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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <p>Official communications in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">imperial China</a>, the era which lasted from the 221 BC until AD 1912, required predictable forms and means. Documents flowed down from the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor</a> to officials, from officials to the emperor, from one part of the bureaucracy to others, and from the emperor or his officials to the people. These documents, especially <a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_the_throne" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to the throne">memorials to the throne</a>, were preserved in collections which became more voluminous with each passing dynasty and make the Chinese historical record extraordinarily rich. </p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Order_Presented_to_Yue_Fei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Imperial_Order_Presented_to_Yue_Fei.jpg/300px-Imperial_Order_Presented_to_Yue_Fei.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Imperial_Order_Presented_to_Yue_Fei.jpg/450px-Imperial_Order_Presented_to_Yue_Fei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Imperial_Order_Presented_to_Yue_Fei.jpg/600px-Imperial_Order_Presented_to_Yue_Fei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1992" data-file-height="900"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gaozong of Song">Emperor Gaozong</a>'s imperial decree to General <a href="/wiki/Yue_Fei" title="Yue Fei">Yue Fei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Palace_Museum" title="National Palace Museum">National Palace Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>This article briefly describes the major forms and types of communication going up to and down from the emperor. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Edicts,_orders,_and_proclamations_to_the_people"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Edicts, orders, and proclamations to the people</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Memorials"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Memorials</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Edicts,_orders,_and_proclamations_to_the_people"><span id="Edicts.2C_orders.2C_and_proclamations_to_the_people"></span>Edicts, orders, and proclamations to the people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Official_communications_in_imperial_China&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Edicts, orders, and proclamations to the people" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg/220px-Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1259" data-file-height="900"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 157px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg/220px-Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="157" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg/330px-Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg/440px-Letter_on_Government_Affairs_-_Zhu_Xi.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a>'s letter (1194) instructing a subordinate official on local government matters after he stepped down as Administrator of <a href="/wiki/Tanzhou_(in_modern_Hunan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanzhou (in modern Hunan)">Tanzhou</a> for reappointment at the imperial court</figcaption></figure> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a>, the emperor's edicts had the force of law. By the time the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> established the basic patterns of bureaucracy, <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_dynasty#Roles,_rights,_and_responsibilities" title="Government of the Han dynasty">edicts or commands</a> could be issued either by the emperor or in the emperor's name by the proper official or unit of the government. Important edicts were carved on stone tablets for public inspection. One modern scholar counted more than 175 different terms for top down commands, orders, edicts, and such.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Edicts formed a recognized category of prose writing. The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Yao_Nai" title="Yao Nai">Yao Nai</a> ranked "Edicts and orders" (Zhao-ling) as one of the thirteen categories of prose writing, citing prototypes which went back to the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Shujing" class="mw-redirect" title="Shujing">Book of History</a></i>. Han dynasty edicts, sometimes actually written by high officials in the name of the emperor, were known for their literary quality. In later dynasties, both emperors and officials who wrote in the emperor's name published collections of edicts.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The history of China features a range of famous edicts and instructions. Here are examples in chronological order: </p> <ul><li>An edict issued in 213 BC by <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> ordered the <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">burning of books and burying of scholars</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BB%BA%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E8%AF%8F" class="extiw" title="zh:建国号诏">Edict on the Proclamation of the Dynastic Name</a> (建國號詔) issued in 1271 by <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Emperor Shizu</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> promulgated the official dynastic name of "Great Yuan", officially established the Yuan dynasty as a Chinese dynasty, and explicitly claimed political succession from the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yuan_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yuan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> issued a series of Great Warnings (御製大誥) which informed his people and his bureaucracy of their failings and his instructions to correct them.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Also issued by the Hongwu Emperor, the <a href="/wiki/Huang-Ming_Zuxun" title="Huang-Ming Zuxun">Instructions of the Ancestor</a> was effectively an edict directed at his descendants.</li> <li>The Hongwu Emperor also issued the Six Maxims (聖諭六言) which instructed his subjects:</li></ul> <blockquote><p>Treat your parents with piety; respect your elders and superiors; live at peace in your villages; instruct your children and grandchildren; make your living peacefully; commit no wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> of the Qing dynasty issued the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict</a> in 1670 to educate his subjects on <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> principles.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was to be posted in every village and read periodically to the assembled population. The edict was later expanded upon by the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> in 1724 and distributed in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a> languages.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> issued an edict to <a href="/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="George III of the United Kingdom">George III of the United Kingdom</a> in 1793 instructing him that England had nothing of value to offer.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Memorials">Memorials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Official_communications_in_imperial_China&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Memorials" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_throne" title="Memorial to the throne">Memorial to the throne</a></div> <p>A <b>memorial</b>, most commonly <i>zouyi</i>, was the most important form of document sent by an official to the emperor. In the early dynasties, the terms and formats of the memorial were fluid, but by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, codes and statutes specified what terminology could be used by what level of official in what particular type of document dealing with what particular type of problem. Criminal codes specified punishments for mistranscriptions or using a <a href="/wiki/Naming_taboo" title="Naming taboo">character that was forbidden because it was used in one of the emperor's names</a>. The emperor might reply at length, perhaps dictating a rescript in response. More often he made a notation in the margin in vermilion ink (which only the emperor could use) stating his wishes. Or he might simply write "forward to the proper ministry," "noted," or use his brush to make a circle, the equivalent of a checkmark, to indicate that he had read the document.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1370, the <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hongwu emperor">Hongwu emperor</a> established an office to organize the flow of memorials, which could come from both officials and commoners, and this became the Office of Transmission <i>(Tongzheng si)</i>. The staff copied each memorial received, and forwarded the original to the emperor. The emperor once severely scolded a director of the office for failing to report several memorials: "Stability depends on superior and inferior communicating; there is none when they do not. From ancient times, many a state has fallen because a ruler did not know the affairs of the people."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYuMcHWWbXqMCqmemorialpgPA256_33-34]_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidYuMcHWWbXqMCqmemorialpgPA256_33-34%5D-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> By the height of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> in the 18th century, memorials from bureaucrats at the central, provincial, and county level supplied the emperors (and modern historians) with personnel evaluations, crop reports, prices in local markets, weather predictions, intelligence on social affairs, and any other matter of possible interest.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg/300px-%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="99" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="9585" data-file-height="3161"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 99px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg/300px-%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="99" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg/450px-%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg/600px-%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E5%B9%B4%E5%85%A9%E5%BB%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%9D%A3%E6%A5%8A%E7%90%B3%E9%97%9C%E6%96%BC%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E8%A1%8C%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8F%E6%8A%98.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Folding memorial from an official to the Kangxi Emperor</figcaption></figure><p>Memorials were transported by government couriers and then copied and summarized by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat">Grand Secretariat</a>, which itself had been perfected in the preceding Ming dynasty. They would be copied by clerks and entered into official registers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This bureaucracy saved the emperor from being swamped with tedious detail but might also shield him from information which he needed to know. The <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> (r. 1672–1722), the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> (r. 1722–1735), and the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> (r. 1735–1796) therefore developed a supplementary system of "Palace Memorials" (<i>zouzhe</i>) which they instructed local officials to send directly, without passing through bureaucratic filters. One type, the "Folding Memorial," was written on a page small enough for the emperor to hold in his hand and read without being observed.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Yongzheng Emperor, who preferred the written system over audiences, increased the use of these palace memorials by more than ten times over his father. He found he could get quick responses to emergency requests instead of waiting for the formal report, or give frank instructions: Of one official he said, "he is good-hearted, hard-working old hand. I think he's very good. But he's a bit coarse... just like Zhao Xiangkui, except that Zhao is intelligent." Likewise a provincial governor could frankly report that a subordinate was "scatter brained." The emperor could then instruct the official to also submit a routine memorial. Most important, bypassing the regular bureaucracy made it easier for the emperor to have his own way without being restricted by the regulations of the administrative code.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The system of memorials and rescripts, even more than personal audiences, was the emperor's way to shape and cement relations with his officials. Memorials could be quite specific and even personal, since the emperor knew many of his officials quite well. The Kangxi Emperor, for instance, wrote one of his generals: </p> <dl><dd>"I am fine. It is cool now outside the passes. There has been enough rain so the food now is very good... You're an old man -- are grandfather and grandmother both well?"</dd></dl> <p>But sometimes impatience broke through: "Stop the incessant sending of these greetings!" or "I hear tell you've been drinking. If after receiving my edict you are not able to refrain, and so turn your back on my generosity, I will no longer value you or your services."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Jonathan Spence</a> translated and joined together memorials of the Kangxi Emperor to form an autobiographical "self-portrait" which gives an feel for the emperor's place in the flow of government.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Official_communications_in_imperial_China&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_imperial_China" title="Foreign relations of imperial China">Foreign relations of imperial China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Official_communications_in_imperial_China&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Official_communications_in_imperial_China&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Citations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Endymion Wilkinson. <i>Chinese History: A Manual.</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series Rev. and enl., 2000. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674002474" title="Special:BookSources/0674002474">0674002474</a>), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&dq=Chinese+emperor+memorial&pg=PA534">pp. 532-533.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William H. Nienhauser. <i>The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature.</i> (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZ0lJDL_1nsC&dq=Nienhauser+Indiana+Companion+edicts+orders&pg=PA96">96-97</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yuan-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yuan_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXie2016" class="citation book cs1">Xie, Xuanjun (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-SPDAAAQBAJ&dq=%E5%BB%BA%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E8%AF%8F+%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D&pg=PA81"><i>My Way of Looking at the Second Phase of Chinese Civilization</i></a>. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781329995345" title="Special:BookSources/9781329995345"><bdi>9781329995345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Way+of+Looking+at+the+Second+Phase+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=81&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781329995345&rft.aulast=Xie&rft.aufirst=Xuanjun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN-SPDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%25E5%25BB%25BA%25E5%259B%25BD%25E5%258F%25B7%25E8%25AF%258F%2B%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%259B%25BD%25E7%258E%258B%25E6%259C%259D%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOfficial+communications+in+imperial+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anita M. Andrew and John A. Rapp. <i>Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu.</i> (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0847695794" title="Special:BookSources/0847695794">0847695794</a>), esp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YQOhVb5Fbt4C&dq=Ming+Taizu+Great+Warning&pg=PR9">pp. 60-68</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilkinson (2013): 281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_D._Spence" title="Jonathan D. Spence">Spence</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Search_for_Modern_China" title="The Search for Modern China">The Search for Modern China</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>: Norton; 3rd,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ssu-Yü Têng, John King Fairbank, ed., <i>China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839-1923.</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0maVJuCh78oC&q=imperial+edict+King+England">p. 19</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilkinson. <i>Chinese History: A Manual.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&dq=Chinese+emperor+memorial&pg=PA534">p. 534-35</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYuMcHWWbXqMCqmemorialpgPA256_33-34]-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidYuMcHWWbXqMCqmemorialpgPA256_33-34%5D_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YuMcHWWbXqMC&q=memorial&pg=PA256">33-34</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan D. Spence. <i>The Search for Modern China.</i> (New York: Norton, 2nd 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vI1RRslLNSwC&dq=Chinese+emperor+memorial&pg=PA70">pp. 70-71, 87.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Silas H. L. Wu. <i>Communication and Imperial Control in China: Evolution of the Palace Memorial System, 1693-1735.</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; Harvard East Asian Series, 1970). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674148010" title="Special:BookSources/0674148010">0674148010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark C. Elliott. <i>The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China.</i> (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804736065" title="Special:BookSources/0804736065">0804736065</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=Chinese+emperor+memorial+Manchu&pg=PA161">pp. 164, 161-162.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beatrice S. Bartlett. <i>Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723-1820.</i> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520065913" title="Special:BookSources/0520065913">0520065913</a>): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gQh2laauwQkC&q=Manipulate+Outer+Court">48-53</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliott, <i>The Manchu Way</i>, p. 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan D. Spence. <i>Emperor of China: Self Portrait of K'ang Hsi</i> (New York: Vintage Books, 1975). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394714113" title="Special:BookSources/0394714113">0394714113</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Official_communications_in_imperial_China&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Beatrice S. Bartlett. <i>Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723-1820.</i> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520065913" title="Special:BookSources/0520065913">0520065913</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrook1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Brook" title="Timothy Brook">Brook, Timothy</a> (1998). <i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confusions+of+Pleasure%3A+Commerce+and+Culture+in+Ming+China&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOfficial+communications+in+imperial+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_A._Kuhn" title="Philip A. Kuhn">Philip A. Kuhn</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_King_Fairbank" title="John King Fairbank">John King Fairbank</a>, with the assistance of Beatrice S. Bartlett and Chiang Yung-chen, <i>Introduction to Ch`ing Documents</i> (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1993). A syllabus for the study of Qing documents.</li> <li>Ch. 20 "Official Communications," in <a href="/wiki/Endymion_Wilkinson" title="Endymion Wilkinson">Endymion Wilkinson</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_History:_A_New_Manual" title="Chinese History: A New Manual">Chinese History: A New Manual</a>.</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Asia Center, Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series. New Edition; Second, Revised printing March 2013; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674067158" title="Special:BookSources/9780674067158">9780674067158</a>, pp. 280–285.</li> <li>Silas H. L. Wu. <i>Communication and Imperial Control in China: Evolution of the Palace Memorial System, 1693-1735.</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; Harvard East Asian Series, 1970). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674148010" title="Special:BookSources/0674148010">0674148010</a>.</li></ul> </div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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