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科学网—对杨安泽“全民基本收入”方案的数学分析 - 欧阳峰的博文

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><p>2020<span style="font-family:SimSun">年是美国的大选年。由于上次(</span>2016<span style="font-family:SimSun">年)总统大选结果在全国造成很大争议,今年的大选格外引人注目。当然,对于美国华人来说,今年大选的另一个特点是有一个华裔的民主党竞争者杨安泽(</span>Andrew Yang<span style="font-family:SimSun">)。过去一年多来,杨安泽在民主党候选人中从一个无名小辈上升到了第五名【注一】。他的招牌政见就是“全民基本收入”(</span>Universal Basic Income<span style="font-family:SimSun">,以下简称</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">)【注二】。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">当然在目前看来,杨安泽当选总统的可能性接近于零。他的</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">政见也不可能很快实施。但是,</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">在世界上越来越受到关注是个事实。在美国,金融和科技界大佬如巴菲特,盖兹,马斯克,扎克伯格等人都对这类想法表达过兴趣。关于</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的重要性,我将在另文中讨论。</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的基本理念在</span>16<span style="font-family:SimSun">世纪就有人提出了,但一直是极具争议。支持者认为</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">是解决收入不平等和贫困问题的有效方式,特别是在如今自动化引起保证就业越来越困难的情况下。反对者认为</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">是极端的收入再分配,对经济发展会造成严重影响。对此我将在今后另文讨论。在本文中,我聚焦于一个争议最大的问题:如何支付</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">带来的巨大经济成本?</span></p><p>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">讨论的一个重要困难是:属于</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的方案很多,往往讨论双方针对的是不同的具体选项。例如,在发达国家和贫穷国家实行的</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">就属于非常不同的事物。而且这些方案本身也是语焉不详,讨论者有很大的自由想象空间。这个问题在关于成本的讨论中特别突出,因为不同方案的成本和支付方式差别会非常大,造成公众讨论中“鸡同鸭讲”的无解局面。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">而杨安泽自我定位为“喜欢数学的亚洲人”,他的</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">方案(他称之为“自由红利”</span>Freedom Dividend<span style="font-family:SimSun">)是相对来说很具体的,对于福利和支付方式都有比较详细的解释【注三】。所以,剖析杨安泽的</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">提议,是我们具体了解这个理念并且基于事实进行理性讨论的难得机会。本文就以杨安泽的</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">方案作为“麻雀”来解剖一下,看看杨安泽的“数学”是否靠谱,杨版“</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">”是否可行。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">从成本方面考虑,杨的方案有以下的特点【注三】:</span></p><p>1.<span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">福利:全美国所有成年人(</span>18<span style="font-family:SimSun">岁以上),每人每月</span>1000<span style="font-family:SimSun">美元。</span></p><p>2.<span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="font-family:SimSun">目前的社会安全退休金和残废福利(</span>Social Security retirement<span style="font-family:SimSun">和</span>Social Security Disability Insurance<span style="font-family:SimSun">)不受影响。</span></p><p>3.<span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="font-family:SimSun">接受其他基于收入的(</span>means-tested<span style="font-family:SimSun">)社会救济福利的人士,可以在现有福利与</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">之间选择。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">杨的希望是所有目前接受救济的人都会选择</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">,因为其初衷就是取代现在的救济系统。因此,我们可以假定美国所有成年人都会接受</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">。根据美国人口统计局资料,</span>2019<span style="font-family:SimSun">年美国的成年人是</span>254.7<span style="font-family:SimSun">百万【注四】。这样算来,</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的总花费是每年</span>3<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿美元。我们可以将此数字与目前联邦财务比较一下。根据国会预算办公室的报告,</span>2019<span style="font-family:SimSun">财政年度,美国联邦政府的总收入是</span>3.5<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿,总支出是</span>4.4<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿,赤字是</span>1<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿【注</span>5<span style="font-family:SimSun">】。值得指出的是联邦预算中包括社会安全福利,那其实是一个自负盈亏的基金,规模大约是</span>1<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿【注</span>5<span style="font-family:SimSun">】。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">所以,杨版</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的总成本是每年</span>3<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿美元,与目前的联邦总收入大致相当,是目前联邦赤字的三倍。弄清楚这个规模之后,我们就可以审视一下杨安泽关于</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的“数学”,也就是他准备怎样支付这个成本。针对这个问题,杨安泽的立场是</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">不会增加联邦赤字。他开出了四张支票来涵盖</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的成本【注三】。以下我们逐个分析他的提议是否靠谱。以下除非特别说明,所有金额都是以每年收入</span>/<span style="font-family:SimSun">花费计算。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">杨的第一张支票是节省目前的社会救济花费。杨说,目前的社会救济花费为每年</span>5<span style="font-family:SimSun">千到</span>6<span style="font-family: SimSun">千亿美元。因为接收者必须在</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">和社会救济之间选择,可以把这些花费移作支付</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的成本。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">根据</span>2019<span style="font-family:SimSun">年度联邦支出的分析【注六】估算,联邦政府花在按收入的救济(</span>means -tested welfare<span style="font-family:SimSun">)的钱大约为每年</span>8<span style="font-family:SimSun">千亿美元。但是其中有</span>4.5<span style="font-family:SimSun">千亿是医疗救济(</span>Medicaid<span style="font-family:SimSun">)。医疗救济是奥巴马健保改革后全国医疗保障系统的一部分,各州享用的收入标准不同,一般在贫困线的</span>150%<span style="font-family:SimSun">,也就是个人收入在一万七千以下【注七】。在</span>2014<span style="font-family:SimSun">年,医疗救济项目的全美平均花费是每个受益者每年</span>$5736<span style="font-family:SimSun">美元【注八】。考虑一个四口之家,在杨版</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">中拿到的钱是每年</span>2.4<span style="font-family:SimSun">万美元(两个成人)。而享用医疗救济的福利是</span>2.3<span style="font-family:SimSun">万美元。杨的网站上没有明确说他的</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">是否准备取代医疗救济。但从上面的分析看,</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">显然不能涵盖医疗救济加上生活费用。所以我们可以合理推测,杨的用意是:领取</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的穷人仍然可以享受医疗救济。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">当然,如果将</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">计入收入计算的话,</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的实施可能会将一部分穷人推出医疗救济的收入范围,从而减少医疗救济的人数。但量化估计这个效果会很困难。因为对于一个四口之家来说,拿到杨版</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">后仍然在贫困线以下。要想丧失医疗救济资格,必须还有其他收入(如工作所得)。然而</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">会影响低收入者的工作意愿,因为不需要靠工资吃饭了。特别是丧失医疗救济资格的话会使得穷人在经济上得不偿失。所以这个收入段的人会有很大动力放弃其他收入而保留接受医疗救济的资格(这个现象是熟为人知的,被称为收入断崖</span>income cliff<span style="font-family:SimSun">)。所以,我们可以预计,</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的实施不会显著降低医疗救济项目的花费。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">杨还提出,实施</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">后能提高穷人的生活品质,从而减少健保,监狱,社会服务等方面的开支。杨给出了</span>1<span style="font-family:SimSun">到</span>2<span style="font-family: SimSun">千亿美元的价码。在我看来,这个数字没有可靠的根据。而且杨说的那些费用有的已经包括在上面的社会救济花费中,有的主要是州政府承担。而且总的数量也并不大。所以为了简单起见,我们就忽略这个因素。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">综上分析,</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">所能取代的社会救济花费应该是联邦救济总花费减去医疗救济,也就是</span>3.5<span style="font-family:SimSun">千亿美元。其实这其中还包括很多非现金的福利(约占三分之一多)【注九】,如住房补贴,教育补助,社区服务等。那些需求在</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">实现后仍然存在。但是因为总数并不多,我们姑且忽略这部分。所以社会救济花费的节省应该是</span>3.5<span style="font-family:SimSun">千亿,而不是杨所说的</span>5<span style="font-family:SimSun">到</span>6<span style="font-family: SimSun">千亿。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">我们也可以用另一个极端算法,即假定所有目前领取社会救济的人都选择继续领取社会救济。美国目前的贫困率是</span>12.3%<span style="font-family:SimSun">【注十】。如果那部分人都不领取</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">,则</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">总费用会减少</span>12.3%<span style="font-family:SimSun">,</span> <span style="font-family:SimSun">也就是</span>4.3<span style="font-family:SimSun">千亿美元。这个数字是高估了,因为有很大一部分贫穷人口目前没有领到足够的社会救济(否则也就没有贫穷问题了)。所以我们还是保留</span>3.5<span style="font-family:SimSun">千亿的估计。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">杨的第二张支票是实行全国增值税(</span>Value-Added Tax<span style="font-family:SimSun">,简称</span>VAT<span style="font-family:SimSun">)。这是他主要的增收来源,预计能收到</span>8<span style="font-family:SimSun">千亿元。关于实行</span>VAT<span style="font-family:SimSun">,在美国已经讨论了很多很多年。这本身又是个相当复杂的问题。</span>VAT<span style="font-family:SimSun">是否应该实行,与</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">是否实行没有关系。杨说欧洲都实行</span>VAT<span style="font-family:SimSun">所以美国实行就没问题,这个站不住脚。欧洲的总税率(收入税加增值税)比美国高,但政府提供的服务也多。这不等于在美国目前政府体制下人民可以接受欧洲的税率。况且欧洲也没有</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">。所以我认为,杨的本质就是要加税,提出</span>VAT<span style="font-family:SimSun">只是个障眼法。所以为了简化我们的讨论,我们不谈</span>VAT<span style="font-family:SimSun">,而是假定增加的税收是通过增加目前的收入税来实现。这个留在本文后面再讨论。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">杨的第三张支票是经济增长带来的额外收入。这是最不靠谱的一张支票。杨根据罗斯福学院(</span>The Roosevelt Institute<span style="font-family:SimSun">)的研究报告,说实现</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">后经济(每年</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">)会增长</span>2.5<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿美元,从而带来</span>8<span style="font-family:SimSun">到</span>9<span style="font-family: SimSun">千亿的政府收入。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">首先,</span>2019<span style="font-family:SimSun">年联邦政府支出占</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">的比值是</span>21.0% <span style="font-family:SimSun">【注五】。假定增加</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">后这个比值不变(也就是说联邦收入和赤字都随着</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">按比例增加),那么</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">增加</span>2.5<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿后联邦的支出会增加</span>5.25<span style="font-family:SimSun">千亿美元,而不是杨说的</span>8<span style="font-family:SimSun">到</span>9<span style="font-family: SimSun">千亿。更重要的是,罗斯福学院报告的结论根本不支持那个</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">增长的数字。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">在罗斯福学院的报告中分析了十二种</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">方案对经济的可能影响【注十一】。其中引起</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">增长最大的方案是采用杨所提出的</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">水平(每个成年人每月</span>1<span style="font-family:SimSun">千美元),而且完全由联邦赤字来支持。在这个方案下,报告预计</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">在</span>8<span style="font-family: SimSun">年以后会比不实行</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">增长</span>12.10%<span style="font-family:SimSun">。考虑到美国</span>2017<span style="font-family:SimSun">年(报告发表的年份)的</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">为</span>13.39<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿,这个数字与杨说的</span>GDP<span style="font-family:SimSun">增加</span>2.5<span style="font-family:SimSun">万亿相吻合。但是且慢!这个并非杨的方案!杨宣称他不准备增加联邦赤字,而完全通过增加联邦收入来支付</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的成本。这个选项在罗斯福学院报告中也有分析,预计的增长额是</span>2.62%<span style="font-family:SimSun">。这说明前面说到的</span>12.10%<span style="font-family:SimSun">增长中绝大部分是赤字引起的经济刺激效应。这是任何赤字增加的方案都会有的,与</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">无关。而后一个增长额(</span>2.62%<span style="font-family:SimSun">)则是来自</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">引起的消费增长。按照这个估计,这部分的收入应该是</span>0.074<span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">万亿,在我们的计算中可以忽略不计。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">应该指出,罗斯福学院的报告是有争议的,因为它假定</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">对人们的工作意愿没有影响,而且加税也不会影响每个家庭的经济行为。罗斯福的报告以过去</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">试验的经验来支持这两个假定。但那些试验在时间尺度和金额水平上都比杨版</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">小得多,所以最多也是很弱的证据。另一个研究采用了不同的假定和更复杂的模型,得到不同的结论:如果采取杨版</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">一半的金额水平而且靠加税来支付,那么</span><span style="color:black">20</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">年后</span><span style="color:black">GDP</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">会比没有</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">减少</span><span style="color:black">1.7%</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">【注十二】。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">所以,杨的“经济增长”理论是建立在错误的证据上的。我们认为这个因素不应给予考虑。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">杨的第四张支票是给富人和“污染者”加税,并去除税法中对投资的优惠待遇。这是老生常谈了,能不能做到取决于政治环境,与</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">无关。杨也没提出具体数额。所以这是一张“空头支票”,可以直接忽略。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">综上所述,杨的支付方式中靠谱的只有两条:一条是取代现有的社会救济(我们的估计是</span><span style="color:black">3.5</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">千亿美元),一条是加税(需总共多收</span><span style="color:black">2.7</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">万亿美元)。下面我们来分析一下到底要加多少税。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">我们都知道,税收有两个基本功能,一个是提供国家所需的财务收入,另一个是收入再分配。前者涉及总税收额,后者涉及不同收入阶层的税率。我们认为,在讨论政策时,必须把这两者分开。在增加总税收额时,就不能同时改变各阶层的税率比例。否则会造成“敞开花钱,反正找富人买单”的政治方便。而在讨论税率时,必须保持总税收不变,免得政府借“杀富济贫”的名义肥了自己的腰包。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">基于这个原则,我们基于目前各阶层的收入和平均税率【注十三】,假定大家的税率都按比例增加,而增加的总税收正好等于</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">的成本。这样算来,假定</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">也需按收入一样(按平均税率)交税的话,新增税率是原来税率的</span><span style="color:black">0.875</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">倍。下图显示了各个阶层人群的额外税负和税后</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">的金额(以家庭为单位计算,假定每个家庭两个成人)。</span></p><p style="text-align:center"><span style="font-size:15px;line-height:115%;font-family:&#39;Calibri&#39;,sans-serif;position:relative;top:6px"><img src="http://image.sciencenet.cn/home/202001/05/081846k8glgoyzlllzlts0.png" title="undefined"/></span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">从图中可以看出,</span><span style="color:black">80%</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">多的人群</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">收入多于额外税负。也就是说,实行</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">后他们的净收入是增加了。而这个成本则由收入最高的</span><span style="color:black">20%</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">左右的人群承担。而对于底层穷人,</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">只是取代了他们目前的社会救济。所以,</span><span style="color:black">UBI</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">的经济得益层主要是中产阶级,类似于现在的社会安全退休金系统。所以它在政治上还是可能被接受的。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">从上面的分析我们可以看到,杨版</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的成本是巨大的:它是目前联邦政府开支总数的四分之三。如果用按比例增加收入税来支付</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">成本的话,我们的税率几乎要加倍。但是对于</span>80%<span style="font-family:SimSun">的家庭来说,</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的收入会超过额外税务支出。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">虽然这样计算的结果显示</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">和税收的权衡在政治上还是可以接受的,但是杨安泽本人提出的支付方式却有很多技术问题。有些是考虑不周密,有些直接是政治上的忽悠。对于一个宣称“爱数学”的总统候选人来说,这样的表现是丢分的。</span></p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">当然,本文对于</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的分析只限于联邦预算方面的影响。</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">在政治,经济上还有很多别的影响需要讨论。那些是我今后文章的话题。</span></p><p>&nbsp;</p><p><span style="font-family:SimSun">参考资料(所有网站均在</span>2020<span style="font-family:SimSun">年</span>1<span style="font-family: SimSun">月访问)</span></p><p><a name="_Hlk29058712"></a>注一 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="font-family:SimSun">根据“滚石”杂志</span>2020<span style="font-family:SimSun">年</span>1<span style="font-family:SimSun">月</span>2<span style="font-family:SimSun">日的排名</span> <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/2020-democrat-candidates-771735/" target="_blank">https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/2020-democrat-candidates-771735/</a></p><p>注二 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="font-family:SimSun">杨的网站上对于</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的介绍:</span><a href="https://www.yang2020.com/policies/the-freedom-dividend/" target="_blank">https://www.yang2020.com/policies/the-freedom-dividend/</a></p><p>注三 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="font-family:SimSun">杨的网站上关于</span>UBI<span style="font-family:SimSun">的具体方案:</span><a href="https://www.yang2020.com/what-is-freedom-dividend-faq/" target="_blank">https://www.yang2020.com/what-is-freedom-dividend-faq/</a></p><p><a name="_Hlk29028362"></a>注四 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US" target="_blank">https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US</a> </p><p>注五 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><a href="https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2019-11/55824-CBO-MBR-FY19.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2019-11/55824-CBO-MBR-FY19.pdf</a></p><p><span style=";text-underline:none">注六 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span><span style="font-family:SimSun">此处主要根据</span><a href="https://www.usaspending.gov/#/explorer/budget_function" target="_blank">https://www.usaspending.gov/#/explorer/budget_function</a><span style="font-family:SimSun;color:black">提供的数据估算。其他的分析如【注九】也得到类似的结果。</span></p><p><span style=";text-underline:none">注七 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/23/upshot/medicaid-gives-the-poor-a-reason-to-say-no-thanks.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/23/upshot/medicaid-gives-the-poor-a-reason-to-say-no-thanks.html</a></p><p><span style=";text-underline:none">注八 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span><a href="https://www.kff.org/medicaid/state-indicator/medicaid-spending-per-enrollee/" target="_blank">https://www.kff.org/medicaid/state-indicator/medicaid-spending-per-enrollee/</a></p><p><span style=";text-underline:none">注九 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span><a href="https://www.heritage.org/welfare/report/understanding-the-hidden-11-trillion-welfare-system-and-how-reform-it" target="_blank">https://www.heritage.org/welfare/report/understanding-the-hidden-11-trillion-welfare-system-and-how-reform-it</a></p><p>注十 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><a href="https://poverty.ucdavis.edu/faq/what-current-poverty-rate-united-states" target="_blank">https://poverty.ucdavis.edu/faq/what-current-poverty-rate-united-states</a> </p><p><span style=";text-underline:none">注十一 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span><a href="https://rooseveltinstitute.org/modeling-macroeconomic-effects-ubi/" target="_blank">https://rooseveltinstitute.org/modeling-macroeconomic-effects-ubi/</a></p><p>注十二 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><a href="https://budgetmodel.wharton.upenn.edu/issues/2018/3/29/options-for-universal-basic-income-dynamic-modeling" target="_blank">https://budgetmodel.wharton.upenn.edu/issues/2018/3/29/options-for-universal-basic-income-dynamic-modeling</a> </p><p>注十三 <span style="font:9px &#39;Times New Roman&#39;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><a href="https://itep.org/who-pays-taxes-in-america-in-2019/" target="_blank">https://itep.org/who-pays-taxes-in-america-in-2019/</a></p><p><br/></p> <br /><br /> <label style="font-size:13px; color:#850f0f">转载本文请联系原作者获取授权,同时请注明本文来自欧阳峰科学网博客。<br />链接地址:</label><a href="https://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-309766-1213009.html" target="_blank" style="font-size:13px; color:#850f0f">https://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-309766-1213009.html </a> <br /><br />上一篇:<a href='blog-309766-1207882.html' target='_black'>充满“科学元素”的2018年诺贝尔经济奖</a><br />下一篇:<a href='blog-309766-1248469.html' target='_black'>宇宙学中的理论和实验:2019年诺贝尔物理学奖介绍</a> 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