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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Grammatical properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatical_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_of_adpositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_adpositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classification of adpositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_adpositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stranding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stranding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Stranding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stranding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Simple_versus_complex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Simple_versus_complex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Simple <i>versus</i> complex</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Simple_versus_complex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marginal_prepositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marginal_prepositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Marginal prepositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marginal_prepositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proper_versus_improper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proper_versus_improper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Proper <i>versus</i> improper</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proper_versus_improper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Different_forms_of_complement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Different_forms_of_complement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Different forms of complement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Different_forms_of_complement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantic_functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantic_functions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Semantic functions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantic_functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inflected_adpositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inflected_adpositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Inflected adpositions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Inflected_adpositions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Inflected adpositions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Inflected_adpositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Celtic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celtic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Celtic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celtic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semitic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semitic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Semitic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semitic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overlaps_with_other_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overlaps_with_other_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Overlaps with other categories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overlaps_with_other_categories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overlaps with other categories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overlaps_with_other_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adverbs_and_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs_and_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Adverbs and particles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs_and_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjunctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjunctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Conjunctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjunctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_affixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_affixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Case affixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_affixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Adposition</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%81_%D8%A5%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9" title="حرف إضافة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرف إضافة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adposici%C3%B3n" title="Adposición – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Adposición" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97" title="অনুসর্গ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অনুসর্গ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%99%D0%B9%D0%BB%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Бәйләүес – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бәйләүес" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%86_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="प्रीपोजीशन आ पोस्टपोजीशन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="प्रीपोजीशन आ पोस्टपोजीशन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adstagenn" title="Adstagenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Adstagenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%81%C4%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85" title="Çумсăмах – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çумсăмах" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adposition" title="Adposition – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Adposition" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaass%C3%B5na" title="Kaassõna – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kaassõna" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Πρόθεση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρόθεση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adposici%C3%B3n" title="Adposición – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Adposición" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adpozicio" title="Adpozicio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Adpozicio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%81_%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%87" title="حرف اضافه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حرف اضافه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adposition" title="Adposition – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Adposition" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EC%B9%98%EC%82%AC%EC%99%80_%ED%9B%84%EC%B9%98%EC%82%AC" title="전치사와 후치사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전치사와 후치사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Նախադրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նախադրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%95" title="संबंधबोधक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संबंधबोधक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prepoziciono_e_postpoziciono" title="Prepoziciono e postpoziciono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Prepoziciono e postpoziciono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%C3%A6%D0%B2%C3%A6%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Разæвæрд – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Разæвæрд" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%97%D7%A1" title="מילת יחס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מילת יחס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="თანდებული – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თანდებული" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kihusishi" title="Kihusishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kihusishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praepositio_et_postpositio" title="Praepositio et postpositio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Praepositio et postpositio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposada" title="Aposada – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Aposada" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF" title="ഗതി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗതി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kata_sendi_nama" title="Kata sendi nama – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kata sendi nama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adpositie" title="Adpositie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Adpositie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8E%A5%E7%BD%AE%E8%A9%9E" title="接置詞 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="接置詞" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adposisjon" title="Adposisjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Adposisjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%95" title="ਸੰਬੰਧਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੰਬੰਧਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adposi%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Adposição – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Adposição" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3" title="Адлог – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Адлог" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preposeetion_an_postposeetion" title="Preposeetion an postposeetion – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Preposeetion an postposeetion" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafjala" title="Parafjala – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Parafjala" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%81_%D8%AC%D8%B1" title="حرف جر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="حرف جر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predlo%C5%BEka" title="Predložka – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Predložka" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adpositio" title="Adpositio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Adpositio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adposition" title="Adposition – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Adposition" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%E1%BB%9Bi_t%E1%BB%AB" title="Giới từ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giới từ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%8B%E8%A9%9E" title="介詞 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="介詞" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פרעפאזיציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פרעפאזיציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue 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to express spatial or temporal relations or mark various semantic roles</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Preposition" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a>.</div> <p><b>Adpositions</b> are a <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">class of words</a> used to express spatial or temporal relations (<i>in, under, towards, behind, ago</i>, etc.) or mark various <a href="/wiki/Thematic_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Thematic relations">semantic roles</a> (<i>of, for</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common adpositions are <b>prepositions</b> (which precede their complement) and <b>postpositions</b> (which follow their complement). </p><p>An adposition typically combines with a <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a>, this being called its <a href="/wiki/Complement_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement (grammar)">complement</a>, or sometimes <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>. <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> generally has prepositions rather than postpositions – words such as <i>in, under</i> and <i>of</i> precede their objects, such as <i>in England</i>, <i>under the table</i>, <i>of Jane</i> – although there are a few exceptions including <i>ago</i> and <i>notwithstanding</i>, as in "three days ago" and "financial limitations notwithstanding". Some languages that use a different word order have postpositions instead (like <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a>) or have both types (like <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrase</a> formed by an adposition together with its complement is called an <a href="/wiki/Adpositional_phrase" title="Adpositional phrase">adpositional phrase</a> (or prepositional phrase, postpositional phrase, etc.). Such a phrase can function as an adjective or as an adverb. </p><p>A less common type of adposition is the <b>circumposition</b>, which consists of two parts that appear on each side of the complement. Other terms sometimes used for particular types of adposition include <i>ambiposition</i>, <i>inposition</i> and <i>interposition</i>. Some linguists use the word <i>preposition</i> in place of <i>adposition</i> regardless of the applicable word order.<sup id="cite_ref-HP602_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HP602-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>preposition</i> comes from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">prae-</i> prefix (pre- prefix) ("before") and <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">ponere</i> ("to put"). This refers to the situation in Latin and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Greek</a> (and in <a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a>), where such words are placed before their complement (except sometimes in Ancient Greek), and are hence "pre-positioned". </p><p>In some languages, including <a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, the same kinds of words typically come after their complement. To indicate this, they are called <i>postpositions</i> (using the prefix <i>post-</i>, from Latin <i>post</i> meaning "behind, after"). There are also some cases where the function is performed by two parts coming before and after the complement; this is called a <i>circumposition</i> (from Latin <i>circum-</i> prefix "around"). </p><p>In some languages, for example <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, some adpositions can be used as both prepositions and postpositions. </p><p>Prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions are collectively known as <i>adpositions</i> (using the Latin prefix <i>ad-</i>, meaning "to"). However, some linguists prefer to use the well-known and longer-established term <i>preposition</i> in place of <i>adposition</i>, irrespective of position relative to the complement.<sup id="cite_ref-HP602_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HP602-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammatical_properties">Grammatical properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Grammatical properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An adposition typically combines with exactly one <a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a>, most often a <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> (or, in a different analysis, a <a href="/wiki/Determiner_phrase" title="Determiner phrase">determiner phrase</a>). In English, this is generally a noun (or something functioning as a noun, e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a>), together with its <a href="/wiki/Specifier_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specifier (linguistics)">specifier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modifier_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modifier (grammar)">modifiers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">articles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a>, etc. The complement is sometimes called the <i>object</i> of the adposition. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrase</a>, formed by the adposition together with its complement, is called an <a href="/wiki/Adpositional_phrase" title="Adpositional phrase">adpositional phrase</a> or prepositional phrase (PP) (or for specificity, a postpositional or circumpositional phrase). </p><p>An adposition establishes a <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical</a> relationship that links its complement to another word or phrase in the context. It also generally establishes a <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> relationship, which may be spatial (<i>in</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>under</i>, ...), temporal (<i>after</i>, <i>during</i>, ...), or of some other type (<i>of</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>via</i>, ...). The <a href="/wiki/World_Atlas_of_Language_Structures" title="World Atlas of Language Structures">World Atlas of Language Structures</a> treats a word as an adposition if it takes a noun phrase as a complement and indicates the grammatical or semantic relationship of that phrase to the verb in the containing clause.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some examples of the use of English prepositions are given below. In each case, the prepositional phrase appears in <i>italics</i>, the preposition within it appears in <i><b>bold</b></i>, and the preposition's <a href="/wiki/Complement_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement (grammar)">complement</a> is <u>underlined</u>. As demonstrated in some of the examples, more than one prepositional phrase may act as an <a href="/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar)" title="Adjunct (grammar)">adjunct</a> to the same word. </p> <ul><li>As an adjunct to a noun: <ul><li>the weather <i><b>in</b> <u>March</u></i></li> <li>cheese <i><b>from</b> <u>France</u></i> <i><b>with</b> <u>live bacteria</u></i></li></ul></li> <li>As a <a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">predicative expression</a> (complement of a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a>) <ul><li>The key is <i><b>under</b> <u>the stone</u></i>.</li></ul></li> <li>As an adjunct to a verb: <ul><li>sleep <i><b>throughout</b> <u>the winter</u></i></li> <li>danced <i><b>atop</b> <u>the tables</u> <b>for</b> <u>hours</u></i></li> <li>dispense <i><b>with</b> <u>the formalities</u></i> (see <a href="#Semantic_functions">Semantic functions</a>, above)</li></ul></li> <li>As an adjunct to an adjective: <ul><li>happy <i><b>for</b> <u>them</u></i></li> <li>sick <i><b>until</b> <u>recently</u></i></li></ul></li></ul> <p>In the last of these examples the complement has the form of an adverb, which has been <a href="/wiki/Nominalization" title="Nominalization">nominalised</a> to serve as a noun phrase; see <a href="#Different_forms_of_complement">Different forms of complement</a>, below. Prepositional phrases themselves are sometimes nominalized: </p> <ul><li><i><b>In</b> <u>the cellar</u></i> was chosen as the best place to store the wine.</li></ul> <p>An adposition may determine the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical case</a> of its complement. In English, the complements of prepositions take the <a href="/wiki/Objective_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective case">objective case</a> where available (<i>from him</i>, not *<i>from he</i>). In <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, for example, certain prepositions always take their objects in a certain case (e.g., ἐν always takes its object in the dative), while other prepositions may take their object in one of two or more cases, depending on the meaning of the preposition (e.g., διά takes its object in the genitive or the accusative, depending on the meaning). Some languages have cases that are used exclusively after prepositions (<a href="/wiki/Prepositional_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional case">prepositional case</a>), or special forms of <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> for use after prepositions (<a href="/wiki/Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">prepositional pronoun</a>). </p><p>The functions of adpositions overlap with those of case markings (for example, the meaning of the English preposition <i>of</i> is expressed in many languages by a <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a> ending), but adpositions are classed as <a href="/wiki/Syntactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactic">syntactic</a> elements, while case markings are <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a>. </p><p>Adpositions themselves are usually <a href="/wiki/Uninflected_word" title="Uninflected word">non-inflecting</a> ("invariant"): they do not have paradigms of the form (such as tense, case, gender, etc.) the same way that verbs, adjectives, and nouns can. There are exceptions, though, such as prepositions that have fused with a pronominal object to form <a href="/wiki/Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">inflected prepositions</a>. </p><p>The following properties are characteristic of most adpositional systems: </p> <ul><li>Adpositions are among the most frequently occurring words in languages that have them. For example, one frequency ranking for English word forms<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> begins as follows (prepositions in bold):</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>the, <b>of</b>, and, <b>to</b>, a, <b>in</b>, that, it, is, was, I, <b>for</b>, <b>on</b>, you</i>, …</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The most common adpositions are single, <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">monomorphemic</a> words. According to the ranking cited above, for example, the most common English prepositions are <i>on</i>, <i>in</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>by</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>with</i>, <i>at</i>, <i>of</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>as</i>, all of which are single-syllable words and cannot be broken down into smaller units of meaning.</li> <li>Adpositions form a <a href="/wiki/Closed_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed class">closed class</a> of lexical items and cannot be productively derived from words of other categories.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_adpositions">Classification of adpositions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification of adpositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As noted above, adpositions are referred to by various terms, depending on their position relative to the complement. </p><p>While the term <i>preposition</i> sometimes denotes any adposition, its stricter meaning refers only to one that precedes its complement. Examples of this, from English, have been given above; similar examples can be found in many European and other languages, for example: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a>: <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><b>mit</b> einer Frau</i></span> ("<b>with</b> a woman")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a>: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><b>sur</b> la table</i></span> ("<b>on</b> the table")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_morphology" title="Welsh morphology">Welsh</a>: <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><b>ar</b> y bwrdd</i></span> ("<b>on</b> the table")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a>: <i><b>na</b> stole</i> ("<b>on</b> the table")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a>: <i><b>у</b> меня</i> ("<b>in the possession of</b> me" [I have])</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a>: <b>លើ</b>ក្តារខៀន [<b>ləː</b> kdaːkʰiən] ("<b>on</b> (the) blackboard")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a>: <b>አብ ልዕሊ</b> ጣውላ [<b>abː</b> <b>lɨʕli</b> tʼawla] ("<b>at/on</b> <b>top</b> table"); <b>አብ ትሕቲ</b> ጣውላ [<b>abː</b> <b>tɨħti</b> tʼawla] ("<b>at/on</b> <b>under</b> table")</li></ul> <p>In certain grammatical constructions, the complement of a preposition may be absent or may be moved from its position directly following the preposition. This may be referred to as <a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">preposition stranding</a> (see also <a href="#Stranding">below</a>), as in "Whom did you go <b>with</b>?" and "There's only one thing worse than being talked <b>about</b>." There are also some (mainly colloquial) expressions in which a preposition's complement may be omitted, such as "I'm going to the park. Do you want to come <b>with</b> [me]?", and the French <i>Il fait trop froid, je ne suis pas habillée <b>pour</b></i> ("It's too cold, I'm not dressed <b>for</b> [the situation].") The bolded words in these examples are generally still considered prepositions because when they form a phrase with a complement (in more ordinary constructions) they must appear first. </p><p>A <i>postposition</i> follows its complement to form a postpositional phrase. Examples include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">me<b>cum</b></i></span> ("<b>with</b> me", literally "me <b>with</b>")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a>: <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">benim<b>le</b></i></span> or <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">benim <b>ile</b></i></span> ("<b>with</b> me", literally "my <b>with</b>")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>: <span title="Hungarian-language text"><i lang="hu">fa <b>alatt</b></i></span> ("<b>under</b> the tree", literally "tree <b>under</b>")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 桌子<b>上</b> <i>zhuōzi <b>shàng</b></i> (lit. "table <b>on</b>"); this is a nominal form, which usually requires an additional preposition to form an adverbial phrase (see <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar#Locative_phrases" title="Chinese grammar">Chinese locative phrases</a>)</li> <li>English: <i>ten kilometers <b>away</b></i>, <i>ten months <b>ago</b></i> (both could be considered adverbs)</li></ul> <p>Some adpositions can appear either before or after their complement: </p> <ul><li>English: <i>the evidence <b>notwithstanding</b></i> OR <i><b>notwithstanding</b> the evidence</i></li> <li>German: <i>meiner Meinung <b>nach</b></i> OR <i><b>nach</b> meiner Meinung</i> ("<b>in</b> my opinion")</li> <li>German: <i>die Straße <b>entlang</b></i> OR <i><b>entlang</b> der Straße</i> ("<b>along</b> the road"; here a different <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a> is used when <i>entlang</i> precedes the noun)</li></ul> <p>An adposition like the above, which can be either a preposition or a postposition, can be called an <b>ambiposition</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <i>ambiposition</i> may also be used to refer to a circumposition (see below),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or to a word that appears to function as a preposition and postposition simultaneously, as in the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> construction (noun-1) <i>ā</i> (noun-2), meaning "from (noun-1) to (noun-2)".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whether a language has primarily prepositions or postpositions is seen as an aspect of its <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typological</a> classification, and tends to correlate with other properties related to <a href="/wiki/Head_directionality" class="mw-redirect" title="Head directionality">head directionality</a>. Since an adposition is regarded as the <a href="/wiki/Head_(linguistics)" title="Head (linguistics)">head</a> of its phrase, prepositional phrases are head-initial (or right-<a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">branching</a>), while postpositional phrases are head-final (or left-branching). There is a tendency for languages that feature postpositions also to have other head-final features, such as <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">verbs that follow their objects</a>; and for languages that feature prepositions to have other head-initial features, such as <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">verbs that precede their objects</a>. This is only a tendency, however; an example of a language that behaves differently is <a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a>, which employs mostly prepositions, even though it typically places verbs after their objects. </p><p>A <i>circumposition</i> consists of two or more parts, positioned on both sides of the complement. Circumpositions are very common in <a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>. The following are examples from <a href="/wiki/Northern_Kurdish" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Kurdish">Northern Kurdish</a> (Kurmanji): </p> <ul><li><i>bi ... re</i> ("with")</li> <li><i>di ... de</i> ("in", for things, not places)</li> <li><i>di ... re</i> ("via, through")</li> <li><i>ji ... re</i> ("for")</li> <li><i>ji ... ve</i> ("since")</li></ul> <p>Various constructions in other languages might also be analyzed as circumpositional, for example: </p> <ul><li>English: <i><b>from</b> now <b>on</b></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i><b>naar</b> het einde <b>toe</b></i> ("towards the end", lit. "to the end to")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Chinese</a>: <b>从</b>冰箱<b>里</b> <i><b>cóng</b> bīngxiāng <b>lǐ</b></i> ("from the inside of the refrigerator", lit. "from refrigerator inside")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i><b>à</b> un détail <b>près</b></i> ("except for one detail", lit. "at one detail near")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>: <i><b>för</b> tre timmar <b>sedan</b></i> ("three hours ago", lit. "for three hours since")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i><b>aus</b> dem Zimmer <b>heraus</b></i> ("out from the room", lit. "from the room out")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>: <i><b>ካብ </b> ሕጂ '</i><b>ን</b>ደሓር ("from now on", lit. "from now to later")</li></ul> <p>Most such phrases, however, can be analyzed as having a different hierarchical structure (such as a prepositional phrase modifying a following adverb). The Chinese example could be analyzed as a prepositional phrase headed by <i>cóng</i> ("from"), taking the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar#Locative_phrases" title="Chinese grammar">locative noun phrase</a> <i>bīngxīang lǐ</i> ("refrigerator inside") as its complement. </p><p>An <b>inposition</b> is a rare type of adposition that appears between parts of a complex complement. For example, in the native Californian <a href="/wiki/Timbisha_language" title="Timbisha language">Timbisha language</a>, the phrase "from a mean cold" can be translated using the word order "cold from mean"—the inposition follows the noun but precedes any following <a href="/wiki/Modifier_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modifier (grammar)">modifiers</a> that form part of the same <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Latin word <i>cum</i> is also commonly used as an inposition, as in the phrase <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_cum_laude" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa cum laude">summa cum laude</a></i>, meaning "with highest praise", lit. "highest with praise". </p><p>The term <b>interposition</b> has been used<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for adpositions in structures such as <i>word <b>for</b> word</i>, French <i>coup <b>sur</b> coup</i> ("one after another, repeatedly"), and Russian друг <b>с</b> другом ("one with the other"). This is not a case of an adposition appearing inside its complement, as the two nouns do not form a single phrase (there is no phrase *<i>word word</i>, for example); such uses have more of a <a href="/wiki/Coordination_(linguistics)" title="Coordination (linguistics)">coordinating</a> character. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stranding">Stranding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Stranding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Preposition stranding</a></div> <p>Preposition stranding is a <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> construct in which a preposition occurs somewhere other than immediately before its complement. For example, in the English sentence "What did you sit on?" the preposition <i>on</i> has <i>what</i> as its complement, but <i>what</i> is <a href="/wiki/Wh-fronting" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-fronting">moved to the start</a> of the sentence, because it is an <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative word</a>. This sentence is much more common and natural than the equivalent sentence without stranding: "On what did you sit?" Preposition stranding is commonly found in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CB1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CB1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>. Its existence in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> is debated. Preposition stranding is also found in some <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo languages</a> such as Vata and Gbadi, and in some North American varieties of <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>. </p><p>Some prescriptive English grammars teach that prepositions cannot end a sentence, although there is <a href="/wiki/List_of_common_English_usage_misconceptions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of common English usage misconceptions">no rule</a> prohibiting that use.<sup id="cite_ref-Mignon_Fogarty_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mignon_Fogarty-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Random_House_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Random_House-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar rules arose during the rise of classicism, when they were applied to English in imitation of classical languages such as Latin. <a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Otto Jespersen</a>, in his <i>Essentials of English Grammar</i> (first published 1933), commented on this definition-derived rule: "...nor need a preposition (Latin: <i>praepositio</i>) stand before the word it governs (go the fools <i>among</i> (Sh[akespeare]); What are you laughing <i>at</i>?). You might just as well believe that all blackguards are black or that turkeys come from Turkey; many names have either been chosen unfortunately at first or have changed their meanings in the course of time."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Simple_versus_complex">Simple <i>versus</i> complex</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Simple versus complex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Simple</b> adpositions consist of a single word (<i>on</i>, <i>in</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>towards</i>, etc.). <b>Complex</b> adpositions consist of a group of words that act as one unit. Examples of complex prepositions in English include <i>in spite of</i>, <i>with respect to</i>, <i>except for</i>, <i>by dint of</i>, and <i>next to</i>. </p><p>The distinction between simple and complex adpositions is not clear-cut. Many complex adpositions are derived from simple forms (e.g., <i>with + in</i> → <i>within</i>, <i>by + side</i> → <i>beside</i>) through <a href="/wiki/Grammaticalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammaticalisation">grammaticalisation</a>. This change takes time, and during the transitional stages, the adposition acts in some ways like a single word, and in other ways like a multi-word unit. For example, current <a href="/wiki/German_orthography" title="German orthography">German orthographic conventions</a> recognize the indeterminate status of certain prepositions, allowing two spellings: <i>anstelle</i>/<i>an Stelle</i> ("instead of"), <i>aufgrund</i>/<i>auf Grund</i> ("because of"), <i>mithilfe</i>/<i>mit Hilfe</i> ("by means of"), <i>zugunsten</i>/<i>zu Gunsten</i> ("in favor of"), <i>zuungunsten</i>/<i>zu Ungunsten</i> ("to the disadvantage of"), <i>zulasten/zu Lasten</i> ("at the expense of").<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The distinction between complex adpositions and free combinations of words is not a black-and-white issue: complex adpositions (in English, "prepositional idioms") can be more fossilized or less fossilized. In English, this applies to a number of structures of the form "preposition + (article) + noun + preposition", such as <i>in front of</i>, <i>for the sake of</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following characteristics are good indications that a given combination is "frozen" enough to be considered a complex preposition in English:<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>It contains a word that cannot be used in any other context: <i>by dint of</i>, <i>in lieu of</i>.</li> <li>The first preposition cannot be replaced: <i>with a view to</i> but not *<i>for/without a view to</i>.</li> <li>It is impossible to insert an article, or to use a different article: <i>on account of</i> but not *<i>on an/the account of</i>; <i>for the sake of</i> but not *<i>for a sake of</i>.</li> <li>The range of possible adjectives is very limited: <i>in great favor of</i>, but not *<i>in helpful favor of</i>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical number</a> of the noun cannot be changed: <i>by virtue of</i> but not *<i>by virtues of</i>.</li> <li>It is impossible to use a <a href="/wiki/Possessive_determiner" title="Possessive determiner">possessive determiner</a>: <i>in spite of him</i>, not *<i>in his spite</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marginal_prepositions">Marginal prepositions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Marginal prepositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marginal prepositions are prepositions that have affinities with other word classes, most notably participles.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marginal prepositions behave like prepositions but derive from other parts of speech. Some marginal prepositions in English include <i>barring</i>, <i>concerning</i>, <i>considering</i>, <i>excluding</i>, <i>failing</i>, <i>following</i>, <i>including</i>, <i>notwithstanding</i>, <i>regarding</i>, and <i>respecting</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proper_versus_improper">Proper <i>versus</i> improper</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Proper versus improper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In descriptions of some languages, prepositions are divided into <b>proper</b> (or <i>essential</i>) and <b>improper</b> (or <i>accidental</i>). A preposition is called improper if it is some other part of speech being used in the same way as a preposition. Examples of simple and complex prepositions that have been so classified include <i>prima di</i> ("before") and <i>davanti (a)</i> ("in front of") in <a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>ergo</i> ("on account of") and <i>causa</i> ("for the sake of") in <a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reference to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>, however, an improper preposition is one that cannot also serve as a <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefix</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Different_forms_of_complement">Different forms of complement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Different forms of complement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As noted above, adpositions typically have <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrases</a> as complements. This can include <a href="/wiki/Nominal_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominal clause">nominal clauses</a> and certain types of <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-finite verb">non-finite verb</a> phrase: </p> <ul><li>We can't agree <i><b>on</b> whether to have children or not</i> (complement is a nominal clause)</li> <li>Let's think <i><b>about</b> solving this problem</i> (complement is a <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a> phrase)</li> <li><i><b>pour</b> encourager les autres</i> (French: "to encourage the others", complement is an <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> phrase)</li></ul> <p>The word <i>to</i> when it precedes the <a href="/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms#Infinitive" title="Uses of English verb forms">infinitive in English</a> is not a preposition, but rather is a grammatical <a href="/wiki/Particle_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle (grammar)">particle</a> outside of any main <a href="/wiki/Word_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Word class">word class</a>. </p><p>In other cases, the complement may have the form of an adjective or <a href="/wiki/Adjective_phrase" title="Adjective phrase">adjective phrase</a>, or an adverbial. This may be regarded as a complement representing a different <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_category" title="Syntactic category">syntactic category</a>, or simply as an atypical form of noun phrase (see <a href="/wiki/Nominalization" title="Nominalization">nominalization</a>). </p> <ul><li>The scene went <i><b>from</b> blindingly bright <b>to</b> pitch black</i> (complements are adjective phrases)</li> <li>I worked there <i><b>until</b> recently</i> (complement is an adverb)</li> <li>Come out <i><b>from</b> under the bed</i> (complement is an adverbial)</li></ul> <p>In the last example, the complement of the preposition <i>from</i> is in fact another prepositional phrase. The resulting sequence of two prepositions (<i>from under</i>) may be regarded as a <a href="#Simple_and_complex_adpositions">complex</a> preposition; in some languages, such a sequence may be represented by a single word, as Russian из-под <i>iz-pod</i> ("from under"). </p><p>Some adpositions appear to combine with two complements: </p> <ul><li><i><b>With</b> Sammy president</i>, we can all come out of hiding again.</li> <li><i><b>For</b> Sammy to become president</i>, they'd have to seriously modify the Constitution.</li></ul> <p>It is more commonly assumed, however, that <i>Sammy</i> and the following predicate forms a <i><a href="/wiki/Small_clause" title="Small clause">small clause</a></i>, which then becomes the single complement of the preposition. (In the first example, a word such as <i>as</i> may be considered to have been <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliptical construction">elided</a>, which, if present, would clarify the grammatical relationship.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semantic_functions">Semantic functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Semantic functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adpositions can be used to express a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> relations between their complement and the rest of the context. The relations expressed may be spatial (denoting location or direction), temporal (denoting position in time), or relations expressing comparison, content, agent, instrument, means, manner, cause, purpose, reference, etc. </p><p>Most common adpositions are highly <a href="/wiki/Polysemy" title="Polysemy">polysemous</a> (they have various different meanings). In many cases, a primary, spatial meaning becomes extended to non-spatial uses by <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphorical</a> or other processes. Because of the variety of meanings, a single adposition often has many possible equivalents in another language, depending on the exact context. This can cause difficulties in foreign <a href="/wiki/Language_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Language learning">language learning</a>. Usage can also vary between dialects of the same language (for example, <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a> has <i>on the weekend</i>, whereas <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a> uses <i>at the weekend</i>). </p><p>In some contexts (as in the case of some <a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">phrasal verbs</a>) the choice of adposition may be determined by another element in the construction or be fixed by the construction as a whole. Here the adposition may have little independent semantic content of its own, and there may be no clear reason why the particular adposition is used rather than another. Examples of such expressions are: </p> <ul><li>English: <i>dispense <b>with</b></i>, <i>listen <b>to</b></i>, <i>insist <b>on</b></i>, <i>proud <b>of</b></i>, <i>good <b>at</b></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <i>otvechat' <b>na</b> vopros</i> ("answer the question", literally "answer on the question"), <i>obvinenie <b>v</b> obmane</i> ("accusation of [literally: in] fraud")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i>soñar <b>con</b> ganar el título</i> ("dream about [lit. with] winning the title"), <i>consistir <b>en</b> dos grupos</i> ("consist of [lit. in] two groups")</li></ul> <p>Prepositions sometimes mark roles that may be considered largely grammatical: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">possession</a> (in a broad sense) – <i>the pen <b>of</b> my aunt</i> (sometimes marked by <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">possessive</a> forms)</li> <li>the agent in <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive</a> constructions – <i>killed <b>by</b> a lone gunman</i></li> <li>the recipient of a transfer – <i>give it <b>to</b> him</i> (sometimes marked by a <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Indirect_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect object">indirect object</a>)</li></ul> <p>Spatial meanings of adpositions may be either <i>directional</i> or <i>static</i>. A directional meaning usually involves motion in a particular direction ("Kay went <b>to</b> the store"), the direction in which something leads or points ("A path <b>into</b> the woods"), or the extent of something ("The fog stretched <b>from</b> London <b>to</b> Paris"). A static meaning indicates only a location ("<b>at</b> the store", "<b>behind</b> the chair", "<b>on</b> the moon"). Some prepositions can have both uses: "he sat <b>in</b> the water" (static); "he jumped in the water" (probably directional). In some languages, the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a> of the complement varies depending on the meaning, as with several prepositions in <a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a>, such as <i>in</i>: </p> <ul><li><i>in seinem Zimmer</i> ("in his room", static meaning, takes the <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a>)</li> <li><i>in sein Zimmer</i> ("into his room", directional meaning, takes the <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a>)</li></ul> <p>In English and many other languages, prepositional phrases with static meaning are commonly used as <a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">predicative expressions</a> after a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> ("Bob is at the store"); this may happen with some directional prepositions as well ("Bob is from Australia"), but this is less common. Directional prepositional phrases combine mostly with verbs that indicate movement ("Jay is going into her bedroom", but not *"Jay is lying down into her bedroom"). </p><p>Directional meanings can be further divided into <i><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">telic</a></i> and <i>atelic</i>. Telic prepositional phrases imply movement all the way to the endpoint ("she ran to the fence"), while atelic ones do not ("she ran towards the fence").<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Static meanings can be divided into <i>projective</i> and <i>non-projective</i>, where projective meanings are those whose understanding requires knowledge of the perspective or point of view. For example, the meaning of "behind the rock" is likely to depend on the position of the speaker (projective), whereas the meaning of "on the desk" is not (non-projective). Sometimes the interpretation is ambiguous, as in "behind the house," which may mean either at the natural back of the house or on the opposite side of the house from the speaker.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inflected_adpositions">Inflected adpositions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Inflected adpositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected preposition</a></div> <p>Some languages feature inflected adpositions—adpositions (usually prepositions) marked for grammatical person and/or grammatical number to give meanings such as "on me," "from you," etc. In the Indo-European languages this phenomenon is mostly confined to the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> like <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>. <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> also allows some degree of combining prepositions with pronouns in the third person.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Celtic">Celtic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Celtic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of Welsh prepositions can be inflected. This is achieved by having a preposition such as <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">o</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) + a linking element; in the case of <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">o</i></span> this is <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">-hon-</i></span> + the assimilated pronoun element, resulting in <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ohon-</i></span> being the preposition's "stem" form. It is common in speech for the pronoun to be present after the preposition, but it can be omitted. Unless used with a pronoun the form is always <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">o</i></span> and not the "stem", e.g. <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">dw i'n dod <b>o</b> Gymru</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">I come <b>from</b> Wales</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">gormod <b>o</b> gwrw</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">too much (<b>of</b>) beer</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. </p><p>The following table gives the inflected forms of the preposition <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">o</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). The optional pronouns that follow the inflected forms are given in parentheses. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st Person </th> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ohonof (i), ohono (i)</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from me</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ohonon (ni)</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from us</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2nd Person </th> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ohonot (ti)</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from you</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ohonoch (chi)</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from you</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd Person </th> <th>Masculine </th> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ohono (fe/fo)</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from him/it</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ohonyn (nhw)</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from them</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Feminine </th> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">ohoni (hi)</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">of/from her/it</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Cymerodd ef hi <b>ohonof</b></i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">he took it <b>from me</b></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semitic">Semitic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Semitic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inflected prepositions are found in <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Assyrian Neo-Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>. </p><p>For example, the Arabic preposition <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">على</span></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʕalaː</span>) <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">on</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> inflects as <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">علَيَّ</span></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʕalajːa/</span>) <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">on me</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">علَيْكَ</span></span>) (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʕalajka/</span>) <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">on you <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>)</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">علَيْهِ</span></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʕalajhi/</span>) <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">on him</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Iranic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranic languages">Iranic languages</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, have developed inflected prepositions. For example, Persian <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">az u</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">from him/her</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> becomes <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">azaš</i></span>; <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">bā šomā</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">with you <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> becomes <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">bāhātun</i></span>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Romance_languages" title="Iberian Romance languages">Iberian Romance languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, the preposition <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">con</i></span> or <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">com</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">with</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> has special forms incorporating certain pronouns (depending on the language). For example, in Spanish and <a href="/wiki/Asturian_language" title="Asturian language">Asturian</a> <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">conmigo</i></span> means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">with me</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. Historically, this developed from the Latin use of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">cum</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">with</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> after a pronoun, as in <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">mecum</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">with me</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bororo_language" title="Bororo language">Bororo</a>, an indigenous language of Brazil, uses postpositions in all contexts: <span title="Borôro-language text"><i lang="bor">tori ji</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">about the mountains</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. When these modify a pronoun rather than a full noun, the phrase contracts into an inflected postposition<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (and therefore looks like a pronominal prefix, rather than a suffix as in the examples above: <span title="Borôro-language text"><i lang="bor">bagai</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">for</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span title="Borôro-language text"><i lang="bor">i-wagai</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">for me</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overlaps_with_other_categories">Overlaps with other categories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Overlaps with other categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs_and_particles">Adverbs and particles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Adverbs and particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are often similarities in form between adpositions and <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a>. Some adverbs are derived from the fusion of a preposition and its complement (such as <i>downstairs</i>, from <i>down (the) stairs</i>, and <i>underground</i>, from <i>under (the) ground</i>). Some words can function both as adverbs and as prepositions, such as <i>inside</i>, <i>aboard</i>, <i>underneath</i> (for instance, one can say "go inside", with adverbial use, or "go inside the house", with prepositional use). Such cases are analogous to verbs that can be used either <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitively</a> or intransitively, and the adverbial forms might therefore be analyzed as "intransitive prepositions". This analysis<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> could also be extended to other adverbs, such as <i>here</i> (this place), <i>there</i> (that place), <i>afterward</i>, etc., even though these never take complements. </p><p>Many English <a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">phrasal verbs</a> contain <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a> that are used adverbially, even though they mostly have the form of a preposition (such words may be called <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">prepositional adverbs</a>). Examples are <i>on</i> in <i>carry on</i>, <i>get on</i>, etc., and <i>over</i> in <i>take over</i>, <i>fall over</i>, and so on. The equivalents in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a> are <a href="/wiki/Separable_prefix" class="mw-redirect" title="Separable prefix">separable prefixes</a>, which also often have the same form as prepositions: for example, Dutch <i>aanbieden</i> and German <i>anbieten</i> (both meaning "to offer") contain the separable prefix <i>aan/an</i>, which is also a preposition meaning "on" or "to". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Conjunctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some words can be used both as adpositions and as <a href="/wiki/Subordinating_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinating conjunction">subordinating conjunctions</a>: </p> <ul><li>(preposition) <i><b>before</b>/<b>after</b>/<b>since</b> the end of the summer</i></li> <li>(conjunction) <i><b>before</b>/<b>after</b>/<b>since</b> the summer ended</i></li> <li>(preposition) <i>It looks <b>like</b> another rainy day</i></li> <li>(conjunction) <i>It looks <b>like</b> it's going to rain again today</i></li></ul> <p>It would be possible to analyze such conjunctions (or even other subordinating conjunctions) as prepositions that take an entire <a href="/wiki/Clause_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clause (grammar)">clause</a> as a complement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some languages, including a number of <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Chinese varieties</a>, many of the words that serve as prepositions can also be used as <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a>. For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, 到 <i>dào</i> can be used in either a prepositional or a verbal sense: </p> <ul><li>我到北京去 <i>wǒ dào Běijīng qù</i> ("I go to Beijing"; <i>qù</i>, meaning "to go", is the main verb, <i>dào</i> is prepositional meaning "to")</li> <li>我到了 <i>wǒ dào le</i> ("I have arrived"; <i>dào</i> is the main verb, meaning "to arrive")</li></ul> <p>Because of this overlap, and the fact that a sequence of prepositional phrases and verb phrases often resembles a <a href="/wiki/Serial_verb_construction" title="Serial verb construction">serial verb construction</a>, Chinese prepositions (and those of other languages with similar grammatical structures) are often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Coverb" title="Coverb">coverbs</a>. </p><p>As noted in previous sections, Chinese can also be said to have postpositions, although these can be analyzed as nominal (<a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>) elements. For more information, see the article on <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Chinese grammar</a>, particularly the sections on <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar#Coverbs" title="Chinese grammar">coverbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar#Locative_phrases" title="Chinese grammar">locative phrases</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_affixes">Case affixes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Case affixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical case</a> markings have a similar function to adpositions; a case affix in one language may be equivalent in meaning to a preposition or postposition in another. For example, in English, the agent of a <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive</a> construction is marked by the preposition <i>by</i>, while in <a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a> it is marked by the use of the <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental case</a>. Sometimes such equivalences exist within a single language; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> case in <a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a> is often interchangeable with a phrase using the preposition <i>von</i> (just as in English, the preposition <i>of</i> is often interchangeable with the <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">possessive suffix</a> <i><span class="nowrap">'s</span></i>). </p><p>Adpositions combine <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactically</a> with their complement, whereas case markings combine with a noun <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphologically</a>. In some instances it may not be clear which applies; the following are some possible means of making such a distinction: </p> <ul><li>Two adpositions can usually be joined with a <a href="/wiki/Coordinating_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinating conjunction">coordinating conjunction</a> and share a single complement (<i>of and for the people</i>), whereas this is generally not possible with case affixes;</li> <li>One adposition can usually combine with two coordinated complements (<i>of the city and the world</i>), whereas a case affix would need to be repeated with each noun (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i>urbis et orbis</i>, not *urb- et orbis<i>);</i></li> <li>Case markings combine primarily with nouns, whereas adpositions can combine with (nominalized) phrases of different categories;</li> <li>A case marking usually appears directly on the noun, but an adposition can be separated from the noun by other words;</li> <li>Within the noun phrase, determiners and adjectives may agree with the noun in case (<b>case spreading</b>), but an adposition only appears once;</li> <li>A language can have hundreds of adpositions (including complex adpositions), but no language has that many distinct morphological cases.</li></ul> <p>Even so, a clear distinction cannot always be made. For example, the post-nominal elements in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> are sometimes called case particles and sometimes postpositions. Sometimes they are analyzed as two different groups because they have different characteristics (e.g., the ability to combine with focus particles), but in such analysis, it is unclear which words should fall into which group. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a> have both extensive case-marking and postpositions, but there is evidence to help distinguish the two: </p> <ul><li>Turkish: (case) <i>sinema<b>ya</b></i> (cinema-<i>dative</i>, "to the cinema") vs. (postposition) <i>sinema <b>için</b></i> ("for the cinema")</li> <li>Finnish: (case) <i>talo<b>ssa</b></i> (house-<i><a href="/wiki/Inessive" class="mw-redirect" title="Inessive">inessive</a></i>, "in the house") vs. (postposition) "talon <b>edessä</b> (house-<i>genitive</i> in front, "in front of the house")</li> <li>Hungarian: (case) <i>tető<b>n</b></i> (roof-<i><a href="/wiki/Superessive" class="mw-redirect" title="Superessive">superessive</a></i>, "on the roof") vs. (postposition) "tető <b>alatt</b> ("under the roof")</li></ul> <p>In these examples, the case markings form a word with their hosts (as shown by <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>, other word-internal effects and agreement of adjectives in Finnish), while the postpositions are independent words. As is seen in the last example, adpositions are often used in conjunction with case affixes – in languages that have a case, a given adposition usually takes a complement in a particular case, and sometimes (as has been seen <a href="#Grammatical_properties">above</a>) the choice of the case helps specify the meaning of the adposition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_prepositions" title="English prepositions">English prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_prepositions" title="List of English prepositions">List of English prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English prepositions">Old English prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_prepositions" title="Spanish prepositions">Spanish prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_particles" title="Japanese particles">Japanese particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational noun</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huddleston & Pullum (2002), chapter 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HP602-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HP602_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HP602_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">An example is Huddleston & Pullum (2002) ("<i>CGEL</i>"), whose choice of terms is discussed on p. 602.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/chapter/85">"Chapter 85: Order of Adposition and Noun Phrase"</a>. <i>World Atlas of Language Structures</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Atlas+of+Language+Structures&rft.atitle=Chapter+85%3A+Order+of+Adposition+and+Noun+Phrase&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Fchapter%2F85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wordcount.org/main.php">"Wordcount · Tracking the Way We Use Language"</a>. <i>www.wordcount.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wordcount.org&rft.atitle=Wordcount+%C2%B7+Tracking+the+Way+We+Use+Language&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wordcount.org%2Fmain.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Reindl (2001), Libert (2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gernot Windfuhr, <i>Iranian Languages</i>, Routledge 2013 p. 736.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vít Bubeník, <i>From Case to Adposition: The Development of Configurational Syntax in Indo-European Languages</i>, John Benjamins Publishing 2006, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew S. Dryer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/chapter/85">"Order of Adposition and Noun Phrase"</a>, in <i>The World Atlas of Language Structures Online</i>. Retrieved 2015-01-01.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Melis (2003), p. 22. The term is used here in French, and in reference to the French language.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CB1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CB1_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundin2007" class="citation web cs1">Lundin, Leigh (2007-09-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://criminalbrief.com/?p=216">"The Power of Prepositions"</a>. <i>On Writing</i>. Cairo: Criminal Brief.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=On+Writing&rft.atitle=The+Power+of+Prepositions&rft.date=2007-09-23&rft.aulast=Lundin&rft.aufirst=Leigh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcriminalbrief.com%2F%3Fp%3D216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mignon_Fogarty-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mignon_Fogarty_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogarty2010" class="citation web cs1">Fogarty, Mignon (4 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grammar.quickanddirtytips.com/top-ten-grammar-myths.aspx">"Top Ten Grammar Myths"</a>. <i>Grammar Girl: Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grammar+Girl%3A+Quick+and+Dirty+Tips+for+Better+Writing&rft.atitle=Top+Ten+Grammar+Myths&rft.date=2010-03-04&rft.aulast=Fogarty&rft.aufirst=Mignon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrammar.quickanddirtytips.com%2Ftop-ten-grammar-myths.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Random_House-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Random_House_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnerKellerman2009" class="citation book cs1">O'Conner, Patricia T.; Kellerman, Stewart (2009). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofspeciou00ocon"><i>Origins of the Specious: Myths and Misconceptions of the English Language</i></a></span>. New York: Random House. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofspeciou00ocon/page/17">17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6660-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6660-5"><bdi>978-1-4000-6660-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Specious%3A+Myths+and+Misconceptions+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6660-5&rft.aulast=O%27Conner&rft.aufirst=Patricia+T.&rft.au=Kellerman%2C+Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofspeciou00ocon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersen1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Jespersen, Otto</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cyAhxH035RUC&pg=PT96"><i>Essentials of English Grammar</i></a>. London: George Allen & Unwin. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1135662118" title="Special:BookSources/1135662118"><bdi>1135662118</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+English+Grammar&rft.place=London&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=George+Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=1135662118&rft.aulast=Jespersen&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcyAhxH035RUC%26pg%3DPT96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Duden" title="Duden">Duden</a>: <i>Neue Rechtschreibung Crashkurs (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.duden.de/deutsche_sprache/neue_rechtschreibung/crashkurs/getrenntzusammen/regel_11.php">Regel 11</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080312003114/http://www.duden.de/deutsche_sprache/neue_rechtschreibung/crashkurs/getrenntzusammen/regel_11.php">Archived</a> 2008-03-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>CGEL</i>, p. 618ff; Pullum (2005); Huddleston and Pullum (2005), pp. 146-47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quirk and Mulholland (1964).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Jan Svartvik, & Geoffrey Leech. 1985. <i>A comprehensive grammar of the English language</i>. London: Longman. 667-68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maria Franca Zuccarello, Edvaldo Sampaio Belizário, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.filologia.org.br/xiicnlf/16/07.pdf">As preposições acidentais (preposizioni improprie) italianas e seus termos correpondentes em português</a>, CNLF, Vol. XII No. 16, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harm Pinkster, <i>On Latin Adverbs</i>, Amsterdam University Press 2005, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanley E. Porter, <i>Idioms of the Greek New Testament</i>, A&C Black 1992, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zwarts, Joost. 2005. "Prepositional Aspect and the Algebra of Paths." <i>Linguistics and Philosophy</i> 28.6, 739–779.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Creswell, Max. 1978. "Prepositions and points of view." <i>Linguistics and Philosophy</i>, 2: 1–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwan2002" class="citation book cs1">Swan, Oscar E. (2002). <i>A Grammar of Contemporary Polish</i>. Bloomington, IN: Slavica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89357-296-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-89357-296-9"><bdi>0-89357-296-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Contemporary+Polish&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+IN&rft.pub=Slavica&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-89357-296-9&rft.aulast=Swan&rft.aufirst=Oscar+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlinert1994" class="citation book cs1">Glinert, Lewis (1994). <i>Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar</i> (2nd ed.). Routledge UK. pp. 41–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-10190-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-10190-5"><bdi>0-415-10190-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Hebrew%3A+An+Essential+Grammar&rft.pages=41-44&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge+UK&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-415-10190-5&rft.aulast=Glinert&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowell1979" class="citation book cs1">Crowell, Thomas Harris (1979). <i>A Grammar of Bororo</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Bororo&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pub=University+Microfilms+International&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Crowell&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Harris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example <i>CGEL</i>, pp. 612–16.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Haspelmath, Martin. (2003) "Adpositions". <i>International Encyclopedia of Linguistics.</i> 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513977-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513977-1">0-19-513977-1</a>.</li> <li>Huddleston, Rodney, and Geoffrey K. Pullum. (2002) <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_Grammar_of_the_English_Language" title="The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language">The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</a>.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43146-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43146-8">0-521-43146-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuddlestonPullumReynolds2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Huddleston" title="Rodney Huddleston">Huddleston, Rodney</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_K._Pullum" title="Geoffrey K. Pullum">Pullum, Geoffrey K.</a>; Reynolds, Brett (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=El8GnwEACAAJ"><i>A Student's Introduction to English Grammar</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-08574-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-08574-8"><bdi>978-1-009-08574-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Student%27s+Introduction+to+English+Grammar&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-009-08574-8&rft.aulast=Huddleston&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft.au=Pullum%2C+Geoffrey+K.&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEl8GnwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdposition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Koopman, Hilda. (2000) "Prepositions, postpositions, circumpositions, and particles". In <i>The Syntax of Specifiers and Heads</i>, pp. 204–260. London: Routledge.</li> <li>Libert, Alan R. (2006) <i>Ambipositions</i>. LINCOM studies in language typology (No. 13). LINCOM. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89586-747-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-89586-747-0">3-89586-747-0</a>.</li> <li>Maling, Joan. (1983) "Transitive adjectives: A case of categorial reanalysis". In F. Heny and B. Richards (eds), <i>Linguistic Categories: Auxiliaries and Related Puzzles,</i> Vol. 1, pp. 253–289. Dordrecht: Reidel.</li> <li>Melis, Ludo. (2003) <i>La préposition en français</i>. Gap: Ophrys.</li> <li>Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/001871.html">Phrasal Prepositions in a Civil Tone</a>." <i>Language Log</i>. Accessed 9 September 2007.</li> <li>Quirk, Randolph, and Joan Mulholland. (1964) "Complex Prepositions and Related Sequences". <i>English Studies</i>, suppl. to vol. 45, pp. 64–73.</li> <li>Rauh, Gisa. (1991) <i>Approaches to Prepositions</i>. Tübingen: Gunter Narr.</li> <li>Reindl, Donald F. (2001) "Areal Effects on the Preservation and Genesis of Slavic Postpositions". In Lj. Šarić and D. F. Reindl <i>On Prepositions</i> (= Studia Slavica Oldenburgensia 8), pp. 85–100. Oldenburg: Carl-von-Ossietzky-Universitat Oldenburg.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adposition&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adposition" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:adposition">adposition</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514204757/http://www.merriam-webster.com/video/0025-preposition.htm">Merriam Webster Editor's take on whether it is ok to end a sentence with a Preposition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/grammar/prepositions/index.html">Some prepositions</a> at Purdue Online Writing Lab</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lexical_categories_and_their_features" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lexical_categories" title="Template talk:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lexical_categories_and_their_features" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">Lexical categories</a> and their features</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Noun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract / Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjectival_noun_(Japanese)" title="Adjectival noun (Japanese)">Adjectival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_nouns" title="Bare nouns">Bare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Countable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong</a> / <a href="/wiki/Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">Attributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converb" title="Converb">Converb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">Finite</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">Nonfinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">Gerund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supine" title="Supine">Supine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgressive_(linguistics)" title="Transgressive (linguistics)">Transgressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">Ambitransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andative_and_venitive" title="Andative and venitive">Andative / Venitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">Anticausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocausative_verb" title="Autocausative verb">Autocausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captative_verb" title="Captative verb">Captative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenative_verb" title="Catenative verb">Catenative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_verb" title="Compound verb">Compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">Defective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">Denominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">Deponent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_verb" title="Dynamic verb">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_case-marking" title="Exceptional case-marking">Exceptional case-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impersonal_verb" title="Impersonal verb">Impersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">Inchoative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labile_verb" title="Labile verb">Labile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">Lexical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_verb" title="Light verb">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_verb" title="Performative verb">Performative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">Predicative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_verbs" title="Pure verbs">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_and_irregular_verbs" title="Regular and irregular verbs">Regular / Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">Separable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stretched_verb" title="Stretched verb">Stretched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">Unaccusative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">Unergative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjective</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Anti-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalized_adjective" title="Nominalized adjective">Nominalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Non-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">Postpositive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Pure intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Relative subsective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Subsective</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctive_adverb" title="Conjunctive adverb">Conjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_genitive" title="Adverbial genitive">Genitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locative_adverb" title="Locative adverb">Locative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">Prepositional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">Pronominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronoun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bound_variable_pronoun" title="Bound variable pronoun">Bound variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunctive_pronoun" title="Disjunctive pronoun">Disjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">Distributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_sentence" title="Donkey sentence">Donkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">Formal / Informal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Gender-neutral</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gender-specific_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-specific pronoun">Gender-specific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Inclusive / Exclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">Indefinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">Intensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">Reciprocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">Relative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resumptive_pronoun" title="Resumptive pronoun">Resumptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak pronoun">Strong / Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> / <a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">Prepositional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casally_modulated_preposition" title="Casally modulated preposition">Casally modulated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Stranded</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">Determiner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Article</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Quantifier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">Particle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_particle" title="Modal particle">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_particle" title="Noun particle">Noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coverb" title="Coverb">Coverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">Interjection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideophone" title="Ideophone">Ideophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">Onomatopoeia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">Preverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedure_word" title="Procedure word">Procedure word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-form" title="Pro-form">Pro-form</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-verb" title="Pro-verb">Pro-verb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pro-sentence" title="Pro-sentence">Pro-sentence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prop-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Prop-word">Prop-word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yes_and_no" title="Yes and no">Yes and no</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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