, the battle began anew: 2,000 Austrians with 6 cannons attacked the Papal troops, who had not yet received any reinforcements from Ferrari or Durando. The latter hesitated for some time before sending a note at 12:30pm, saying "Vengo correndo" (I'm coming in a hurry).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Nugent further reinforced his soldiers, Ferrari sent a battalion to his men from Montebelluna and ordered 50 dragoons to charge the Austrians in order to buy some time. They were nearly all killed, but they managed to stall the Austrian advance. Subsequently, the Austrians received further reinforcements and began to turn about from Feltre towards Cornuda. There were now 6,000 Austrian troops facing 2,000 very tired Papal soldiers, who were in danger of being surrounded. At 5pm, after the battle had been going on for 12 hours without any reinforcements from Durando, Ferrari decided to order the troops to withdraw. The retreat was disordered and continued all the way to Treviso.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austrian_advance_to_Verona_(9–25_May_1848)"><span id="Austrian_advance_to_Verona_.289.E2.80.9325_May_1848.29"></span>Austrian advance to Verona (9–25 May 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Austrian advance to Verona (9–25 May 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vicenza_Monte_Berico_Monumento_italiano_1848-2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Vicenza_Monte_Berico_Monumento_italiano_1848-2.JPG/150px-Vicenza_Monte_Berico_Monumento_italiano_1848-2.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Vicenza_Monte_Berico_Monumento_italiano_1848-2.JPG/225px-Vicenza_Monte_Berico_Monumento_italiano_1848-2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Vicenza_Monte_Berico_Monumento_italiano_1848-2.JPG/300px-Vicenza_Monte_Berico_Monumento_italiano_1848-2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2286" data-file-height="2818" /></a><figcaption>Commemorative plaque for the troops who fought at Vicenza in 1848</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Battle of Cornuda, the situation in Veneto was very grave for the Italians. However, Josef Radetzky insisted that Nugent immediately bring his forces to Verona in order to join up with his army. But on 17 May, the aggravation of an old wound forced Nugent to hand command of his forces over to General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Thurn_Valsassina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg Thurn Valsassina (page does not exist)">Georg Thurn Valsassina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 18 May, with no more than 4,000 men in the field, Durando returned to Treviso with a few units to defend it from the Austrians. Thurn took advantage of the withdrawal of Durando's troops from Piazzola in order to cross the river <a href="/wiki/Brenta_(river)" title="Brenta (river)">Brenta</a> and attack <a href="/wiki/Vicenza" title="Vicenza">Vicenza</a>, which repelled the attack. There were 5,000 men defending the city, mostly Papal forces. They were reinforced by forces from various parts of Veneto, forces from Durando and the battalion of General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Antonini_(general)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giacomo Antonini (general) (page does not exist)">Giacomo Antonini</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Antonini_(general)" class="extiw" title="it:Giacomo Antonini (general)">it</a>]</span>, a member of <a href="/wiki/Young_Italy_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Italy (historical)">Young Italy</a> who had recruited a diverse group of volunteers in France.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 22 May, Radetzky changed his mind about the urgency of linking up the forces in light of the changed situation after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santa_Lucia" title="Battle of Santa Lucia">Battle of Santa Lucia</a> and ordered Thurn to attack <a href="/wiki/Vicenza" title="Vicenza">Vicenza</a>, which now contained 11,000 men in addition to the National Guard and the citizens. The battle took place between the night of 23 May and the morning of 24 May. The Austrians attacked the city from the west but were blocked by flooding caused by the defenders who resisted and counter-attacked tenaciously. An Austrian force sent via the <a href="/wiki/Berici_Hills" title="Berici Hills">Berici Hills</a> and no better luck. At 9 am Thurn ordered a retreat to Verona. Thurn's forces finally met up with Radetzky's on 25 May 1848.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_second_phase_of_the_first_campaign_(May–August_1848)"><span id="The_second_phase_of_the_first_campaign_.28May.E2.80.93August_1848.29"></span>The second phase of the first campaign (May–August 1848)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The second phase of the first campaign (May–August 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ferdinand_leaves_the_war">Ferdinand leaves the war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ferdinand leaves the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F._Martorelli_-_Ritratto_di_Ferdinando_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/F._Martorelli_-_Ritratto_di_Ferdinando_II.jpg/150px-F._Martorelli_-_Ritratto_di_Ferdinando_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/F._Martorelli_-_Ritratto_di_Ferdinando_II.jpg/225px-F._Martorelli_-_Ritratto_di_Ferdinando_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/F._Martorelli_-_Ritratto_di_Ferdinando_II.jpg/300px-F._Martorelli_-_Ritratto_di_Ferdinando_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies">Ferdinand II</a> abandoned the campaign against Austria in order to settle the revolution in Sicily.</figcaption></figure> <p>Simultaneously, in Naples, Ferdinand II decided, as a result of riots in the capital on 15 May, to withdraw from the war – before his troops had even encountered the enemy. This decision arose from political considerations (such as the failure to form an Italian League),<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the departure of Pope Pius IX from the war, and the need to reconquer Sicily, which had declared itself an independent state, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Sicily_(1848%E2%80%931849)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Sicily (1848–1849) (page does not exist)">Kingdom of Sicily</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_di_Sicilia_(1848%E2%80%931849)" class="extiw" title="it:Regno di Sicilia (1848–1849)">it</a>]</span>. </p><p>On 21 May 1848, a few hours after the departure of the first brigade of the Neapolitan expedition from Bologna to Ferrara, the commander of the troops, <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a>, received the order to return immediately to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the resistance of General Pepe, the withdrawal was inevitable. Only a single body of the Bourbon expedition remained, the 10th Regiment "Abruzzo", which had already linked up with the Piedmontese troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-181_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-181-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This regiment withdrew to Naples after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goito" title="Battle of Goito">Battle of Goito</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Romagna, the decision was not easy for the various Bourbon officials. The case of colonel Carlo Francesco Lahalle was particularly dramatic – split between his duty to his king and his ideals, he committed suicide. In this context, a small portion of the Neapolitan forces under the leadership of Pepe and a group of young officers including <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Mezzacapo" title="Luigi Mezzacapo">Luigi Mezzacapo</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carlo_Mezzacapo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carlo Mezzacapo (page does not exist)">Carlo Mezzacapo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Mezzacapo" class="extiw" title="it:Carlo Mezzacapo">it</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Cosenz" title="Enrico Cosenz">Enrico Cosenz</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cesare_Rosaroll&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cesare Rosaroll (page does not exist)">Cesare Rosaroll</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Rosaroll" class="extiw" title="it:Cesare Rosaroll">it</a>]</span>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Girolamo_Cal%C3%A0_Ulloa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Girolamo Calà Ulloa (page does not exist)">Girolamo Calà Ulloa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Cal%C3%A0_Ulloa" class="extiw" title="it:Girolamo Calà Ulloa">it</a>]</span>, and others, arrived in Venice, where they contributed to the Republic of San Marco's war effort until the end of the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-181_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-181-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Curtatone_and_Montanara_(29_May_1848)"><span id="Battle_of_Curtatone_and_Montanara_.2829_May_1848.29"></span>Battle of Curtatone and Montanara (29 May 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Battle of Curtatone and Montanara (29 May 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battaglia_di_Curtatone_e_Montanara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Battaglia_di_Curtatone_e_Montanara.jpg/220px-Battaglia_di_Curtatone_e_Montanara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Battaglia_di_Curtatone_e_Montanara.jpg/330px-Battaglia_di_Curtatone_e_Montanara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Battaglia_di_Curtatone_e_Montanara.jpg/440px-Battaglia_di_Curtatone_e_Montanara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption>The battle of Curtatone and Montanara, during which the Tuscan and Neapolitan volunteers bravely defended the Italian formation. Painting by Pietro Senna.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 25 May 1848 at Verona, Thurn's forces reached Radetzky's forces and the reunited army left the city two days later. The plan was to outflank the Piedmontese army from the south, raise the siege of Pescheria, and obtain a decisive victory. Charles Albert's army was marshalled against him, along both banks of the River Mincio, from Pescheria to Mantua. Radetzky decided to begin the manoeuvre as soon as he was out of Mantua, near <a href="/wiki/Curtatone" title="Curtatone">Curtatone</a> and Montanara – the weak point in the Piedmontese lines.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this location, there were 5,400 troops, including Tuscan and Neapolitans, made up of volunteers and members of the 2nd battalion of the 10th Regiment "Abruzzo", who had not yet received the news of Ferdinand's withdrawal from the war.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Austrian army left Verona on the morning of 27 May with a contingent of 45,000 men in three columns, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Wratislaw_von_Mitrowitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugen Wratislaw von Mitrowitz">Eugen Wratislaw von Mitrowitz</a> (1st Corps), <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_d%27Aspre" class="mw-redirect" title="Konstantin d'Aspre">Konstantin d'Aspre</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_d%27Aspre" class="extiw" title="it:Konstantin d'Aspre">it</a>]</span> (2nd Corps) and Gustav Wocher (reserve). The army reached Mantua the next day. Alarmed, the Piedmontese general staff arranged for a concentration of forces at <a href="/wiki/Goito" title="Goito">Goito</a>. On 29 May at 1pm, the Austrians crossed the Mincio in a number of columns. One of these headed for <a href="/wiki/Governolo" class="mw-redirect" title="Governolo">Governolo</a> (15 km southeast of Mantua on the Mincio) to face the Parmans and Modenese. Another two columns attacked the nearby settlements of Curtatone and Montanara, and a fourth column attacked the nearby village of San Silvestro in order to outflank the Tuscans and Neapolitans from the south.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The three columns converging on Curtatone, Montanara and San Silvestro contained some 20,000 soldiers in all and 52 cannons. Curtatone was defended by 2,500 men under the Piedmontese colonel Campia, Montanara by 2,300 under the Lucian colonel <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giuseppe_Giovannetti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giuseppe Giovannetti (page does not exist)">Giuseppe Giovannetti</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Giovannetti" class="extiw" title="it:Giuseppe Giovannetti">it</a>]</span>. The rest of the men were in reserve positions. The attack was launched by the Austrians at Curtatone around 10:30. Initially rebuffed, the attack was renewed with artillery fire, and then rebuffed again. At Montanara, there was fierce fighting and the front line of the defenders was not broken until around 2pm. After 2pm, the attack was renewed at Curtatone too; the defenders remained firm in the centre but collapsed at the sides and after 4pm, general <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cesare_De_Laugier_de_Bellecour&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cesare De Laugier de Bellecour (page does not exist)">Cesare De Laugier de Bellecour</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_De_Laugier_de_Bellecour" class="extiw" title="it:Cesare De Laugier de Bellecour">it</a>]</span>, commander of the Tuscan division, ordered a retreat, which marked the end of the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tuscans and Neapolitans had suffered 166 dead, 518 wounded, and 1,178 captured. The Austrians had suffered 95 dead, 516 wounded and 178 deserters.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite being defeated, the battle had given the Piedmontese command time to bring in reinforcements to the south and to prepare for the planned Austrian attack on Goito, a few kilometres away.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_insurrection_in_Cadore">The insurrection in Cadore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The insurrection in Cadore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Cadore" title="Cadore">Cadore</a>, from 29 April 1848 for over a month, a small armed rebellion of around 4,000 poorly armed men clashed with hostile forces sent from Austria to <a href="/wiki/Belluno" title="Belluno">Belluno</a>, where they were meant to link up with the forces of Nugent. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pietro_Fortunato_Calvi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pietro Fortunato Calvi (page does not exist)">Pietro Fortunato Calvi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Fortunato_Calvi" class="extiw" title="it:Pietro Fortunato Calvi">it</a>]</span> was sent to the rebels by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a> to lead the men, but in May they were attacked from the south by General Karl Freiherr von Culoz and other forces which far outnumbered the rebels, until the rebellion was finally suppressed around 6–9 June and Calvi had to retreat to Venice.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Battle_of_Goito_and_the_fall_of_Peschiera_(30_May_1848)"><span id="The_Battle_of_Goito_and_the_fall_of_Peschiera_.2830_May_1848.29"></span>The Battle of Goito and the fall of Peschiera (30 May 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The Battle of Goito and the fall of Peschiera (30 May 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goito" title="Battle of Goito">Battle of Goito</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battaglia_di_Goito_Bauduc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Battaglia_di_Goito_Bauduc.jpg/330px-Battaglia_di_Goito_Bauduc.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Battaglia_di_Goito_Bauduc.jpg/495px-Battaglia_di_Goito_Bauduc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Battaglia_di_Goito_Bauduc.jpg/660px-Battaglia_di_Goito_Bauduc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2290" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption>The moment of the Piedmontese counterattack at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goito" title="Battle of Goito">Battle of Goito</a>, seen from the rear. Painted by Felice Cerruti Bauduc (1817–1896).</figcaption></figure> <p>After the victories at Curtatone and Montanara, Radetzky split his forces into two columns: Wratislaw's 1st Corps and a reserve force under Wocher (a total of 26,000 men) were sent north towards <a href="/wiki/Goito" title="Goito">Goito</a>; D'Aspre's 2nd Corps (14,000 men) were sent northwest through <a href="/wiki/Rodigo" title="Rodigo">Rodigo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ceresara" title="Ceresara">Ceresara</a>, towards <a href="/wiki/Guidizzolo" title="Guidizzolo">Guidizzolo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medole" title="Medole">Medole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was intended to out-flank the Piedmontese army on the Mincio, which was spread out between <a href="/wiki/Valeggio_sul_Mincio" title="Valeggio sul Mincio">Valeggio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volta_Mantovana" title="Volta Mantovana">Volta</a>, and Goito. </p><p>On the other side, the Piedmontese scouts did not report a rapid advance of the enemy and Bava, who was in command of the 1st Corps, which was the most exposed to an attack from the south, decided to concentrate his forces near Goito. At 3pm on 30 May he had stationed 21 battalions of infantry, 23 squadrons of cavalry, and 56 Piedmontese cannons, as well as a battalion of the Neapolitan 10th Regiment "Abruzzo" and a thousand Tuscans, in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Half an hour later, the 1st Austrian Corps began its attack on the 1st Piedmontese Corps. The right-wing of the Austrians, next to the River Mincio, advanced very quickly and was targeted by the Italian artillery. The centre overwhelmed the Piedmontese front line but was not able to overcome the sustained counterattack of the Piedmontese second line and also came under artillery fire. Fresh Austrian forces were sent in support but were insufficient. Then Radetzky, who had lost contact with his 2nd Corps, ordered his troops to withdraw. Two Piedmontese cavalry charges helped make the Austrian withdrawal more like a retreat. The battle was over by 7pm. The Italians had suffered 43 dead and 253 wounded, the Austrians 68 dead, 331 wounded, and 223 fled.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radetzky's grand strategic manoeuvre had failed. He had only managed to bring 14 battalions into contact with the enemy, keeping the cavalry inactive. Further, at the moment of the final Piedmontese counterattack, Charles Albert had received news that the fortress of Peschiera had been taken, and a little after this, the Austrian retreat at Goito was announced. The news of the double victory was greeted by those who were present with cheers of "Long live the King of Italy!".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austrian_conquest_of_Vicenza_(5–11_June_1848)"><span id="Austrian_conquest_of_Vicenza_.285.E2.80.9311_June_1848.29"></span>Austrian conquest of Vicenza (5–11 June 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Austrian conquest of Vicenza (5–11 June 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battaglia_di_Vicenza_1848.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Battaglia_di_Vicenza_1848.jpg/220px-Battaglia_di_Vicenza_1848.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Battaglia_di_Vicenza_1848.jpg/330px-Battaglia_di_Vicenza_1848.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Battaglia_di_Vicenza_1848.jpg/440px-Battaglia_di_Vicenza_1848.jpg 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption>The Austrians occupy the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Capra_%22La_Rotonda%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Villa Capra "La Rotonda"">Villa Capra "La Rotonda"</a> during the Battle of Monte Berico.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the battle of Goito and the surrender of Peschiera, Radetzky did not retreat to Verona. Instead, on 5 June 1848, he moved on Vicenza. The forces employed for the attack were the 1st and 2nd Corps and two brigades of the 3rd Corps (the former reserve Corps). Radetzky advanced from the south, intending to occupy the <a href="/wiki/Berici_Hills" title="Berici Hills">Berici Hills</a> which dominate the southern approach of the city. Vicenza was defended by a total of 11,000 men, consisting of ex-Papal troops under general Durando and volunteers.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An Austrian army of 30,000 men and 124 cannons advanced on Vicenza in a crescent formation stretching from the south to the east. The distant commanders of the Piedmontese army did not take any action, confident that the city would be able to resist for several days.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radetzky attacked with the 1st Corps, intending to occupy the hilly area to the south of the city. At dawn on 10 June, the Austrian vanguard encountered the advance forces of the Italians. To the east of the city, the 2nd Austrian Corps met strong resistance, but the crux of the battle turned out to be the south, near the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Capra_%22La_Rotonda%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Villa Capra "La Rotonda"">Villa Capra "La Rotonda"</a>, where the Austrian 1st Corps managed to defeat the Roman volunteers. Around 2pm, the defenders launched a counter-attack that failed, in which Colonel <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Cialdini" title="Enrico Cialdini">Enrico Cialdini</a> was seriously wounded. Around 5pm, the outer defenses of Vicenza withdrew to the <a href="/wiki/Monte_Berico" title="Monte Berico">basilica</a>, with two Austrian brigades on their heels and Colonel <a href="/wiki/Massimo_d%27Azeglio" title="Massimo d'Azeglio">Massimo d'Azeglio</a> was wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After sending the reserves into the battle, with almost no success, Durando decided that the battle was lost and made a proclamation at 7pm, declaring that it was necessary to surrender, despite the opposition of many of the citizens. The Austrians started negotiations, allowing the ex-Papal troops to withdraw south of the Po, so long as they stayed out of the fighting for three months. The next day, 11 June, around 9,000 defenders departed from Vicenza. The Italian casualties amounted to 293 dead and 1,665 wounded, while on the Austrian side 141 were dead, 541 wounded, and 140 had deserted.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extension_of_the_Front_(June–July_1848)"><span id="Extension_of_the_Front_.28June.E2.80.93July_1848.29"></span>Extension of the Front (June–July 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Extension of the Front (June–July 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battaglia_di_Governolo_(18_luglio_1848).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Battaglia_di_Governolo_%2818_luglio_1848%29.jpg/220px-Battaglia_di_Governolo_%2818_luglio_1848%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Battaglia_di_Governolo_%2818_luglio_1848%29.jpg/330px-Battaglia_di_Governolo_%2818_luglio_1848%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Battaglia_di_Governolo_%2818_luglio_1848%29.jpg/440px-Battaglia_di_Governolo_%2818_luglio_1848%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Governolo, seen from the Piedmontese side. Contemporary French lithograph.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eusebio_Bava_(1790-1854).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Eusebio_Bava_%281790-1854%29.jpg/150px-Eusebio_Bava_%281790-1854%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Eusebio_Bava_%281790-1854%29.jpg/225px-Eusebio_Bava_%281790-1854%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Eusebio_Bava_%281790-1854%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eusebio_Bava" title="Eusebio Bava">Eusebio Bava</a>, commander of the Piedmontese 1st Army Corps</figcaption></figure> <p>The conquest of Vicenza removed the troops of General Durando from the Veneto and led to the fall of <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treviso" title="Treviso">Treviso</a> on 13 June, and then <a href="/wiki/Palmanova" title="Palmanova">Palmanova</a> on 24 June.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On learning of the Austrian attack on Vicenza on 8 June, Charles Albert held a council of war. Franzini wanted to take advantage of the situation to make an immediate assault on Verona, but the council decided instead to attack Peschiera from the northeast and to occupy <a href="/wiki/Rivoli_Veronese" title="Rivoli Veronese">Rivoli Veronese</a>. The memory of the Battle of Santa Lucia was still very fresh.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, on 10 June, while the majority of the Austrian army was concentrated at Vicenza, the Piedmontese 2nd Corps advanced on the plain of Rivoli, site of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s 1797 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">victory</a> over the Austrians. Radetzky's men withdrew, allowing the Piedmontese to reach their objective. The occupation of Rivoli strengthened the left-wing of the Piedmontese formation, but was a bad move for the war effort as a whole since it left them over-extended.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Rivoli and various failed attempts to regain the initiative, there was another month of inactivity on the Piedmontese side, during which the blockade of Mantua was begun. Meanwhile, Charles Albert considered an attack across the Adige and relocated from <a href="/wiki/Valeggio_sul_Mincio" title="Valeggio sul Mincio">Valeggio sul Mincio</a> to <a href="/wiki/Roverbella" title="Roverbella">Roverbella</a>. On 4 July he met with <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, who had returned from South America where he had been in exile after being condemned to death for his part in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Invasion_of_Savoy_(1834)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Invasion of Savoy (1834) (page does not exist)">uprising of 1834</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasione_della_Savoia_del_3_febbraio_1834" class="extiw" title="it:Invasione della Savoia del 3 febbraio 1834">it</a>]</span>. The king greeted him icily and referred him to Franzini, writing that it would have been dishonorable to give the rank of general to such a man.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, at the front, after an attempt to reinforce and resupply the garrison at Ferrara, an Austrian brigade occupied <a href="/wiki/Governolo" class="mw-redirect" title="Governolo">Governolo</a> (southeast of Mantua, at the confluence of the Mincio and the Po) on 16 July, leaving five companies there and then withdrawing to the Quadrilateral. Eusebio Bava, who had been left with a brigade to counter any further Austrian raids, decided to attack Governolo. On 18 July, he initiated a lively fire of fusiliers and artillery from the Mincio, when a <a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">Bersaglieri</a> company traveled up the river, attacked the Austrians on the left bank, and managed to lower the drawbridge. The Piedmontese cavalry immediately crossed over, followed by the artillery, prompting the Austrians to retreat – 400 were captured.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Battle of Governolo was a brilliant victory for the Savoyard forces, but they were now stretched out over 70 km, from Rivoli to Governolo. This line was very weak as a line of resistance and weak at every point.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Custoza_(22–27_July_1848)"><span id="Battle_of_Custoza_.2822.E2.80.9327_July_1848.29"></span>Battle of Custoza (22–27 July 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Battle of Custoza (22–27 July 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Custoza_(1848)" title="Battle of Custoza (1848)">Battle of Custoza (1848)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scontro_di_Rivoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Scontro_di_Rivoli.jpg/220px-Scontro_di_Rivoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Scontro_di_Rivoli.jpg/330px-Scontro_di_Rivoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Scontro_di_Rivoli.jpg/440px-Scontro_di_Rivoli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="753" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">Bersaglieri</a> face the Austrian attack at Rivoli, 22 July 1848</figcaption></figure> <p>The armies facing each other along the long front line on 20 July 1848 were nearly equal in size: 75,000 men on the Italian side, 76,000 on the Austrian side. The front line of the Piedmontese army was divided into two groups: one near Mantua and one near the Adige, facing Verona, where the Austrian forces were concentrated.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Beginning_of_the_Austrian_offensive">Beginning of the Austrian offensive</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Beginning of the Austrian offensive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At dawn on 22 July 1848, the Austrian 3rd Corps of Thurn attacked from the north of Rivoli, at the extreme left of the Piedmontese formation. They were met by the forces of de Sonnaz from the south, which stood firm and then counterattacked.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, at 7:30 on 23 July, Radetzky launched a massive attack on the Mincio between <a href="/wiki/Sona,_Veneto" title="Sona, Veneto">Sona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sommacampagna" title="Sommacampagna">Sommacampagna</a>. The 1st and 2nd Corps led the advance and encountered a tenacious but doomed resistance. By noon, the Austrians had gained the strongpoints that the Italians had been holding for the last three months or so.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, in the afternoon of 23 July, the 2nd Army Corps of de Sonnaz was all in retreat. In the evening almost all of them gathered at Cavalcaselle, a little east of Peschiera.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At 4pm on 23 July, the Austrians cautiously crossed the Mincio at Salionze (between Peschiera and <a href="/wiki/Monzambano" title="Monzambano">Monzambano</a>). The next morning they defeated the troops of de Sonnaz, which were very tired from the march, once more.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the afternoon of 24 July, the Austrians occupied the crossings over the Mincio at Salionze, Monzambano, and Veleggio. Simultaneously, at 4:30pm, Piedmontese forces under Bava returned to the left bank of the Mincio from Mantua and attacked the left flank of the Austrian advance force. The battle took place at Staffalo, between Sommacampagna and <a href="/wiki/Custoza" title="Custoza">Custoza</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose high points were all occupied by the Piedmontese. In his efforts to cross the Mincio quickly, Radetzky thus came under threat on both banks, but as soon as he noticed the situation, he recalled the columns that had already crossed the river.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-201_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-201-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Failure_of_the_Piedmontese_counterattack">Failure of the Piedmontese counterattack</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Failure of the Piedmontese counterattack"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AspreLitho.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/AspreLitho.jpg/150px-AspreLitho.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/AspreLitho.jpg/225px-AspreLitho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/AspreLitho.jpg/300px-AspreLitho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1201" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_d%27Aspre" class="mw-redirect" title="Konstantin d'Aspre">Konstantin d'Aspre</a>, commander of the Austrian 2nd Corps</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ettore_De_Sonnaz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ettore_De_Sonnaz.jpg/150px-Ettore_De_Sonnaz.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ettore_De_Sonnaz.jpg/225px-Ettore_De_Sonnaz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ettore_De_Sonnaz.jpg/300px-Ettore_De_Sonnaz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="1207" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ettore_De_Sonnaz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ettore De Sonnaz (page does not exist)">Ettore De Sonnaz</a>, commander of the Piedmontese 2nd Corps</figcaption></figure> <p>The Piedmontese command organised an offensive by the 1st Corps towards Mincio on 25 July, in order to make contact with the 2nd Corps on the right bank and cut the supply line to the Austrians from the Quadrilateral.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Radetzky foresaw the Piedmontese action, turned around at Valeggio and attacked the Piedmontese for the northwest at Custoza and Sommacampagna.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-201_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-201-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 20,000 Italians on the spot were met by 40,000 Austrians.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radetzky was, therefore, able to split the forces of Charles Albert and defeat de Sonnaz before moving on to defeat Bava. </p><p>On 25 July, at Valeggio, at 11am, the Piedmontese offensive began and was soon stalled by an energetic counter-offensive. On the right bank of the Mincio, there was no sign of the 2nd Corps of de Sonnaz, which had not arrived at the ordained time.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>East of the Mincio (on the left bank), Bava's forces were now split on the Valeggio-Sommacapagna line (southwest-northeast). Between 11am and 12:30pm, the Duke of Genoa at Sommacampagna (the right-wing) rebuffed three Austrian assaults, but at 1:30pm, after another attack by the 2nd Austrian Corps, he had to retreat to Staffalo and Custoza.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Charles Albert then ordered de Sonnaz, who had been asked not to intervene until 6pm, to come from Goito with part of his force, leaving the rest at Volta Mantovana with orders not to abandon their station except in extreme emergency situations. But de Sonnaz, discouraged by the events of the previous day, abandoned Volta too at midnight, without a fight.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At 4pm, near Valeggio (the Piedmontese left-wing) further assaults of the Austrian 1st Corps took place. The battle revived in the centre as well as on the Piedmontese right-wing, the Duke of Genoa was in danger of being outflanked, so at 5:30 pm, he ordered a retreat to Villafranca.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the left and right wings of the Piedmontese formation in retreat, the centre came under renewed attack at 6:30 pm and was forced to withdraw to Custoza. At 7:30 pm, after a final Austrian assault, it withdrew towards the Po river. Thus ended the Battle of Custoza on 25 July 1848, with 212 dead, 657 wounded, and 270 captured on the Italian side and 175 dead, 723 wounded, and 422 captured or deserted on the Austrian side.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Volta_Mantovana">Volta Mantovana</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Volta Mantovana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scontro_di_Volta_Mantovana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Scontro_di_Volta_Mantovana.jpg/310px-Scontro_di_Volta_Mantovana.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Scontro_di_Volta_Mantovana.jpg/465px-Scontro_di_Volta_Mantovana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Scontro_di_Volta_Mantovana.jpg/620px-Scontro_di_Volta_Mantovana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>The charge of the <a href="/wiki/Regiment_%22Genova_Cavalleria%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Regiment "Genova Cavalleria"">Regiment "Genova Cavalleria"</a> at Volta Mantovana on 27 July 1848. Painting by Felice Cerruti Bauduc, 1858.</figcaption></figure> <p>Having been beaten at Custoza, at 10pm on 25 July 1848, Charles Albert sent orders to Bava for a general retreat to Goito. An hour and a half later, he sent an order to De Sonnaz to hold firm at Volta and hold the enemy at the Mincio. De Sonnaz had probably already decided to abandon Volta at this point and only received the order when he arrived at Goito at 5am on 26 July. At noon Charles Albert ordered him to return to Volta with the 3rd Division. At 6pm Austrians and Piedmontese clashed in what would become the opening phase of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Volta_Mantovana_(1848)" title="Battle of Volta Mantovana (1848)">battle of Volta Mantovana</a>.An Austrian advance guard, which had occupied Volta in the meanwhile, came under attack from De Sonnaz and resisted tenaciously. The combat lasted in the night and at 2am de Sonnaz ordered Piedmontese troops to withdraw until reinforcements arrived.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, Charles Albert abandoned the blockade of Mantua and sent a brigade to Volta, which led the Piedmontese assault on 27 July, which failed in the face of a massive Austrian counterattack. The pressure was so great that de Sonnaz already ordered them to retreat at 6am.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had withdrawn a couple of kilometres when the Austrian cavalry attempted to disrupt their retreat. In response, the Piedmontese cavalry made a number of charges which effectively rebuffed the Austrians. At 10 am, de Sonnaz's troops arrived in Goito.<sup id="cite_ref-harvnb|Pieri|pp=249–250_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvnb|Pieri|pp=249–250-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Battle of Custoza was over.<sup id="cite_ref-harvnb|Pieri|pp=249–250_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvnb|Pieri|pp=249–250-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Piedmontese_retreat_towards_Milan_(27_July_–_3_August_1848)"><span id="The_Piedmontese_retreat_towards_Milan_.2827_July_.E2.80.93_3_August_1848.29"></span>The Piedmontese retreat towards Milan (27 July – 3 August 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: The Piedmontese retreat towards Milan (27 July – 3 August 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Werner_-_Presa_di_Milano,_il_6_agosto_1848_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Werner_-_Presa_di_Milano%2C_il_6_agosto_1848_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg/220px-Werner_-_Presa_di_Milano%2C_il_6_agosto_1848_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Werner_-_Presa_di_Milano%2C_il_6_agosto_1848_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg/330px-Werner_-_Presa_di_Milano%2C_il_6_agosto_1848_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Werner_-_Presa_di_Milano%2C_il_6_agosto_1848_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg/440px-Werner_-_Presa_di_Milano%2C_il_6_agosto_1848_-_litografia_-_ca._1850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>The Austrians approach Milan at the beginning of August 1848.</figcaption></figure> <p>At 8 am on 27 July 1848, a council of war at Goito presided over by Charles Albert, decreed that it was necessary to open negotiations with the enemy for an eventual truce. A small Piedmontese delegation, which included colonel <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Ferrero_La_Marmora" title="Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora">Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora</a>, was sent to the Austrian camp. Eusebio Bava, however, gave orders to the troops to deploy to the north of Goito, but not all of them obeyed. Following the recent defeat, there were many instances of indiscipline and demoralisation. The general Claudio Seyssel d'Aix di Sommariva, a commandant of the 1st Division at Custoza, ignored the orders, disengaged and set off with the <a href="/wiki/Brigade_%22Aosta%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigade "Aosta"">Brigade "Aosta"</a> in a southerly direction, towards the lower course of the River Oglio, along with general Vittorio Garretti di Ferrere (commander of the 2nd Division), with the <a href="/wiki/Brigade_%22Casale%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigade "Casale"">Brigade "Casale"</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandiera_1848_Milano_a_Carlo_Alberto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bandiera_1848_Milano_a_Carlo_Alberto.jpg/220px-Bandiera_1848_Milano_a_Carlo_Alberto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bandiera_1848_Milano_a_Carlo_Alberto.jpg/330px-Bandiera_1848_Milano_a_Carlo_Alberto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bandiera_1848_Milano_a_Carlo_Alberto.jpg/440px-Bandiera_1848_Milano_a_Carlo_Alberto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2482" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Flag donated by the women of Milan to Charles Albert in spring/summer 1848, on display in the <a href="/wiki/Armeria_Reale" class="mw-redirect" title="Armeria Reale">Armeria Reale</a> in Turin</figcaption></figure> <p>In the afternoon, the delegation sent to the Austrian camp returned and reported that Radetzky was willing to allow a truce, on the condition that the Piedmontese withdraw their army to the <a href="/wiki/Adda_(river)" title="Adda (river)">Adda</a> and return Pescheria, Venetia, <a href="/wiki/Osoppo" title="Osoppo">Osoppo</a> (still in Venetian hands at this point) and the duchies of Modena and Parma (the latter had voted for annexation by the Kingdom of Sardinia in the spring) to Austria. When he heard these conditions, Charles Albert exclaimed, "I would rather die!".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At 9pm, a general retreat towards the Oglio began and at 12 on 28 July, the Piedmontese army collected itself beyond the river. Bava realised that the Oglio was not a viable defensive position and after ten hours of break he continued the march to the west. The Austrians followed the Piedmontese since they did not want to lose contact and in order to give the impression of imminent danger, thereby speeding up the retreat and causing Charles Albert's troops to get strung out.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 31 July 1848, the whole Piedmontese army had crossed the Adda and was ready to resist. But only one day later, at <a href="/wiki/Crotta_d%27Adda" title="Crotta d'Adda">Crotta d'Adda</a>, the defensive line was collapsing. In the zone of the 1st Division, in fact, the commandant Sommariva decided to abandon the right bank of the river, as a result of the impossibility of stationing artillery in the marshy land, a misunderstanding of the enemy's intentions and an overestimation of his own forces. Thus the Austrians were able to cross. Sommariva, who had already been responsible for the disengagement on 27 July, pulled back to <a href="/wiki/Piacenza" title="Piacenza">Piacenza</a> with all his forces, causing the isolation of the remainder.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this point, the defensive line on the Adda was lost and against the wishes of almost all his generals, Charles Albert wanted to concentrate his whole army in Milan, so as not to lose the dynastic advantages that he had acquired there. The provisional government of Milan had actually voted in a referendum to accept annexation by Piedmont on 8 June. There was, however, the danger of the proclamation in Lombardy of a republic, which would likely be followed by a sustained intervention from the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Republic">Second French Republic</a>. This outcome would have been unwelcome for the Kingdom of Sardinia as much as for Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Piedmontese army marched north, reaching <a href="/wiki/Lodi,_Lombardy" title="Lodi, Lombardy">Lodi</a> on 2 August, where the king relieved Sommariva and Di Ferrere of their commands as a result of their actions over the preceding week. On 3 August, at 12 o'clock, the advance guard of the Piedmontese army reached the outskirts of Milan.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_surrender_of_Milan_and_the_Salasco_armistice_(4_–_9_August_1848)"><span id="The_surrender_of_Milan_and_the_Salasco_armistice_.284_.E2.80.93_9_August_1848.29"></span>The surrender of Milan and the Salasco armistice (4 – 9 August 1848)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: The surrender of Milan and the Salasco armistice (4 – 9 August 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1st_Duke_of_Genoa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/1st_Duke_of_Genoa.jpg/150px-1st_Duke_of_Genoa.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/1st_Duke_of_Genoa.jpg/225px-1st_Duke_of_Genoa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/1st_Duke_of_Genoa.jpg/300px-1st_Duke_of_Genoa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1021" data-file-height="1853" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Prince_Ferdinando,_Duke_of_Genoa_(1822%E2%80%931855)" title="Prince Ferdinando, Duke of Genoa (1822–1855)">Prince Ferdinand</a> distinguished himself in the conflict as commander of the 4th Piedmontese division.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlo-Alberto-dal-balcone-di-casa-Greppi-1848.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Carlo-Alberto-dal-balcone-di-casa-Greppi-1848.jpg/170px-Carlo-Alberto-dal-balcone-di-casa-Greppi-1848.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Carlo-Alberto-dal-balcone-di-casa-Greppi-1848.jpg/255px-Carlo-Alberto-dal-balcone-di-casa-Greppi-1848.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Carlo-Alberto-dal-balcone-di-casa-Greppi-1848.jpg/340px-Carlo-Alberto-dal-balcone-di-casa-Greppi-1848.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2014" data-file-height="2509" /></a><figcaption>Charles Albert on the balcony of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Palazzo_Greppi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palazzo Greppi (page does not exist)">Palazzo Greppi</a> in Milan, attempts to calm the crowds protesting the armistice on 5 August 1848. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Bossoli" title="Carlo Bossoli">Carlo Bossoli</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Piedmontese were closely followed by the Austrians all the way and on 4 August 1848, in the area to the south of Milan, on the road to <a href="/wiki/Melegnano" title="Melegnano">Melegnano</a>, Radetzky began what would prove to be the final attack of the first campaign. The Piedmontese at first made a successful stand near Ca' Verde and at <a href="/wiki/Nosedo" title="Nosedo">Nosedo</a>, but then were forced to retreat from Cascina Pismonte. The brigade of General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mario_Broglia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mario Broglia (page does not exist)">Mario Broglia</a> attempted a counterattack – in vain since Bava had already decided to withdraw to the fortifications.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At 7pm, the retreat of the Piedmontese army within the walls of Milan was practically over. It had suffered 42 dead, 228 wounded and 142 captured in the day's fighting. The Austrians had lost 40 dead, 198 wounded, and 73 fled. A little after 8pm, Charles Albert called a council of war which decided to abandon the defense of the city because of the absence of munitions, food and cash. At 6am on 5 August, they were notified that Radetzky had accepted the requests of the Piedmontese: Milan would be ceded and in return Charles Albert's army would be allowed to retreat peacefully to Piedmont.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The population of Milan, however, expressed its strong opposition to this turn of events and called for the defense of the city to the death. At Palazzo Greppi, Charles Albert found himself besieged by a mob calling for the continued defense of the city. He appeared on the balcony for the first time and answered the questions of the people through an official. A little letter, he handed over the ratification of the armistice agreed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carlo_Canera_di_Salasco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carlo Canera di Salasco (page does not exist)">Carlo Canera di Salasco</a>. Then <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cant%C3%B9" title="Cesare Cantù">Cesare Cantù</a> convinced the king to go out again to calm the crowd, but someone fired a rifle and the king thus withdrew immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That evening, <a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">Bersaglieri</a> troops commanded by <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_La_Marmora" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso La Marmora">Alfonso La Marmora</a> came to protect Charles Albert who now left Milan in a carriage, protected by soldiers. That night, the whole army began their retreat, followed by a crowd of exiles, which consisted of around a third of Milan's population. On 6 August, the army crossed the Ticino and that same day the Austrians entered Milan. Three days later, on 9 August, Radetzky and Salasco concluded an armistice which stated that Charles Albert's troops would withdraw from the whole of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-208_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-208-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radetzky's victory was met with great emotion in Vienna, capital of an empire that was still troubled by revolutionary movements. For the occasion, the musician <a href="/wiki/Johann_Strauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Strauss">Johann Strauss</a> composed the <a href="/wiki/Radetzky_March" title="Radetzky March">Radetzky March</a> in honour of the victor and it was performed for the first time in Vienna at 31 August.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Garibaldi's_first_command_(30_July_–_26_August_1848)"><span id="Garibaldi.27s_first_command_.2830_July_.E2.80.93_26_August_1848.29"></span>Garibaldi's first command (30 July – 26 August 1848)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Garibaldi's first command (30 July – 26 August 1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/150px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/225px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/300px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="2509" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> made his first contributions to the cause of Risorgimento during the First Italian War of Independence.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cacciata_degli_austriaci_da_Bologna_(1848).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cacciata_degli_austriaci_da_Bologna_%281848%29.jpg/220px-Cacciata_degli_austriaci_da_Bologna_%281848%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cacciata_degli_austriaci_da_Bologna_%281848%29.jpg/330px-Cacciata_degli_austriaci_da_Bologna_%281848%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cacciata_degli_austriaci_da_Bologna_%281848%29.jpg/440px-Cacciata_degli_austriaci_da_Bologna_%281848%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption>The expulsion of the Austrians from Bologna on 8 August 1848, as painted by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Muzzi" title="Antonio Muzzi">Antonio Muzzi</a> (1815–1894)</figcaption></figure> <p>Having been sent away by Minister of War <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Franzini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Franzini (page does not exist)">Antonio Franzini</a> at the beginning of July 1848 as mentioned above, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> put himself at the disposal of the provisional government of Milan. He managed to form a volunteer Corps of 5000 men and on 30 July 1848, he entered <a href="/wiki/Bergamo" title="Bergamo">Bergamo</a> with them. From there he advanced to <a href="/wiki/Monza" title="Monza">Monza</a>, where he received news of the negotiations for the surrender of Milan on 5 August.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-208_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-208-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was not at all discouraged by the rumours of an armistice and decided to continue waging a 'war of the people.' From Monza he moved on to <a href="/wiki/Como" title="Como">Como</a> and when he was not able to increase the size of his forces there, he went on to <a href="/wiki/San_Fermo_della_Battaglia" title="San Fermo della Battaglia">San Fermo</a>. Sick of marching, the volunteers began to desert, such that when he entered Piedmontese territory on 10 August (at <a href="/wiki/Castelletto_sopra_Ticino" title="Castelletto sopra Ticino">Castelletto sopra Ticino</a>), Garibaldi had no more than a thousand men at his disposal. Here, Duke Ferdinand of Genoa asked him to respect the terms of the armistice, but he refused and crossed the border back into Lombardy–Veneto.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, on 15 August at <a href="/wiki/Luino" title="Luino">Luino</a>, he encountered a column of around 450–500 Austrians, who fled, leaving 2 dead and 14 wounded on the field. Another 37 were taken prisoner. This was the first real military action of Garibaldi in Italy and his first victory.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Radetzky sent another force against him, which fought two brief engagements with Garibaldi at <a href="/wiki/Arcisate" title="Arcisate">Arcisate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morazzone" title="Morazzone">Morazzone</a> on 25 and 26 August. Garibaldi eluded capture and fled to Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-209_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-209-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_'war_of_the_people'_during_the_armistice_(9_August_1848_–_20_March_1849)"><span id="The_.27war_of_the_people.27_during_the_armistice_.289_August_1848_.E2.80.93_20_March_1849.29"></span>The 'war of the people' during the armistice (9 August 1848 – 20 March 1849)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: The 'war of the people' during the armistice (9 August 1848 – 20 March 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r963460841"><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">First Italian War of Independence (war of the people)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Museo_Torre_di_San_Martino_della_Battaglia_-_affresco_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Museo_Torre_di_San_Martino_della_Battaglia_-_affresco_05.jpg/220px-Museo_Torre_di_San_Martino_della_Battaglia_-_affresco_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Museo_Torre_di_San_Martino_della_Battaglia_-_affresco_05.jpg/330px-Museo_Torre_di_San_Martino_della_Battaglia_-_affresco_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Museo_Torre_di_San_Martino_della_Battaglia_-_affresco_05.jpg/440px-Museo_Torre_di_San_Martino_della_Battaglia_-_affresco_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3872" /></a></span><br />Defenders of Venice during the siege in 1849, as painted by <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Bressanin" title="Vittorio Emanuele Bressanin">Vittorio Emanuele Bressanin</a> (detail)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>23 March 1848 – 22 August 1849</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Italy</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Restoration of the monarchies and defeat of the revolutionaries</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Status quo ante bellum</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg/22px-Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg/33px-Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg/44px-Flag_of_Italy_with_inscription_%C2%ABItalia_libera_Dio_lo_vuole%C2%BB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="1040" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Milan" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional Government of Milan">Provisional Government of Milan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governo_provvisorio_di_Milano" class="extiw" title="it:Governo provvisorio di Milano">it</a>]</span><br /> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/22px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/33px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/44px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Sicily_(1848%E2%80%931849)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Sicily (1848–1849) (page does not exist)">Kingdom of Sicily</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_di_Sicilia_(1848%E2%80%931849)" class="extiw" title="it:Regno di Sicilia (1848–1849)">it</a>]</span><br /> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif/22px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif/33px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif/44px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif 2x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="217" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> Tuscan Republic<br /> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_(19th_century).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a><br /> </p> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BandieraVolontari1848confederali.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/BandieraVolontari1848confederali.gif/22px-BandieraVolontari1848confederali.gif" decoding="async" width="22" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/BandieraVolontari1848confederali.gif/33px-BandieraVolontari1848confederali.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/BandieraVolontari1848confederali.gif/44px-BandieraVolontari1848confederali.gif 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="353" /></a></span> Italian volunteers</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a><br /> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_(1848).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a><br /> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Papal_States_(1808-1870).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Papal_States_%281808-1870%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Papal_States_%281808-1870%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Papal_States_%281808-1870%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Papal_States_%281808-1870%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Papal_States_%281808-1870%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Papal_States_%281808-1870%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Papal_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal State">Papal State</a><br /> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_(1848).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848%29.gif/22px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848%29.gif" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848%29.gif/33px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848%29.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848%29.gif/44px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany_%281848%29.gif 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a><br /> </p> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Republic">France</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/22px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/33px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg/44px-Flag_of_Sicilian_Kingdom_1848.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Mieros%C5%82awski" title="Ludwik Mierosławski">Ludwik Mierosławski</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif/22px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif/33px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif/44px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Venice_1848-49.gif 2x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="217" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_(19th_century).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Roman_Republic_%2819th_century%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Josef_Radetzky" class="mw-redirect" title="Josef Radetzky">Josef Radetzky</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_(1848).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Filangieri" title="Carlo Filangieri">Carlo Filangieri</a><br /> </p> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Oudinot" title="Charles Oudinot">Charles Oudinot</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>At the beginning of 1848, all of Sicily had revolted against the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon-Two_Sicilies" title="House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies">Bourbons</a> and defeated the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Army of the Two Sicilies">army</a> of Ferdinand II. A <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Constitution_of_1848" title="Sicilian Constitution of 1848">new constitution</a> was approved and on 10 July, the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Parliament" title="Sicilian Parliament">Sicilian Parliament</a> spontaneously elected Ferdinand of Savoy, Duke of Genoa, as their new king. He decided that he had to refuse the offer, given the serious military situation in Savoy at the time. The refusal of the Duke of Genoa led to serious weakening of the Sicilian government, even as a military force departed from Naples, on 30 August 1848, led by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Filangieri" title="Carlo Filangieri">Carlo Filangieri</a>, Prince of Satriano, who would reconquer Sicily in 1849. </p><p>After the armistice of Salasco, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Franz_de_Paula_of_Liechtenstein" title="Prince Franz de Paula of Liechtenstein">Prince Franz de Paula of Liechtenstein</a> marched on Modena and Parma to restore their deposed dukes, while General <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Welden" title="Ludwig von Welden">Ludwig von Welden</a> crossed the Po near Ferrara on 28 July and then, perhaps on his own initiative, diverted 7,000 men from the Siege of Venice to occupy <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>. This city rose in revolt on 8 August and the Austrians had to abandon it the next day.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-209_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-209-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Venice, the only city in Lombardy–Venetia which remained in the hands of the insurgents, the parliament had decided to accept annexation by the Kingdom of Sardinia on 5 July 1848. On 7 August, three Savoyard commissioners were appointed to administer the city, but when the Armistice of Salasco was reported in the city, they had to abandon Venice, along with the Piedmontese fleet. <a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a> then took control of the besieged city and established a triumvirate. Command of the troops was given to the former Neapolitan general Guglielmo Pepe, who managed to drive the Austrians out of <a href="/wiki/Mestre" title="Mestre">Mestre</a> at the end of October and take command of it for himself. </p><p>At <a href="/wiki/Osoppo" title="Osoppo">Osoppo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Friuli" title="Friuli">Friuli</a>, following the armistice, around 350 patriots ensconced themselves in the fortress under the command of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonardo_Andervolti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonardo Andervolti (page does not exist)">Leonardo Andervolti</a>, until they were forced to surrender to the Austrians on 13 October 1848. </p><p>In Lombardy in the same month, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> decided to come down from the <a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Ticino" class="mw-redirect" title="Canton of Ticino">Canton of Ticino</a> with a group of volunteers to take control of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Como" title="Lake Como">Lake Como</a>. Before this could take place, however, on 28 October the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Revolt_of_the_Val_d%27Intelvi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Revolt of the Val d'Intelvi (page does not exist)">spontaneous uprising</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurrezione_della_Val_d%27Intelvi" class="extiw" title="it:Insurrezione della Val d'Intelvi">it</a>]</span> of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Val_d%27Intelvi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Val d'Intelvi (page does not exist)">Val d'Intelvi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val_d%27Intelvi" class="extiw" title="it:Val d'Intelvi">it</a>]</span>, led by <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Brenta" title="Andrea Brenta">Andrea Brenta</a>. Although the element of surprise was lost, Mazzini decided to invade anyway and three columns containing a total of 850 men descended from Switzerland into the Val d'Intelvi, heading for Lake Como and for Luino. At Como, Mazzini's men were not welcomed by the population and a conflict with the military commanders of the expedition probably caused its failure. Between the end of October and the middle of November, the Austrians regained control of the territory.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proclamation_of_the_Tuscan_and_Roman_Republics">Proclamation of the Tuscan and Roman Republics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Proclamation of the Tuscan and Roman Republics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" title="Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Leopold II</a> appointed the democrat <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Montanelli" title="Giuseppe Montanelli">Giuseppe Montanelli</a> as prime minister on 27 October 1848, whose policy was to seek union with the other Italian states and to restart the war with Austria. But events overtook them. In Rome on 15 November 1848, the Roman minister of the interior, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pellegino_Rossi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pellegino Rossi (page does not exist)">Pellegino Rossi</a> was assassinated and on the evening of 24th, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> fled the city for the Neapolitan fortress of <a href="/wiki/Gaeta" title="Gaeta">Gaeta</a>. Montanelli demanded that Grand Duke Leopold II make common cause with the Romans, but he decided instead to leave the capital on 30 January 1849 and take refuge aboard an English ship at <a href="/wiki/Porto_Santo_Stefano" title="Porto Santo Stefano">Porto Santo Stefano</a>. </p><p>A few days later, on 8 February, Giuseppe Mazzini swept into Florence and on 15 February a <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_Republic_(1849)" title="Tuscan Republic (1849)">Tuscan Republic</a> was proclaimed. With the help of the Piedmontese ambassador <a href="/w/index.php?title=Salvatore_Pes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salvatore Pes (page does not exist)">Salvatore Pes</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore_Pes,_marchese_di_Villamarina" class="extiw" title="it:Salvatore Pes, marchese di Villamarina">it</a>]</span>, Savoy attempted to have Leopold II return to Florence rather than lose an ally in the forthcoming renewal of war with Austria. But under the influence of Catholic clergy, Leopold refused this and joined the Pope at Gaeta. </p><p>Meanwhile, on 9 February, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a> was proclaimed, which was also governed by Giuseppe Mazzini and which Giuseppe Garibaldi fought for strenuously. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_second_campaign_(20_–_24_March_1849)"><span id="The_second_campaign_.2820_.E2.80.93_24_March_1849.29"></span>The second campaign (20 – 24 March 1849)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: The second campaign (20 – 24 March 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forces_in_the_field">Forces in the field</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Forces in the field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Against the advice of the Minister of War <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Dabormida" title="Giuseppe Dabormida">Giuseppe Dabormida</a>, who wanted to place a Frenchman in command of the Piedmontese army,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charles Albert decided to appoint a less experienced Polish general, <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Chrzanowski" title="Wojciech Chrzanowski">Wojciech Chrzanowski</a>. At the same time, various commanders from the first campaign were dismissed: Ettore de Sonnaz, Eusebio Bava (who had published an account of the king's interventions in the decision making process of the high command), and Carlo Salasco. A number of different men served as Minister of War during the months of the armistice, one after another: Dabormida, <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_La_Marmora" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso La Marmora">Alfonso La Marmora</a>, Ettore de Sonnaz, <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Chiodo" title="Agostino Chiodo">Agostino Chiodo</a>, who made various attempts to improve the quality of the army: some groups were sent to rest, soldiers with families were moved into the reserves, other groups were recalled, the Corps of the <a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">Bersaglieri</a> was augmented and new recruits were excluded from the front lines. On 1 March 1849, the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Kingdom_of_Sardinia)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Kingdom of Sardinia)">Chamber of Deputies</a> voted for the resumption of the war, with 94 votes in favour and 24 against. Charles Albert decided that hostilities would resume on 20 March.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Passaggio_Ticino_esercito_austriaco_1849.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Passaggio_Ticino_esercito_austriaco_1849.jpg/220px-Passaggio_Ticino_esercito_austriaco_1849.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Passaggio_Ticino_esercito_austriaco_1849.jpg/330px-Passaggio_Ticino_esercito_austriaco_1849.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Passaggio_Ticino_esercito_austriaco_1849.jpg/440px-Passaggio_Ticino_esercito_austriaco_1849.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="291" /></a><figcaption>The Austrians crossing the Ticino at Pavia on 20 March 1849, to create a bridgehead for an invasion of the Kingdom of Sardinia.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Piedmontese army, which had abandoned the groupings by Corps in advance of the resumption of hostilities, consisted of the five original divisions (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and reserves), as well as three new divisions: the 5th Division (the Lombards), the 6th Division (led by Alfonso La Marmora) and the provisional reserve division. On paper, Charles Albert's army contained 150,000 men, but when the men who were sick or on leave are discounted, that number was reduced to 115,000, of which only 62,000 were front line troops. At the last moment, moreover, General <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino" title="Ettore Perrone di San Martino">Ettore Perrone di San Martino</a> took over from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maria_Broglia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maria Broglia (page does not exist)">Maria Broglia</a> as commander of the 3rd Division.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The geographic arrangement of the forces was as follows: the five original divisions were around Novara, with a brigade near <a href="/wiki/Lago_Maggiore" class="mw-redirect" title="Lago Maggiore">Lago Maggiore</a> to the north and the 5th Division between <a href="/wiki/Alessandria" title="Alessandria">Alessandria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voghera" title="Voghera">Voghera</a> to the south. Further afield, there was a brigade opposite Piacenza (in the Duchy of Parma, occupied by the Austrians) and the 6th Division was at <a href="/wiki/Sarzana" title="Sarzana">Sarzana</a> and then at Parma.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, the Austrian army, which was given eight days warning before the resumption of hostilities, in accordance with the terms of the Armistice of Salasco, was all concentrated in <a href="/wiki/Pavia" title="Pavia">Pavia</a> and its surroundings by 20 March 1849.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radetzky's forces amounted to 73,000 men, not including the 25,000 men commanded by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Jacob_von_Haynau" title="Julius Jacob von Haynau">Julius Jacob von Haynau</a> who were tied up at Venice and the troops in garrisons (at Piacenza, these consisted of a whole brigade). With respect to the commanders, Radetzky had preferred wherever possible to keep the same people in the same positions as in 1848. Eugen Wratislaw von Mitrowitz was in charge of the 1st Corps, Konstantin d'Aspre of the 2nd, Christian von Appel of the 3rd, Georg Thurn Valsassina of the 4th, and Gustav Wocher of the 1st reserve Corps.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(20_March)"><span id="Invasion_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_.2820_March.29"></span>Invasion of the Kingdom of Sardinia (20 March)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Invasion of the Kingdom of Sardinia (20 March)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HGM_Barabas_Erzherzog_Albrecht_von_%C3%96sterreich-Teschen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/HGM_Barabas_Erzherzog_Albrecht_von_%C3%96sterreich-Teschen.jpg/150px-HGM_Barabas_Erzherzog_Albrecht_von_%C3%96sterreich-Teschen.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/HGM_Barabas_Erzherzog_Albrecht_von_%C3%96sterreich-Teschen.jpg/225px-HGM_Barabas_Erzherzog_Albrecht_von_%C3%96sterreich-Teschen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/HGM_Barabas_Erzherzog_Albrecht_von_%C3%96sterreich-Teschen.jpg/300px-HGM_Barabas_Erzherzog_Albrecht_von_%C3%96sterreich-Teschen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="883" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Archduke_Albrecht,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen">Archduke Albrecht</a> commanded the division whose victory at La Cava on the Ticino River opened the road to Lomellina for the whole Austrian army. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s" title="Miklós Barabás">Miklós Barabás</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Girolamo_Ramorino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Girolamo_Ramorino.jpg/150px-Girolamo_Ramorino.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Girolamo_Ramorino.jpg/225px-Girolamo_Ramorino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Girolamo_Ramorino.jpg/300px-Girolamo_Ramorino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Ramorino" title="Girolamo Ramorino">Girolamo Ramorino</a> was court martialed at Turin and shot for his negligence in command of the Lombard division.</figcaption></figure> <p>At noon on 20 March 1849, hostilities officially resumed. Aside from a reconnaissance expedition over the Ticino near <a href="/wiki/Magenta,_Lombardy" title="Magenta, Lombardy">Magenta</a>, the Piedmontese did not move. Radetzky, on the other hand, used Pavia as the bridgehead for a surprise invasion of the Kingdom of Sardinia.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the Sardinian side the area of the Austrian attack was the responsibility of the Lombard Division, whose commander <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Ramorino" title="Girolamo Ramorino">Girolamo Ramorino</a> had received an order on 16 March to move forward<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hold the strong point at <a href="/wiki/Cava_Manara" title="Cava Manara">La Cava</a>, from which it would be possible to watch over the final section of the Ticino River down to its confluence with the Po. In the event of difficulty, the division was to retreat to the north through <a href="/wiki/Sannazzaro_de%27_Burgondi" title="Sannazzaro de' Burgondi">Sannazzaro</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mortara,_Lombardy" title="Mortara, Lombardy">Mortara</a>. However, Ramorino was convinced that the Austrians intended to seize Alessandria and the attack across the Ticino River on 20 March was just a feint. As a result, he left only the <a href="/wiki/21st_Infantry_Regiment_%22Cremona%22" title="21st Infantry Regiment "Cremona"">21st Infantry Regiment</a> at La Cava and ordered the regiment to retreat to the south, over the Po River, in the event of serious difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But Ramorino was wrong. At noon on 20 March, Archduke <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Albrecht,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen">Albrecht</a> led his division over the Gravellone (a tributary of the Ticino outside Pavia), opening the crossing for the whole Austrian army. At La Cava Radetzky's troops had an overwhelming numerical advantage over the Piedmontese, who nevertheless resisted for 6 hours under the tenacious Major <a href="/wiki/Luciano_Manara" title="Luciano Manara">Luciano Manara</a>. In contravention of his orders, Ramorino retreated with all his troops to the right bank of the Po and not to the north. As a result, his division was isolated.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this decision, which substantially weakened the position of the Piedmontese army, Ramorino was convicted by a court martial at Turin after the defeat and was executed on 22 May 1849. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Sforzesca_(21_March_1849)"><span id="Battle_of_Sforzesca_.2821_March_1849.29"></span>Battle of Sforzesca (21 March 1849)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Battle of Sforzesca (21 March 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battaglia_della_Sforzesca_di_Fattori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Battaglia_della_Sforzesca_di_Fattori.jpg/330px-Battaglia_della_Sforzesca_di_Fattori.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Battaglia_della_Sforzesca_di_Fattori.jpg/495px-Battaglia_della_Sforzesca_di_Fattori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Battaglia_della_Sforzesca_di_Fattori.jpg/660px-Battaglia_della_Sforzesca_di_Fattori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="336" /></a><figcaption>Charge of the <a href="/wiki/Regiment_%22Piemonte_Reale%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Regiment "Piemonte Reale"">Regiment "Piemonte Reale"</a> at the Battle of Sforzesca, as painted by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Fattori" title="Giovanni Fattori">Giovanni Fattori</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Piedmontese hesitation continued for some time, until around 3am on 21 March, Chrzanowski decided to counter the enemy attack on Mortara with two divisions near the town (1st Division and reserve division) and three more at <a href="/wiki/Vigevano" title="Vigevano">Vigevano</a>, to threaten the right flank of the Austrian invasion force (2nd, 3rd, and 4th Divisions).<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 11 am, the vanguard of the 1st Austrian Corps, which was advancing along the right bank of the Ticino in order to protect the bulk of the Austrian army which was heading for Mortara, encountered a unit of the Piedmontese 2nd Division on reconnaissance near <a href="/wiki/Borgo_San_Siro" title="Borgo San Siro">Borgo San Siro</a> (10 km south of Vigevano). Despite their superior numbers, the Austrians only managed to move past them after hours of combat in the town.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At 1 pm, Charles Albert and Chrzanowski arrived at a spot a little south of Vigevano, at the villa of <a href="/wiki/Sforzesca" class="mw-redirect" title="Sforzesca">Sforzesca</a> and arranged for it to be defended by the 2nd Division under Michele Giuseppe Bes on the road from Borgo San Siro and by the 3rd Division under Ettore Perrone di San Martino on the road from <a href="/wiki/Gambol%C3%B2" title="Gambolò">Gambolò</a>. As the Austrian 1st Corps approached Sforzesca it faced two attacks from Bes' troops. Despite the arrival of enemy reinforcements and clogged streets which impeded the movement of the Piedmontese forces, Bes attacked a third time around 6 km from Sforzesca, but his attack was rebuffed. At nightfall he ordered his troops to fall back to the villa. On the road from Gambolò to Vigevano, the Austrians also attacked and were forcefully rebuffed and counterattacked.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The result of the Battle of Sforzesca was unclear. The Piedmontese had suffered 21 dead, 94 wounded and around a hundred desertions; the Austrians suffered 25 dead, 180 wounded and 120 desertions. From a tactical point of view, the Piedmontese had prevented the Austrians from marching on Vigevano, but strategically, Radetzky had succeeded in advancing the three Corps that were not involved in the battle (2nd, 3rd, and 1st reserve) along the road to Mortara, which was the principal objective of the attack.<sup id="cite_ref-Pieri-294-296_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pieri-294-296-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austrian_advance_on_Novara_(22_March_1849)"><span id="Austrian_advance_on_Novara_.2822_March_1849.29"></span>Austrian advance on Novara (22 March 1849)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Austrian advance on Novara (22 March 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meanwhile, at Mortara, around 4 pm on 21 March, the 1st Piedmontese division under Giovanni Durando and the reserve division under Prince <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel</a> were released from battle array. Around 4:30 pm, the vanguard of the Austrian 2nd Corps made contact with the enemy. At 6 pm, although it was late in the day, General d'Aspre ordered an attack on the Piedmontese which immediately met with success in the centre. On either side of the centre of the Piedmontese front line, some battalions struggled to plug the gap. In the wings, however, the Piedmontese resisted the Austrians and d'Aspre's orders stated that the Austrian forces should not proceed further if they did that.<sup id="cite_ref-Pieri-294-296_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pieri-294-296-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BenedekLitho.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/BenedekLitho.jpg/150px-BenedekLitho.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/BenedekLitho.jpg/225px-BenedekLitho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/BenedekLitho.jpg/300px-BenedekLitho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>The intuition of Colonel <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Benedek" title="Ludwig von Benedek">Ludwig von Benedek</a> was decisive for the Austrian victory at the Battle of Mortara.</figcaption></figure> <p>But in the front lines, the Austrian colonel <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Benedek" title="Ludwig von Benedek">Ludwig von Benedek</a> had a sense of the disordered curve of the enemy forces, despite the darkness, and advanced resolutely, forcing the <a href="/wiki/Brigade_%22Regina%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigade "Regina"">Brigade "Regina"</a> (1st Division) to retreat south to Mortara to reorganise itself. Von Benedeck managed to occupy the settlement and to hold it against an attack of the Brigade "Aosta" (1st Division). In the darkness, a new Austrian attack forced the defenders to abandon the bridge over the <a href="/wiki/Erbognone" title="Erbognone">Erbognone</a> southeast of Mortara, as well. All this was achieved even though the troops of d'Aspre had stopped as ordered.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alessandro La Marmora, Chrzanowski's chief of staff, who had coordinated the action of the two divisions opposing the Austrian 2nd Corps, only now realised that Mortara had been occupied and that the troops that he was commanding had been cut off. He led a column made up of the Brigade "Regina" and other troops and attempted to reach the reserve division by moving through the villages to the south of the settlement. Here his soldiers were stopped by von Benedek and most of them (2,000 men) were captured. La Marmora and a few other men who were at the head of the column managed to escape the enemy and rejoined the forces of the reserve division, which was already retreating towards <a href="/wiki/Robbio" title="Robbio">Robbio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vercelli" title="Vercelli">Vercelli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This marked the end of the Battle of Mortara. The Austrians had committed 13,000 men, the Piedmontese around 7,000. The former had suffered 118 dead or wounded and the latter 121, but whereas 71 Austrians had fled, the Piedmontese had lost around 2,000 fled or captured. The most serious aspect of Charles Albert's defeat, however, was the rapid flight of the entire army, all the way to <a href="/wiki/Novara" title="Novara">Novara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Novara_(23_March_1849)"><span id="Battle_of_Novara_.2823_March_1849.29"></span>Battle of Novara (23 March 1849)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Battle of Novara (23 March 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novara_(1849)" title="Battle of Novara (1849)">Battle of Novara (1849)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forces_in_the_field_2">Forces in the field</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Forces in the field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Austrian army which continued its advance towards Vercelli and Novara on 23 March 1849 now had a notable numerical advantage: 5 Austrian Corps faced 5 Piedmontese divisions. The latter, which had all regrouped to protect Novara were arranged with the 3rd Division under Perrone to the left (southeast of Novara), the 2nd Division under Bes in the centre, and the 1st Division under Durando at right (south of Novara), with the 4th Division under the Duke of Genoa behind the 3rd Division and the reserve division under the Duke of Savoy behind the 1st Division. The whole Piedmontese force contained 45,000 infantry, 2,500 cavalry and 109 cannons. Two and a half divisions remained, uselessly, on the other side of the Po.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Austrian forces consisted of the 2nd Corps under d'Aspre, the 3rd Corps under Appel, and the reserve Corps under Wocher. The 4th Corps under Thurn, which was advancing on Vercelli with the 1st Corps under Wratislaw, was partially involved too. Radetzky's five Corps contained a total of 70,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry and 205 cannons.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_decisive_defeat_of_Charles_Albert">The decisive defeat of Charles Albert</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: The decisive defeat of Charles Albert"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg/220px-Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg/330px-Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg/440px-Novara_Villa_Mon_Repos_1849_Prina1863.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="417" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Novara. The fighting near the Villa Visconti, between the Bicocca and the farmhouse of the Cavallotta, as depicted by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Prina" title="Giuseppe Prina">Giuseppe Prina</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino_busto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino_busto.jpg/150px-Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino_busto.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino_busto.jpg/225px-Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino_busto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino_busto.jpg/300px-Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino_busto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ettore_Perrone_di_San_Martino" title="Ettore Perrone di San Martino">Ettore Perrone di San Martino</a>, commander of the Piedmontese 3rd Division, was motally wounded in the Battle of Novara.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wojciech_Chrzanowski.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Wojciech_Chrzanowski.PNG/150px-Wojciech_Chrzanowski.PNG" decoding="async" width="150" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Wojciech_Chrzanowski.PNG/225px-Wojciech_Chrzanowski.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Wojciech_Chrzanowski.PNG/300px-Wojciech_Chrzanowski.PNG 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>The Polish general <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Chrzanowski" title="Wojciech Chrzanowski">Wojciech Chrzanowski</a> commanded the Piedmontese army in the second campaign of the war, along with Charles Albert.</figcaption></figure> <p>The advance of the Austrian troops of the 2nd Corps was spotted at around 11 am from the bell tower of the village of Bicocca, around 2 km southeast of the centre of Novara. The morning was cold and wet. Konstantin d'Aspre immediately attacked with his men, but withdrew with heavy casualties. In the early afternoon, an attack by Archduke Albrecht's division was followed by a counterattack of the Piedmontese 3rd Division which was turned back in turn. At Bicocca, the Piedmontese attacked again and the Austrians were forced to pull back to the farmhouse of the Cavallotta (3 km southeast of the centre of Novara). At 2 pm there was a break in the fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reinforcements reached d'Aspre from the rear of his 2nd Corps and he attacked twice with these, bringing his troops almost all the way to Bicocca. Ettore Perrone di San Martino then attempted another counterattack, managing to stop the enemy advance, but suffering a fatal wound to the head in the process. At this point, the Duke of Genoa intervened with the 4th Division and the Austrians withdrew almost all the way to Cavallotta. At 3 pm, the Austrian 2nd Corps withdrew to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Olengo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Olengo (page does not exist)">Olengo</a> (4 km southeast of the centre of Novara).<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just as the Duke of Genoa was forcing the Austrian 2nd Corps to retreat, Chrzanowski ordered him to turn around, also instructing the 2nd Division under Bes to maintain a defensive attitude. This allowed the Austrian troops to reorganise. After an hour of quiet, the battle resumed at 4 pm. This time, the Austrian 3rd Corps attacked and, after an initial success, it was forced to pull back. Chrzanowski then attempted a counterattack with the 2nd Division supported by the 1st Division, but had to abandon it because of the threat from the Austrian 4th Corps, which had been recalled from its advance on Vercelli and was now moving in from the west.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, at Bicocca, the final, decisive Austrian attack was launched, while to the west the 4th Corps began to attack the Piedmontese forces in that area (portions of the 1st Division and of the reserves). Around 6 pm, the whole Piedmontese line was in crisis and allowed the enemy to occupy Bicocca. The Austrian vanguard pursued them to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbey_of_San_Nazzaro_della_Costa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abbey of San Nazzaro della Costa (page does not exist)">Abbey of San Nazzaro della Costa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbazia_di_San_Nazzaro_della_Costa" class="extiw" title="it:Abbazia di San Nazzaro della Costa">it</a>]</span>, 1 km from the walls of Novara. Here they met intense Piedmontese resistance led by the Duke of Genoa, which enabled the troops under Charles Albert to withdraw into the city in a relatively orderly manner.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Battle of Novara was the last and bloodiest battle of the First Italian War of Independence. On the Piedmontese side there were 578 dead, 1,405 wounded and 409 fled or captured. On the Austrian side, 410 were dead, 1,850 wounded, and 963 were captured or fled.<sup id="cite_ref-Pieri-311_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pieri-311-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vignale_Armistice_(23_–_24_March_1849)"><span id="Vignale_Armistice_.2823_.E2.80.93_24_March_1849.29"></span>Vignale Armistice (23 – 24 March 1849)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Vignale Armistice (23 – 24 March 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Incontro_di_Vignale.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Incontro_di_Vignale.JPG/220px-Incontro_di_Vignale.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Incontro_di_Vignale.JPG/330px-Incontro_di_Vignale.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Incontro_di_Vignale.JPG/440px-Incontro_di_Vignale.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2029" data-file-height="1905" /></a><figcaption>At Vignale on 24 March 1849, the new king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II loses his temper in front of Radetzky, upon reading the Austrian peace terms, as depicted in a fresco by <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Bressanin" title="Vittorio Emanuele Bressanin">Vittorio Emanuele Bressanin</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_San_Martino_della_Battaglia" title="Tower of San Martino della Battaglia">Tower of San Martino della Battaglia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Charles Albert asked the Austrians on what terms he could seek an armistice and they stated that they would demand the occupation of the <a href="/wiki/Lomellina" title="Lomellina">Lomellina</a> and Alessandria. At 9:15 pm on 23 March 1849, the king called a council of war, with Chrzanowski, Alessandro La Marmora, the Duke of Savoy, and the Duke of Genoa, as well as the king's two aides de campe, generals <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carlo_Emanuele_La_Marmora&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carlo Emanuele La Marmora (page does not exist)">Carlo Emanuele La Marmora</a> and Giacomo Durando. Everyone at the meeting spoke in negative terms about the possibility of resuming hostilities. At this point, Charles Albert declared that he intended to abdicate.<sup id="cite_ref-Pieri-311_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pieri-311-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That evening, at Novara, the soldiers, who were exhausted, disheartened, and starving as a result of chronic provisioning failures, caused numerous serious disturbances. During the night and the following morning, the soldiers were joined by locals and the situation degenerated into violence and looting.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 2 pm and 3 pm on 24 March 1849, at <a href="/wiki/Vignale" title="Vignale">Vignale</a>, 4 km north of Novara, the Duke of Savoy, who had become King Victor Emmanuel II met with Radetzky and agreed to the armistice. The Austrians forced him to agree that a force of 20,000 men would remain in Lomellina and that Alessandria would be occupied by them until the conclusion of a final peace, although they allowed a Piedmontese garrison to remain as well.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Armistice of Vignale was followed by the Peace of Milan on 6 August 1849, in which Piedmont-Sardinia was forced to pay an indemnity of 65 million francs to Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the following days, Radetzky decisively defeated the Lombard patriots by snuffing out the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Days_of_Brescia" title="Ten Days of Brescia">Ten Days of Brescia</a> (23 March – 1 April 1849) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_of_the_Piedmontese_defeat">Aftermath of the Piedmontese defeat</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Aftermath of the Piedmontese defeat"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The repercussions of the defeat at Novara reverberated throughout the whole of Italy. In Tuscany, the restoration took place spontaneously, when the moderate party recalled Grand Duke Leopold II. This did not prevent the Austrian 2nd Corps under D'Aspre from entering Tuscan territory and imposing the restoration by force at <a href="/wiki/Livorno" title="Livorno">Livorno</a>. This city had not accepted the decision made by the moderate party in the capital, <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, but was forced to give in after two days of bitter fighting (10–11 May 1849). Leopold II cautiously returned to Florence on 28 June. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom_of_Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Kingdom of Sardinia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Genoa" title="Revolt of Genoa">Revolt of Genoa</a></div> <p>In the Kingdom of Sardinia, <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, which had been an <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">independent republic</a> until its annexation by the House of Savoy 35 years earlier, revolted on 1 April 1849. Rumours spread through the city that the <a href="/wiki/Albertine_Statute" class="mw-redirect" title="Albertine Statute">Albertine Statute</a> was to be abolished and that Genoa and Alessandria were to be ceded to Austria as part of the peace agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a few hours, the rebels had overcome the Piedmontese garrison, but Alfonso La Marmora advanced with the 6th Division from Parma which had been recalled to suppress the riot. The rebels quickly surrendered. Nevertheless, to quash any thought of independence, La Marmora ordered the bombardment of the city and then an assault, followed by a sack. At dawn on 6 April, Genoa surrendered and an American ship took 450 Genoese into exile, including those most implicated in the revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austrian_invasion_of_the_Papal_States">Austrian invasion of the Papal States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Austrian invasion of the Papal States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonimo_-_Ugo_Bassi_condotto_al_patibolo_-_litografia_-_da._1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Anonimo_-_Ugo_Bassi_condotto_al_patibolo_-_litografia_-_da._1860.jpg/220px-Anonimo_-_Ugo_Bassi_condotto_al_patibolo_-_litografia_-_da._1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Anonimo_-_Ugo_Bassi_condotto_al_patibolo_-_litografia_-_da._1860.jpg/330px-Anonimo_-_Ugo_Bassi_condotto_al_patibolo_-_litografia_-_da._1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Anonimo_-_Ugo_Bassi_condotto_al_patibolo_-_litografia_-_da._1860.jpg/440px-Anonimo_-_Ugo_Bassi_condotto_al_patibolo_-_litografia_-_da._1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>Bologna: <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Bassi" title="Ugo Bassi">Ugo Bassi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Livraghi" title="Giovanni Livraghi">Giovanni Livraghi</a> are led to the gallows.</figcaption></figure> <p>Meanwhile, many cities of the Papal States in <a href="/wiki/Marche" title="Marche">Marche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romagna" title="Romagna">Romagna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emilia_(region_of_Italy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilia (region of Italy)">Emilia</a> had joined the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a>. These included <a href="/wiki/Ancona" title="Ancona">Ancona</a>, which had joined on 16 February, eleven days after the Republic's proclamation<sup id="cite_ref-Natalucci_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Natalucci-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a> which had already expelled the Austrians who had occupied the city on 8 August 1848.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman Republic had declared that the temporal power of the Church was abolished. Only then did Pius IX, from his place of exile in <a href="/wiki/Gaeta" title="Gaeta">Gaeta</a>, openly request armed intervention by the Austrians in the Papal State.<sup id="cite_ref-Natalucci_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Natalucci-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Austrian invasion began on 18 February 1849 with the occupation of <a href="/wiki/Ferrara" title="Ferrara">Ferrara</a>. Bologna and Ancona did not admit the occupying forces and were placed under siege; Bologna resisted for a week; Ancona for twenty five days. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Siege_of_Bologna_(8–16_May_1849)"><span id="Siege_of_Bologna_.288.E2.80.9316_May_1849.29"></span>Siege of Bologna (8–16 May 1849)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Siege of Bologna (8–16 May 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Austrian general <a href="/wiki/Franz_Graf_von_Wimpffen" title="Franz Graf von Wimpffen">Franz Graf von Wimpffen</a> advanced against Bologna first with two precious advantages compared to the earlier attack by Welden in July–August 1848: the Austrians no longer came as invaders, but "in the name of the Pope King" and he had 7,000 soldiers and 13 cannons with steady reinforcements available from the moment that Piedmont had been defeated. </p><p>On 8 May 1849, the assault of the city began. It was defended by around 2,000 men, led by the Anconan colonel <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Pichi" title="Angelo Pichi">Angelo Pichi</a>. On account of the strong resistance that they encountered, the Austrians stopped the attack and called in reinforcements. When these arrived on 14 May, the besieging force totaled 20,000 men with plenty of artillery, that began an intense bombardment which continued for 48 hours. On the morning of 16 May, an envoy sent by General Wimpffen was rebuffed by the people and the bombardment continued until the Bolognese surrendered at 2pm and the city was occupied.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 8 August, the Austrians executed <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Bassi" title="Ugo Bassi">Ugo Bassi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Livraghi" title="Giovanni Livraghi">Giovanni Livraghi</a>, two prominent leaders of the Roman Republic at Bologna.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Siege_of_Ancona_(25_May_–_21_June_1849)"><span id="Siege_of_Ancona_.2825_May_.E2.80.93_21_June_1849.29"></span>Siege of Ancona (25 May – 21 June 1849)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Siege of Ancona (25 May – 21 June 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antonio_Elia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Antonio_Elia.jpg/220px-Antonio_Elia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Antonio_Elia.jpg/330px-Antonio_Elia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Antonio_Elia.jpg/440px-Antonio_Elia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="987" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption>The execution of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Elia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Elia (page does not exist)">Antonio Elia</a> at Ancona</figcaption></figure> <p>The Austrians then marched on Ancona, which had joined the Roman Republic and had promised Garibaldi that it would provide concrete aid in the defence of the Republic. The Austrians encountered fierce resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The siege began on 25 May 1849. A total of around 5,000 Italians from the whole of <a href="/wiki/Marche" title="Marche">Marche</a> and from Lombardy joined in the defense of the city, against a besieging force of over 16,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government of the Roman Republic had placed the Bolognese colonel <a href="/wiki/Livio_Zambeccari" title="Livio Zambeccari">Livio Zambeccari</a> in charge of the fortress of Ancona. The poet <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Mercantini" title="Luigi Mercantini">Luigi Mercantini</a> was also among the defenders. The commander of the Austrian forces was Franz Graf von Wimpffen. </p><p>The siege was undertaken on land and sea simultaneously. After the arrival of reinforcements (the siege equipment and another 5,000 men) on 6 June, the Austrians began intense bombardment on 15 June. Two close associates of Garibaldi, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Elia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Elia (page does not exist)">Antonio Elia</a><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his son <a href="/w/index.php?title=Augusto_Elia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Augusto Elia (page does not exist)">Augusto Elia</a><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> distinguished themselves in the fighting. The young men had established the "Drappello della Morte" (Death Squad) which carried out a number of daring acts.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During one sortie from the wall to attack an Austrian encampment on 21 June, the captain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giovanni_Gervasoni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giovanni Gervasoni (page does not exist)">Giovanni Gervasoni</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crema,_Lombardy" title="Crema, Lombardy">Crema</a> was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the same day, after twenty-six days of fighting, Ancona was occupied by the Austrians, who conceded the <a href="/wiki/Honours_of_war" title="Honours of war">honours of war</a> to the defenders. During the subsequent military occupation of the city, Antonio Elia was executed as an example to the populace. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sicily_(March_–_15_May_1849)"><span id="Fall_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sicily_.28March_.E2.80.93_15_May_1849.29"></span>Fall of the Kingdom of Sicily (March – 15 May 1849)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Fall of the Kingdom of Sicily (March – 15 May 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catania_scontri_1848_-_LIS2A_aV_pag._378.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Catania_scontri_1848_-_LIS2A_aV_pag._378.JPG/220px-Catania_scontri_1848_-_LIS2A_aV_pag._378.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Catania_scontri_1848_-_LIS2A_aV_pag._378.JPG/330px-Catania_scontri_1848_-_LIS2A_aV_pag._378.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Catania_scontri_1848_-_LIS2A_aV_pag._378.JPG/440px-Catania_scontri_1848_-_LIS2A_aV_pag._378.JPG 2x" data-file-width="693" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Clashes between Bourbon troops and Sicilian militiamen at <a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catania</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In Sicily, hostilities had resumed in March 1849. General Filangieri, Prince of Satriano denounced the armistice of October and the Bourbon advance against the Sicilian militias set out from the <a href="/wiki/Real_Cittadella" title="Real Cittadella">Real Cittadella</a> in <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a>. The Sicilians under Mierosławski<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> numbered around 6,000 and could do little against the 13,500 men under Filangieri.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 7 April, after fierce fighting, these troops occupied <a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catania</a>. On 14 April the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_parliament&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sicilian parliament (page does not exist)">Sicilian parliament</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a> voted to accept the proposal of King Ferdinand II in the decree of 28 February which they had previously refused.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a statute inspired by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_constitution_of_1812&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sicilian constitution of 1812 (page does not exist)">Sicilian constitution of 1812</a>, including a Sicilian parliament with a chamber of peers and a chamber of commons, as well as the appointment of a viceroy.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the war continued. On 5 May, the Neapolitan troops reached <a href="/wiki/Bagheria" title="Bagheria">Bagheria</a>, the port of the capital, where there was some fighting between 8 May and 10 May.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> News then arrived that the king had granted an amnesty and on 15 May 1849, the Bourbon troops entered Palermo,<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the 43 Sicilian leaders, who were excluded from the armistice, fled into exile in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General Filangieri became governor of Sicily, with the title of Lieutenant general of the King, which he retained until 1855. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_Roman_Republic_(24_April_–_2_July_1849)"><span id="End_of_the_Roman_Republic_.2824_April_.E2.80.93_2_July_1849.29"></span>End of the Roman Republic (24 April – 2 July 1849)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: End of the Roman Republic (24 April – 2 July 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Garibaldi_assedio_di_Roma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_assedio_di_Roma.jpg/220px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_assedio_di_Roma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_assedio_di_Roma.jpg/330px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_assedio_di_Roma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_assedio_di_Roma.jpg/440px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_assedio_di_Roma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> (in white) defends Rome from French troops. Painting by <a href="/wiki/George_Housman_Thomas" title="George Housman Thomas">George Housman Thomas</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>For the forces of restoration, the problem of the Roman Republic was not yet resolved, since Rome under the triumvirate of <a href="/wiki/Aurelio_Saffi" title="Aurelio Saffi">Aurelio Saffi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Armellini" title="Carlo Armellini">Carlo Armellini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> still resisted. For Austria, which was still tied up with the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian revolution</a>, occupying Rome as well was too onerous. In <a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">France</a> however, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Louis Napoleon</a> feared the expansion of Austrian influence in Italy and wanted to win the loyalty of France's Catholics, so he organised an expedition to restore Pius IX to the papal throne.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 24 April 1849, a French army led by general <a href="/wiki/Charles_Oudinot" title="Charles Oudinot">Charles Oudinot</a> disembarked at <a href="/wiki/Civitavecchia" title="Civitavecchia">Civitavecchia</a>. Oudinot attempted to take Rome on 30 April, but was soundly defeated by Garibaldi. In the meantime, an expeditionary force from Naples had invaded southern <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a>, advancing to <a href="/wiki/Frascati" title="Frascati">Frascati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Lazio" title="Tivoli, Lazio">Tivoli</a>, but it too was stopped by Garibaldi, in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Palestrina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Palestrina (page does not exist)">Battle of Palestrina</a> on 9 May and rebuffed for good in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Velletri_(1849)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Velletri (1849) (page does not exist)">Battle of Velletri</a> on 19 May. </p><p>Only after the arrival of 30,000 reinforcements did Oudinot reopen hostilities on 3 June, launching a surprise attack on the Romans at <a href="/wiki/Villa_Pamphili" class="mw-redirect" title="Villa Pamphili">Villa Pamphili</a> (he had sworn to maintain a truce until 4 June). After they took Villa Pamphili, the French deployed their artillery and began to bombard Rome. Fighting continued until 1 July and the day after that, the Roman Republic surrendered. Pius IX returned to Rome on 12 April 1850 and cancelled the constitution that he had conceded in March 1849. </p><p>Garibaldi left Rome with a small group of volunteers a little before the capture of the city in a vain attempt to reach Venice. Although pursued by the Austrians, he managed to reach Piedmontese territory, where he was expelled on 16 September 1849. He thus began his second exile, which would see him visit America and then Asia and Australia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Siege_and_fall_of_Venice_(28_April_–_22_August_1849)"><span id="Siege_and_fall_of_Venice_.2828_April_.E2.80.93_22_August_1849.29"></span>Siege and fall of Venice (28 April – 22 August 1849)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Siege and fall of Venice (28 April – 22 August 1849)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assedio_Venezia_Chiesa_San_Geremia_(1849).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Assedio_Venezia_Chiesa_San_Geremia_%281849%29.jpg/220px-Assedio_Venezia_Chiesa_San_Geremia_%281849%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Assedio_Venezia_Chiesa_San_Geremia_%281849%29.jpg/330px-Assedio_Venezia_Chiesa_San_Geremia_%281849%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Assedio_Venezia_Chiesa_San_Geremia_%281849%29.jpg/440px-Assedio_Venezia_Chiesa_San_Geremia_%281849%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/San_Geremia" title="San Geremia">San Geremia</a> in Venice, struck by Austrian artillery in 1849. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Querena" title="Luigi Querena">Luigi Querena</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg/150px-Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg/225px-Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg/300px-Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1375" /></a><figcaption>General <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After he had suppressed the Ten Days of Brescia, General Julius Jacob von Haynau advanced on Venice with an army of 30,000 men in April 1849. In Venice, <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a> had gathered the modest forces of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a> and, with the agreement of <a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a>, he had arranged them to resist to the bitter end.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>General Haynau focused on <a href="/wiki/Marghera" title="Marghera">Marghera</a>, where a strong Venetian garrison of around 2,000 men commanded by the Neapolitan colonel <a href="/w/index.php?title=Girolamo_Cal%C3%A0_Ulloa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Girolamo Calà Ulloa (page does not exist)">Girolamo Calà Ulloa</a> was stationed. On 28 April, he placed the fort of Marghera under siege and on 4 May the bombardment began. Marghera resisted for twenty-two days. On 26 May, the defenders escaped back to Venice.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once Marghera had fallen, the other Venetian strongholds on the mainland no longer had any purpose and they were all evacuated. In June, von Haynau departed for <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)">Hungary</a> to suppress the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">revolution</a> there and was replaced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_von_Thurn_und_Valsassina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg von Thurn und Valsassina (page does not exist)">Georg von Thurn und Valsassina</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_von_Thurn_und_Valsassina" class="extiw" title="de:Georg von Thurn und Valsassina">de</a>]</span>. There were numerous attacks and counter-attacks around Marghera and Venice, in which Colonel <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cesare_Rosaroll&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cesare Rosaroll (page does not exist)">Cesare Rosaroll</a>, one of the Neapolitan officers who had disobeyed Ferdinand II's order to retreat was among the dead.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-232_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-232-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>12 July the Austrians launched hot air balloons with bombs attached to them from a frigate in the Venetian lagoon, but the wind blew in such a way that none of them hit the city.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artillery bombardment of Venice began on 28 July. The defenders were short of food and on 1 August, the Lombard Major <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Sirtori" title="Giuseppe Sirtori">Giuseppe Sirtori</a> carried out a raid on the mainland to get flour and livestock. But another raid carried out a few days later had to be abandoned without any success. Meanwhile, the news of events elsewhere in Italy had sapped the morale of the defenders, who were also suffering from an outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>. By 22 August, the city had been reduced to extremes: 2,788 Venetians had died of cholera. Manin was therefore forced to agree to surrender. Two days later, the Austrians entered Venice. With the end of the Siege of Venice, the last holdout of the Italian cause was defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-Giglio-232_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giglio-232-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/48px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/64px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_war_and_popular_war" title="Royal war and popular war">Royal war and popular war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic (19th century)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Rome-1849">"Siege of Rome | Summary | Britannica"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Siege+of+Rome+%26%23124%3B+Summary+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FSiege-of-Rome-1849&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwight1895" class="citation book cs1">Dwight, Theodore (1895). <i>The Roman Republic of 1849: With Accounts of the Inquisition, and the Siege of Rome, And Biographical Sketches</i>. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Republic+of+1849%3A+With+Accounts+of+the+Inquisition%2C+and+the+Siege+of+Rome%2C+And+Biographical+Sketches&rft.pages=18&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Dwight&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Micheal_Clodfelter_2017._Page_178-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Micheal_Clodfelter_2017._Page_178_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Micheal_Clodfelter_2017._Page_178_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2017" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). <i>Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000</i> (4th ed.). p. 178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Reference+to+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1500%E2%80%932000&rft.pages=178&rft.edition=4th&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanger1969" class="citation book cs1">Langer, William K. (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalsocialu00lang"><i>Political and Social Upheaval, 1832–1852</i></a></span>. New York, Harper & Row. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalsocialu00lang/page/371">371–386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+and+Social+Upheaval%2C+1832%E2%80%931852&rft.pages=371-386&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Langer&rft.aufirst=William+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalsocialu00lang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1952" class="citation book cs1">Robertson, Priscilla (1952). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revolutionsof18400robe"><i>Revolutions of 1848: a social history</i></a></span>. Princeton, Princeton University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revolutionsof18400robe/page/309">309–401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutions+of+1848%3A+a+social+history&rft.pages=309-401&rft.pub=Princeton%2C+Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Priscilla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frevolutionsof18400robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, pp. 101–102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Avery, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/risorgimento/2.html">The First Italian War of Independence (1848–49) – A Military History</a> The Victorian Web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, p. 126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cita|Pieri|p._198-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cita|Pieri|p._198_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cita|Pieri|p._198_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 198</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 207–208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, p. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, pp. 165–166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, p. 101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 374–375</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 157</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, pp. 157–158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 453</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, pp. 137–138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, pp. 159, 175–176</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, p. 139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 196</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Giglio-166-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-166_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-166_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 199–200, 202</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 202–203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The line of the arc was: Valeggio-<a href="/wiki/Custoza" title="Custoza">Custoza</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sommacampagna" title="Sommacampagna">Sommacampagna</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sona,_Veneto" title="Sona, Veneto">Sona</a>-Sandrà-Colà. See <a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 204, 209</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 210–211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lucio_Villari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lucio Villari (page does not exist)">Lucio Villari</a>, <i>Il Risorgimento</i>, vol. 4, Bari, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 179</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 211–212</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 212–213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 214–215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 215–216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 217–218</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 369–370</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 371–373</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 374</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 376–378</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 379–380</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 380</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 382–383</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 378, 383–384</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 384–385</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 451</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 454</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Giglio-181-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-181_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-181_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFabris-I">Fabris-I</a>, pp. 73–74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, pp. 119–120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 220</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFabris-II">Fabris-II</a>, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, pp. 182–183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 220–221</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 221</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 390–397</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 184</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 222–223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 224</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 385–387</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 387</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 387–388</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 388–389</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 228</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 228–229, 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 233–234</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 235</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 197</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 235–236</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 236</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 236–237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 239–241</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 241–242</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Giglio-201-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-201_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-201_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 243</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 202</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 244</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 245</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 244–246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 246–247</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 248–249</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 249</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harvnb|Pieri|pp=249–250-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harvnb|Pieri|pp=249–250_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harvnb|Pieri|pp=249–250_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 249–250</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 250</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 251</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 252–253</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 254–256</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 256–257</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 257–258</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 260–261</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 261–263, 334</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 335–336</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, pp. 161–162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 337</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Giglio-208-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-208_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-208_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">AA.VV. 'Dizionario della musica e dei musicisti. I titoli e i personaggi', Torino, Utet, 1999, Vol II, p. 629.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, pp. 208–209</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 339</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Giglio-209-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-209_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-209_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 209</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 350–354</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Bugeaud" title="Thomas Robert Bugeaud">Thomas Robert Bugeaud</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Changarnier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas Changarnier (page does not exist)">Nicholas Changarnier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie-Alphonse_Bedeau" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie-Alphonse Bedeau">Marie-Alphonse Bedeau</a> were proposed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 264–280</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 280–282</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 286–288</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On 20 March the division was located between <a href="/wiki/Casteggio" title="Casteggio">Casteggio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbianello" title="Barbianello">Barbianello</a> and the Po River</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 287–288</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 288</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 291</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 292</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 293</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pieri-294-296-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pieri-294-296_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pieri-294-296_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 293–294</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 294–296</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 297–298</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 298</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 302–303</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 304</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 305</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 305–306</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 307–308</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 309–310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pieri-311-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pieri-311_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pieri-311_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 312</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, pp. 311–312; <a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 224</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Clark2013" class="citation book cs1">M. Clark (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lW3aAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA55"><i>The Italian Risorgimento</i></a>. Routledge. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317862642" title="Special:BookSources/9781317862642"><bdi>9781317862642</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Italian+Risorgimento&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781317862642&rft.au=M.+Clark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlW3aAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, pp. 203–204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, pp. 205–206</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Natalucci-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Natalucci_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natalucci_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mario Natalucci, <i>Ancona attraverso i secoli</i>, Unione arti grafiche Città di Castello (1960)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vincenzo Peri, <i>Cronaca dell'8 agosto 1848 in Bologna: con documenti officiali</i>, Regia Tipografia, 1866; Adolfo Marangoni, <i>Bologna dall'8 Agosto 1848 all'8 Agosto 1849</i>, L. Cappelli, (1921); <i>Bologna</i>, Touring Editore, (2004) p. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 422</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adolfo Marangoni, <i>Bologna dall'8 Agosto 1848 all'8 Agosto 1849</i>, L. Cappelli (1921)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ancona was awarded the gold medal for military valour in 1899: A. Gustavo Morelli, <i>Per la difesa d'Ancona nel cinquantenario (1849–1899): discorsi</i> A.G. Morelli, 1899</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 434 But according to another source (<i>Le cento città</i> – n. 43 [2011]) there were 12,000 Austrians.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giuseppe Garibaldi, <i>Epistolario</i>, Istituto per la storia del risorgimento italiano, (2008) p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Donna_Gabaccia" title="Donna Gabaccia">Donna R. Gabaccia</a>, Fraser Ottanelli, <i>Italian Workers of the World: Labor Migration and the Formation of Multiethnic States</i>, University of Illinois Press (2001) p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Augusto Elia, <i>Note autobiografiche e storiche di un Garibaldino</i>, Zanichelli, (1898)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mario Natalucci, <i>Ancona attraverso i secoli: Dal periodo napoleonico al nostri glorni</i>, Unione arti grafiche (1960).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francesco Sforza Benvenuti, <i>Storia di Crema, Volume 2</i> p. 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ludwik-mieroslawski/"><i>Ludwik Mieroslawski</i>, in Enciclopedia Treccani</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There were "12,916 infantrymen, 468 officer, 40 cannons and 610 cavalry". Filangieri Fieschi Ravaschieri, <i>Il generale Carlo Filangieri, principe di Satriano e duca di Taormina</i> (Treves, Milano, 1902) p. 207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There were 55 votes in favour and 33 against. Francesco Crispi, "Ultimi casi della rivoluzione siciliana esposti con documenti da un testimone oculare", in <i>Scritti e discorsi politici</i>, Unione cooperative editrice (1890)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ferdinando-ii-di-borbone-re-delle-due-sicilie_(Dizionario-Biografico)"><i>Ferdinando II di Borbone</i>, in Dizionario biografico Treccani</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WQH5N7lso90C&q=1849">Harold Acton, <i>Gli ultimi Borboni di Napoli (1825–1861)</i> (Giunti, 1997) p. 320</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.150anni.it/webi/index.php?s=21&wid=1166">www.150anni.it</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giuseppe-la-masa_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/"><i>Giuseppe La Masa</i>, in Dizionario biografico Treccani</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, pp. 231–232</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Giglio-232-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-232_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giglio-232_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiglio">Giglio</a>, p. 232</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPieri">Pieri</a>, p. 411</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScardigli">Scardigli</a>, pp. 226–227</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFabris-I" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Fabris, Cecilio (1898). <i>Gli avvenimenti militari del 1848 e 1849</i>. Vol. I, Part II. Turin: Roux Frassati.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gli+avvenimenti+militari+del+1848+e+1849&rft.place=Turin&rft.pub=Roux+Frassati&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Fabris&rft.aufirst=Cecilio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFabris-II" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Fabris, Cecilio (1898). <i>Gli avvenimenti militari del 1848 e 1849</i>. Vol. I, Part III. Turin: Roux Frassati.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gli+avvenimenti+militari+del+1848+e+1849&rft.place=Turin&rft.pub=Roux+Frassati&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Fabris&rft.aufirst=Cecilio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiglio" class="citation book cs1">Giglio, Vittorio (1948). <i>Il Risorgimento nelle sue fasi di guerra</i>. Vol. I. Milan: Vallardi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+Risorgimento+nelle+sue+fasi+di+guerra&rft.place=Milan&rft.pub=Vallardi&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Giglio&rft.aufirst=Vittorio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPieri" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Piero_Pieri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Piero Pieri (page does not exist)">Pieri, Piero</a> (1962). <i>Storia militare del Risorgimento</i>. Turin: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storia+militare+del+Risorgimento&rft.place=Turin&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Pieri&rft.aufirst=Piero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScardigli" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marco_Scardigli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marco Scardigli (page does not exist)">Scardigli, Marco</a> (2011). <i>Le grandi battaglie del Risorgimento</i>. Milan: Rizzoli. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-17-04611-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-17-04611-4"><bdi>978-88-17-04611-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+grandi+battaglie+del+Risorgimento&rft.place=Milan&rft.pub=Rizzoli&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-88-17-04611-4&rft.aulast=Scardigli&rft.aufirst=Marco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Italian+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Orazio Boggio Marzet, Paolo Cirri, Mario E. Villa (editors), <i>La prima guerra d'indipendenza vista da un soldato. Le lettere del biellese Pietro Antonio Boggio Bertinet</i>, Interlinea, Novara, 2005.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebio_Bava" title="Eusebio Bava">Eusebio Bava</a>, <i>Relazione delle operazioni militari dirette dal generale Bava comandante il primo corpo d'armata in Lombardia nel 1848. Con documenti e piani</i>, Cassone, Turin, 1848.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Carlo Cattaneo</a>, <i>Dell'insurrezione di Milano nel 1848 e della successiva guerra</i>, Tipografia della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, 1849.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Morozzo_Della_Rocca" title="Enrico Morozzo Della Rocca">Enrico Morozzo Della Rocca</a>, <i>Autobiografia di un veterano. Ricordi storici e aneddotici</i>, Zanichelli, Bologna, 1897.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a>, <i>Delle rivoluzioni e delle guerre d'Italia nel 1847, 1848, 1849</i>, Arnaldi, Turin, 1850.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Pisacane" title="Carlo Pisacane">Carlo Pisacane</a>, <i>Guerra combattuta in Italia negli anni 1848–49</i>, Pavesi, Genoa, 1851. Critical edition: Edizioni Avanti!, Milano, 1961.</li> <li>Historical Division of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_General_Staff" title="Austro-Hungarian General Staff">Austrian General Staff</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/derfeldzugderst00unkngoog"><i>Der Feldzug der oesterreichischen Armee in Italien im Jahre 1848</i></a>, Vienna, 1852, I-IV Abschnitt.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Albert of Sardinia">Charles Albert of Sardinia</a>, <i>Memorie ed osservazioni sulla guerra dell'indipendenza d'Italia, raccolte da un ufficiale piemontese</i>, Stamperia Reale, Turin, 1848 (immediately withdrawn from circulation).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Girolamo_Cal%C3%A0_Ulloa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Girolamo Calà Ulloa (page does not exist)">Girolamo Calà Ulloa</a>, <i>Guerre de l'indépendance italienne en 1848 et en 1849</i>, Paris, 1859.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Paolo_Perez&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francesco Paolo Perez (page does not exist)">Francesco Paolo Perez</a>, <i>La rivoluzione siciliana del 1848 considerata nelle sue ragioni e nei suoi rapporti con la rivoluzione europea</i>, Turin, 1849.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasquale_Calvi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasquale Calvi (page does not exist)">Pasquale Calvi</a>, <i>Memorie storiche e critiche della rivoluzione siciliana del 1848</i>, London, 1851</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_secondary_sources">Other secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Other secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Acton, Harold. <i>The Last Bourbons of Naples</i>, Methuen, 1961.</li> <li>Barone, Enrico. "Le campagne per l'indipendenza e l'Unità d'Italia (1848–49, 1859, 1866)" in <i>Opera omnia</i>, edited by the Historic Office of the <a href="/wiki/Army_Staff_(Italy)" title="Army Staff (Italy)">General Staff</a>, Turin, 1930.</li> <li>Berkeley, G. F.-H. <i>Italy in the Making January 1st 1848 to November 16th 1848</i> (3 vol. 1940); 542pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521074290/">excerpt vol 3</a></li> <li>Coppa, Frank J. <i>The origins of the Italian wars of independence</i> (1992).</li> <li>Langer, William K. <i> Political and Social Upheaval, 1832–1852</i> (1969) pp 371–86.</li> <li>Lucarelli, Giuliano. <i>Lo sconcertante Duca di Lucca, Carlo Ludovico di Borbone-Parma</i>, editore Maria Pacini Fazzi, Lucca 1986.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Mack Smith, Denis</a>, <i>Modern Italy: A Political History</i> (University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, 1997).</li> <li>Robertson, Priscilla. <i>Revolutions of 1848: a social history</i> (1952). pp 309–401.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0265691419853481">Šedivý, M. (2019). The Path to the Austro-Sardinian War: The Post-Napoleonic States System and the End of Peace in Europe in 1848. European History Quarterly, 49(3), 367–385.</a></li> <li>Trevelyan, George Macaulay. <i>Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic</i> (1907) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/garibaldisdefen05trevgoog#page/n6/mode/1up">online free</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Italian_War_of_Independence&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:First_Italian_War_of_Independence" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:First Italian War of Independence">First Italian War of Independence</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://omniatlas.com/maps/europe/18480411/">Map of Europe and the Mediterranean during the First Italian War of Independence (omniatlas.com)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Unification_of_Italy_(Risorgimento)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Risorgimento" title="Template:Risorgimento"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Risorgimento" title="Template talk:Risorgimento"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Risorgimento" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Risorgimento"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Unification_of_Italy_(Risorgimento)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy (<i>Risorgimento</i>)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Pre-unitary states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (<a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Parma">Duchy of Parma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_(Baldassare_Verazzi).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Five Days of Milan"><img alt="Five Days of Milan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/150px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/225px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/300px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="2583" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Italian unification">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rimini_Proclamation" title="Rimini Proclamation">Rimini Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonari" title="Carbonari">Carbonari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_during_the_1820s" title="Revolutions during the 1820s">Revolutions during the 1820s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">Revolutions of 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Italy_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Italy (historical)">Young Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Guelphism" title="Neo-Guelphism">Neo-Guelphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrilatero" title="Quadrilatero">Quadrilatero</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Five Days of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mestre" title="Battle of Mestre">Sortie on Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">Sicilian revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Days_of_Brescia" title="Ten Days of Brescia">Ten Days of Brescia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belfiore_martyrs" title="Belfiore martyrs">Belfiore martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_War#Piedmontese_involvement" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plombi%C3%A8res_Agreement" title="Plombières Agreement">Plombières Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_Garibaldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictatorship of Garibaldi">Dictatorship of Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigandage_in_Southern_Italy_after_1861" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861">Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Question">Roman Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Guarantees" title="Law of Guarantees">Law of Guarantees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Italian entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Regency_of_Carnaro" title="Italian Regency of Carnaro">Impresa di Fiume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cockade_of_Italy" title="Cockade of Italy">Cockade of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag of Italy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massimo_d%27Azeglio" title="Massimo d'Azeglio">Massimo d'Azeglio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Bertani" title="Agostino Bertani">Agostino Bertani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celso_Ceretti" title="Celso Ceretti">Celso Ceretti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Confalonieri" title="Federico Confalonieri">Federico Confalonieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi">Francesco Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli" title="Bettino Ricasoli">Bettino Ricasoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelio_Saffi" title="Aurelio Saffi">Aurelio Saffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annibale_Santorre_di_Rossi_de_Pomarolo,_Count_of_Santarosa" title="Annibale Santorre di Rossi de Pomarolo, Count of Santarosa">Annibale Santore di Santarosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruggero_Settimo" title="Ruggero Settimo">Ruggero Settimo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature and philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrivabene" title="Giovanni Arrivabene">Giovanni Arrivabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Balbo" title="Cesare Balbo">Cesare Balbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Carlo Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felice_Cavallotti" title="Felice Cavallotti">Felice Cavallotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Cuoco" title="Vincenzo Cuoco">Vincenzo Cuoco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Ferrari_(philosopher)" title="Giuseppe Ferrari (philosopher)">Giuseppe Ferrari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gioberti" title="Vincenzo Gioberti">Vincenzo Gioberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Domenico_Guerrazzi" title="Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi">Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Lomonaco" title="Francesco Lomonaco">Francesco Lomonaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goffredo_Mameli" title="Goffredo Mameli">Goffredo Mameli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ippolito_Nievo" title="Ippolito Nievo">Ippolito Nievo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Pellico" title="Silvio Pellico">Silvio Pellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Pisacane" title="Carlo Pisacane">Carlo Pisacane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gian_Domenico_Romagnosi" title="Gian Domenico Romagnosi">Gian Domenico Romagnosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Rosmini" title="Antonio Rosmini">Antonio Rosmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Salfi" title="Francesco Saverio Salfi">Francesco Saverio Salfi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Opponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Francis II of the Two Sicilies">Francis II of the Two Sicilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Radetzky_von_Radetz" title="Joseph Radetzky von Radetz">Joseph Radetzky von Radetz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Risorgimento,_Bologna" title="Museum of the Risorgimento, Bologna">Museum of the Risorgimento (Bologna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Risorgimento_(Milan)" title="Museum of the Risorgimento (Milan)">Museum of the Risorgimento (Milan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Risorgimento_(Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of the Risorgimento (Rome)">Museum of the Risorgimento (Rome)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Risorgimento_(Turin)" title="Museum of the Risorgimento (Turin)">Museum of the Risorgimento (Turin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricolour_Flag_Museum" title="Tricolour Flag Museum">Tricolour Flag Museum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National days</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniversary_of_the_Unification_of_Italy" title="Anniversary of the Unification of Italy">Anniversary of the Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Unity_and_Armed_Forces_Day" title="National Unity and Armed Forces Day">National Unity and Armed Forces Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altare_della_Patria" class="mw-redirect" title="Altare della Patria">Altare della Patria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshirts_(Italy)" title="Redshirts (Italy)">Redshirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Rome">Third Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Italy_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italy_topics" title="Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italy_topics" title="Template talk:Italy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italy_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Italy" title="Outline of Italy">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline of Italian history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Italy" title="Neolithic Italy">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinaldone_culture" title="Rinaldone culture">Rinaldone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_culture" title="Apennine culture">Apennine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latial_culture" title="Latial culture">Latial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Ancient peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapians" title="Messapians">Messapians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li>Italy under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">the Sardinian Judicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombard League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Napoleonic Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Late modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Monarchy and the World Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italian geographical region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Italy" title="Climate of Italy">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Italy" title="Fauna of Italy">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Italy" title="List of mountains in Italy">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_foothills" title="Alpine foothills">Prealps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy" title="Volcanism of Italy">Volcanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Italy" title="List of volcanoes in Italy">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Italy" title="List of beaches in Italy">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_Italy" title="List of canals in Italy">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_Italy" title="List of caves in Italy">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Italy" title="List of earthquakes in Italy">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Italy" title="List of islands of Italy">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Italy" title="List of lakes of Italy">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Italy" title="List of national parks of Italy">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Italy" title="List of regional parks of Italy">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Italy" title="List of rivers of Italy">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Italy" title="List of valleys of Italy">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Italy" title="Politics of Italy">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Italy" title="Elections in Italy">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Italy" title="Government of Italy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Italy" title="Human rights in Italy">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Italy">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Italy" title="Law enforcement in Italy">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces" title="Italian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Italy" title="List of political parties in Italy">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Italy" title="List of presidents of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Italy)" title="Council of Ministers (Italy)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Italy" title="Regions of Italy">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_cities_of_Italy" title="Metropolitan cities of Italy">Metropolitan cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Italy" title="List of cities in Italy">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">Comune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Italy" title="List of municipalities of Italy">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_intelligence_agencies" title="Italian intelligence agencies">Security and intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Italian regions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_brands" title="List of Italian brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Italy" title="Energy in Italy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Italy" title="List of airports in Italy">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Italy" title="Rail transport in Italy">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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