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[[Apollo]] pours a [[libation]], detail.<ref>Apollo wearing a laurel or myrtle wreath, a white peplos and a red himation and sandals, seating on a lion-pawed diphros; he holds a chelys lyre in his left hand and pours a libation with his right hand. Facing him, a black bird identified as a pigeon, a jackdaw, a crow (which may allude to his love affair with Coronis) or a raven (a mantic bird). Tondo of an Attic white-ground kylix attributed to the Pistoxenos Painter (or the Berlin Painter, or Onesimos). Diam. 18 cm (7 in.)</ref>]] [[File:Herakles Geryon MAR Palermo.jpg|thumb|Attic white-ground ''[[lekythos]]'' (type I) depicting [[Heracles]] fighting [[Geryon]], [[Antonino Salinas Regional Archaeological Museum]], [[Palermo]]]] [[Image:Woman spinning BM VaseD13.jpg|thumb|Spinning woman, Attic ''[[Oenochoe|oinochoe]]'' (type III), probably from Locri, by the [[Brygos Painter]], {{circa|490}} BC]] '''White-ground technique''' is a style of white ancient [[Pottery of ancient Greece|Greek pottery]] and the [[Greek vase painting|painting]] in which figures appear on a white background. It developed in the region of [[Attica]], dated to about 500 BC. It was especially associated with vases made for ritual and funerary use, if only because the painted surface was more fragile than in the other main techniques of [[Black-figure pottery|black-figure]] and [[Red-figure pottery|red-figure vase painting]]. Nevertheless, a wide range of subjects are depicted. ==Technique and style== {{Further information|Ancient Greek vase painting|Pottery of ancient Greece}} In white-ground pottery, the vase is covered with a light or white [[slip (ceramics)|slip]] of [[kaolinite]]. A similar slip had been used as carrier for vase paintings in the [[Geometric art|Geometric]] and [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] periods. White-ground vases were produced, for example, in [[Ionia]], [[Laconia]] and on the [[Cyclades|Cycladic islands]], but only in [[Athens]] did it develop into a veritable separate style beside black-figure and red-figure vase painting. For that reason, the term "white-ground pottery" or "white-ground vase painting" is usually used in reference to the Attic material only. The light slip was probably meant to make the vases appear more valuable, perhaps by eliciting associations with [[ivory]] or [[marble]]. However, in no case was a vessel's entire surface covered in white slip. It has also been conjectured<ref>See Tiverios and Tsiafakis, ''Color in Ancient Greece'', 2002, for a survey of opinions on this.</ref> that this form of painting emerged in order to emulate the more prestigious medium of [[Mural|wall painting]], but proof for this thesis has been elusive. Furthermore, the group of five Huge Lekythoi ({{circa|70–100}} cm high) are covered entirely in white slip, which suggests an imitation of marble lekythoi for funerary purposes.<ref>Kurtz, ''Athenian White Lekythoi: Patterns and Painters'', Oxford 1975, p.69-70; Schreiber, ''Athenian Vase Construction: A Potter's Analysis'', Malibu 1999, p.183.</ref> White-ground vase painting often occurred in association with [[Red-figure pottery|red-figure vase painting]]. Especially typical of this are ''[[Kylix|kylikes]]'' with a white-ground interior and a red-figure exterior image. White-ground painting is less durable than black- or red-figure, which is why such vases were primarily used as [[Votive offering|votives]] and grave vessels. ==Types== [[File:Hera Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2685 full.jpg|thumb|[[Hera]] on the ''[[tondo (art)|tondo]]'' of an Attic white-ground ''[[kylix]]'' (type IV) found at [[Vulci]], by the [[Sabouroff Painter]] ({{circa|470}} BC)]] The development of white-ground vase painting took place parallel to that of the black- and red-figure styles. In the course of that development, five sub-styles can be noted: [[File:Mainade Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2645.jpg|thumb|Raging [[maenad]] by the [[Brygos Painter]]. She holds a ''[[Thyrsus|thyrsos]]'' in her right hand, her left is swinging a panther through the air. A snake is winding through the diadem in her hair. ''Tondo'' of a ''kylix'', 490–480 BC. [[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]], [[Munich]].]] '''Early use'''. The earliest surviving example of the technique is a fragmentary ''[[kantharos]]'' signed by the potter-painter [[Nearchos (painter)|Nearchos]] {{circa|570}} BC . It was found on the [[Acropolis of Athens|Athenian Acropolis]] (Akropolis 611).<ref>Cohen, ''Colors of Clay'', 2006, p.187</ref> The technique was used to create strobing bands of colour that emphasize the shape of the vase.<ref>[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] 1926,26.49.</ref> and is associated with the workshops of [[Andokides (vase painter)|Andokides]], [[Nikosthenes]] and [[Psiax]].<ref>Cohen, ''op. cit.'', p.188</ref> '''Type I'''. The use of a white ground in conjunction with outline painting did not develop until some fifty years later, when black-figure vase painting on white ground was probably introduced by the potter Nikosthenes around 530/525 BC. After a short interval, this technique was also adopted by other workshops, including that of Psiax.<ref>Cohen, ''op. cit.'', p.188</ref> The manner of painting is the same as in conventional black-figure, the colour of the grounding being the only difference. The ground is rarely pure white, but usually slightly yellowish or light beige. '''Type II'''. A second form is monochrome silhouette drawing. Images are not created from reservation (paint-free areas) and painted internal detail (as in red-figure vase painting), but from drawn outlines and painted internal detail. This style is used since the end of the 6th century BC, especially on cups, [[Alabastron|alabastra]] and ''[[lekythos|lekythoi]]''. Initially, the outline of the figures is executed in the form of a [[relief|relief line]], but from about 500 BC, this is increasingly replaced by painted yellowish-brown lines. The so-called "semi-outline" technique is a combination of the first and the second technique, used only in the first half of the 5th century BC, virtually exclusively on ''lekythoi'' and alabastra. '''Type III'''. In the first quarter of the 5th century, the workshop of the potter [[Euphronios]] develops a four-colour painting style using a combination of shiny clay slip and mineral paints. The images are made up of outline drawings in shiny slip and coloured areas in mineral paint. This style is used especially on ''pyxides'' and cups. Some details, such as fruit, jewellery, weaponry or vessels can be executed in clay slip in such a fashion as to attain a slight plasticity, additionally they may be gilded. The paints used are limited to tones of red and brown, yellow, white and black. '''Type IV'''. Early Classical ''lekythos'' painting combined shiny slip, mineral paints and non.ceramic mineral paints, This type developed in the second quarter of the 5th century BC. It was used in painting large grave ''lekythoi'' used in funerary cult. The images are mostly constructed of coloured areas. Pure outline drawing is only used for the depiction of male bodies at this stage. Female bodies are rendered in white paint, clothing in black shiny slip, mineral paints and occasionally non-ceramic paints such as [[Cinnabar|cinnabarite]] or [[Egyptian blue]]. Many images depict scenes from women's life (the ''[[gynaikion]]''). Grave images are rare. The most important representative of this style is the [[Achilles Painter]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oakley |first=John Howard |title=The Achilles Painter |publisher=P. von Zabern |year=1997 |isbn=9783805318891}}</ref> '''Type V'''. The fifth style was polychrome ''lekythos'' painting. It replaced Early Classical ''lekythos'' painting around the middle of the 5th century BC. By this time, white-ground can be identified most closely with three [[Typology of Greek vase shapes|principal shapes]]: the ''[[lekythos]]'', the [[krater]], and cups.<ref>Cohen, ''op. cit.'', p.190</ref> Black shiny slip and white paint now disappeared from the paintings. Female bodies were again rendered as simple outline drawings. Non-ceramic mineral paints also ceased to be used. At the same time, several painters, starting with the [[Sabouroff Painter]], began to use red or blackish-grey matt paints, instead of shiny [[slip (ceramics)|slip]], for the contours. Only the contours are painted before firing, other paints are applied afterwards. Therefore, the durability of such vase paintings is very limited; many examples are badly preserved or completely worn. As a result, it is difficult to assess the depicted motifs. Grave scenes are predominant. <gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4"> Image:Achilles Ajax dice Louvre MNB911.jpg|[[Achilles]] and [[Ajax the Great|Ajax]] playing a board game (Attic ''[[lekythos]]'' by the workshop of the [[Diosphos Painter]], {{circa|500}} BC) File:White-Ground Oinochoe (Wine-Jug) of Herakles and the Nemean Lion.jpg|White-ground black-figure ''[[Oenochoe|oinochoe]]'' (Wine-Jug) of Heracles and the [[Nemean lion]], [[Athens]], about 520–500 BC, attributed to the Painter of London, potted by [[Andokides (vase painter)|Andokides]]. Image:Hypnos Thanatos BM Vase D56 full.jpg|[[Hypnos]] and [[Thanatos]] removing the body of [[Sarpedon (Trojan War hero)|Sarpedon]] from the [[Trojan War|battlefield of Troy]] (''[[lekythos]]'', [[Thanatos Painter]], {{circa|440}} BC) Image:Lekythos by the Group of the Huge Lekythoi Antikensammlung BerlinF 2684 (1).jpg|''Prothesis'' ([[lying in repose]]) (Attic plychrome ''lekythos'' (type V), from [[Alopeke]], [[Group of the Huge Lekythoi]], late 5th century BC) </gallery> ==Painters and distribution== Important Classical white-ground painters (5th century BC), in addition to the Achilleus Painter and Sabouroff Painter, include the [[Sappho Painter]], [[Thanatos Painter]], [[Bird Painter]], [[Square Painter]], [[Women Painter]], [[Phiale Painter]], as well as several representatives of [[Group R (painters)|Group R]] (''Reed Group''), including its eponymous [[Reed Painter]]. By the end of the century, some first attempts at shaded painting can be observed, influenced probably by contemporaneous [[panel painting]]. Notable in this regard is the [[Group of the Huge Lekythoi]], specialised in decorating large grave vessels. During the second half of the 5th century, white-ground vase painting was used nearly exclusively for grave ''lekythoi''. When that vase type went out of use around 400 BC, white-ground vase painting also ceased. Later, during the [[Hellenistic period]], various types of white-ground pottery occur in several locations of the Greek World, sometimes painted monochrome, sometimes polychrome. They include [[Hadra vase|Hâdra vases]], [[Canosa vases]] and vases of the [[Centuripe ware|Centuripe type]]. ''[[Lagynos|Lagynoi]]'' were often decorated in white-ground technique. ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} == Bibliography == {{Commonscat|White-ground pottery }} * [[Donna Kurtz]]: ''Athenian White Lekythoi. Patterns and Painters'', Clarendon Press, Oxford 1975. * [[Pierre Lévêque|Lévêque, Pierre]]; ''[[The Birth of Greece]]'', "[[Découvertes Gallimard|Abrams Discoveries]]" series, New York, 1994. {{ISBN|978-0-810-92843-5}}. * [[John Oakley (archaeologist)|John Oakley]]: ''Picturing Death in Classical Athens. The Evidence of the White Lekythoi'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004. {{ISBN|0-521-82016-2}}. * E. Pottier, ''Étude sur les lécythes blancs antiques'', 1883. *Schoder, Raymond V.; ''Masterpieces of Greek Art''. New York Graphic Society. * Irma Wehgartner: ''Attisch weissgrundige Keramik. Maltechniken, Werkstätten, Formen, Verwendung'', von Zabern, Mainz 1983 (Keramikforschungen, Vol 5). {{ISBN|3-8053-0565-6}}. * Irma Wehgartner: ''Weißgrundige Vasenmalerei''. In: [[Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft|Der Neue Pauly]], vol. 12, cols. 454–456. *Woodford, Susan; ''An Introduction to Greek Art'', New York, 1988. *{{cite book | author=Von Bothmer, Dietrich | title=''Greek vase painting'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1987 | isbn=0870990845 | url=https://archive.org/details/sungyuanpainting0000metr | url-access=registration }} {{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=White ground technique |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} ==Further reading== *Kurtz, Donna C. 1975. ''Athenian white lekythoi: Patterns and painters''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. *MacDonald, Brian R. 1981. "The emigration of potters from Athens in the late fifth century BC and its effect on the Attic pottery industry". ''American Journal of Archaeology'': 159–68. *Mertens, Joan R. 1974. "Attic white-ground cups: A special class of vases". ''Metropolitan Museum Journal'' 9: 91–108. *–––. 2006. "Attic White Ground: Potter and Painter". In ''The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases'': 186–93. *Oakley, John H. 2004. ''Picturing death in Classical Athens: The evidence of the white lekythoi''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. *Truitt, Penelope. 1969. "Attic White-Ground Pyxis and Phiale, ca. 450 BC". ''Boston Museum Bulletin'': 72–92. *Von Bothmer, Dietrich. 1972. "Greek vase painting: an introduction." 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