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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Orbital models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orbital_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_telescope_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_telescope_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Early telescope observations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_telescope_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographical_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographical_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Geographical period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographical_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Martian_canals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Martian_canals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Martian canals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Martian_canals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refining_planetary_parameters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refining_planetary_parameters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Refining planetary parameters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refining_planetary_parameters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_sensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Remote sensing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Observations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B1%D8%B5%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="تاريخ رصد المريخ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ رصد المريخ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="মঙ্গল গ্রহ পর্যবেক্ষণের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মঙ্গল গ্রহ পর্যবেক্ষণের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27observaci%C3%B3_de_Mart" title="Història de l'observació de Mart – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'observació de Mart" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Marsbeobachtung" title="Geschichte der Marsbeobachtung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Marsbeobachtung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_observaci%C3%B3n_de_Marte" title="Historia de la observación de Marte – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la observación de Marte" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B1%D8%B5%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="پیشینه رصد مریخ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیشینه رصد مریخ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27observation_de_Mars" title="Histoire de l'observation de Mars – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'observation de Mars" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9ad%C3%B3ireacht_stairi%C3%BAil_Mharsa" title="Réadóireacht stairiúil Mharsa – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réadóireacht stairiúil Mharsa" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E6%98%9F%E3%81%AE%E8%A6%B3%E6%B8%AC%E5%8F%B2" title="火星の観測史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="火星の観測史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_opservacije_Marsa" title="Historija opservacije Marsa – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija opservacije Marsa" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_close_encounter_(captured_by_the_Hubble_Space_Telescope).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mars_close_encounter_%28captured_by_the_Hubble_Space_Telescope%29.jpg/300px-Mars_close_encounter_%28captured_by_the_Hubble_Space_Telescope%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mars_close_encounter_%28captured_by_the_Hubble_Space_Telescope%29.jpg/450px-Mars_close_encounter_%28captured_by_the_Hubble_Space_Telescope%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mars_close_encounter_%28captured_by_the_Hubble_Space_Telescope%29.jpg/600px-Mars_close_encounter_%28captured_by_the_Hubble_Space_Telescope%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption>Hubble's sharpest view of Mars: Although the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Camera_for_Surveys" title="Advanced Camera for Surveys">ACS</a> “Fastie finger” intrudes, it achieved a spatial scale of 5 miles, or 8 kilometres per pixel at full resolution.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of Mars observation</b> is about the recorded history of observation of the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. Some of the early records of Mars' observation date back to the era of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomers</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd millennium BCE">2nd millennium BCE</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a> records about the motions of Mars appeared before the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (1045 BCE). Detailed observations of the position of Mars were made by <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomers</a> who developed arithmetic techniques to predict the future position of the planet. The ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic astronomy">Hellenistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Astronomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomers">astronomers</a> developed a <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> to explain the planet's motions. Measurements of Mars' angular diameter can be found in ancient Greek and <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a> texts. In the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> proposed a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric model</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> in which the planets follow circular orbits about the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. This was revised by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, yielding an <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_orbit" title="Elliptic orbit">elliptic orbit</a> for Mars that more accurately fitted the observational data. </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopic</a> observation of Mars was by <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> in 1610. Within a century, astronomers discovered distinct <a href="/wiki/Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars" title="Classical albedo features on Mars">albedo features</a> on the planet, including the dark patch <a href="/wiki/Syrtis_Major_Planum" title="Syrtis Major Planum">Syrtis Major Planum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar ice caps</a>. They were able to determine the planet's <a href="/wiki/Rotation_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotation period">rotation period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">axial tilt</a>. These observations were primarily made during the time intervals when the planet was located in <a href="/wiki/Opposition_(planets)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition (planets)">opposition</a> to the Sun, at which points Mars made its closest approaches to the Earth. Better telescopes developed early in the 19th century allowed permanent Martian <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> features to be mapped in detail. The first crude map of Mars was published in 1840, followed by more refined maps from 1877 onward. When astronomers mistakenly thought they had detected the <a href="/wiki/Absorption_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption line">spectroscopic signature</a> of water in the Martian atmosphere, the idea of <a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">life on Mars</a> became <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/popularise" class="extiw" title="wikt:popularise">popularized</a> among the public. <a href="/wiki/Percival_Lowell" title="Percival Lowell">Percival Lowell</a> believed he could see a network of artificial <a href="/wiki/Martian_canals" title="Martian canals">canals on Mars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20151001_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20151001-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These linear features later proved to be an <a href="/wiki/Optical_illusion" title="Optical illusion">optical illusion</a>, and the atmosphere was found to be too thin to support an <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">Earth-like environment</a>. </p><p>Yellow clouds on Mars have been observed since the 1870s, which <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_M._Antoniadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugène M. Antoniadi">Eugène M. Antoniadi</a> suggested were windblown sand or dust. During the 1920s, the range of Martian surface temperature was measured; it ranged from −85 to 7 °C (−121 to 45 °F). The planetary atmosphere was found to be arid with only trace amounts of oxygen and water. In 1947, <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Kuiper" title="Gerard Kuiper">Gerard Kuiper</a> showed that the thin Martian atmosphere contained extensive <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>; roughly double the quantity found in Earth's atmosphere. The first standard nomenclature for Mars albedo features was adopted in 1960 by the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">International Astronomical Union</a>. Since the 1960s, multiple robotic <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> have been sent to explore Mars from orbit and the surface. The planet has remained under observation by ground and space-based instruments across a broad range of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>.The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a> on Earth that <a href="/wiki/Mars_meteorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars meteorite">originated on Mars</a> has allowed laboratory examination of the chemical conditions on the planet. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earliest_records">Earliest records</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Earliest records"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Retrograde_Motion.bjb.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="At left are two concentric circles around a disk. Lines from the circles are projected on a star chart at right, demonstrating the S-shaped motion of Mars" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Retrograde_Motion.bjb.svg/220px-Retrograde_Motion.bjb.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Retrograde_Motion.bjb.svg/330px-Retrograde_Motion.bjb.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Retrograde_Motion.bjb.svg/440px-Retrograde_Motion.bjb.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>As Earth passes Mars, the latter planet will temporarily appear to reverse its motion across the sky.</figcaption></figure> <p>The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was recorded by ancient <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomers</a>. By the 2nd millennium BCE they were familiar with the <a href="/wiki/Apparent_retrograde_motion" title="Apparent retrograde motion">apparent retrograde motion</a> of the planet, in which it appears to move in the opposite direction across the sky from its normal progression.<sup id="cite_ref-paob85_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paob85-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mars was portrayed on the ceiling of the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Ramesseum" title="Ramesseum">Ramesseum</a> ceiling,<sup id="cite_ref-marshall89_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marshall89-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the <a href="/wiki/Senenmut" title="Senenmut">Senenmut</a> star map. The last is the oldest known star map, being dated to 1534 BCE based on the position of the planets.<sup id="cite_ref-paob85_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paob85-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the period of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian astronomers">Babylonian astronomers</a> were making systematic observations of the positions and behavior of the planets. For Mars, they knew, for example, that the planet made 37 <a href="/wiki/Synodic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Synodic period">synodic periods</a>, or 42 circuits of the zodiac, every 79 years. The Babylonians invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets. This technique was primarily derived from timing measurements—such as when Mars rose above the horizon, rather than from the less accurately known position of the planet on the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-north08_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-north08-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-swerdlow98_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swerdlow98-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese records of the appearances and motions of Mars appear before the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (1045 BCE), and by the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (221 BCE) astronomers maintained close records of planetary conjunctions, including those of Mars. Occultations of Mars by Venus were noted in 368, 375, and 405 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-emp40_2_111_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emp40_2_111-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period and motion of the planet's orbit was known in detail during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-emp40_2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emp40_2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chang_wu_88_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chang_wu_88-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jha32_4_109_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jha32_4_109-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">astronomy of ancient Greece</a> was influenced by knowledge transmitted from the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> culture. Thus, the Babylonians associated Mars with <a href="/wiki/Nergal" title="Nergal">Nergal</a>, their god of war and pestilence, and the Greeks connected the planet with their god of war, <a href="/wiki/Ares" title="Ares">Ares</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-valery_cumont12_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valery_cumont12-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, the motions of the planets were of little interest to the Greeks; <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Works_and_Days" title="Works and Days">Works and Days</a></i> (<i>c.</i> 650 BCE) makes no mention of the planets.<sup id="cite_ref-evans98_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans98-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orbital_models">Orbital models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Orbital models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemaicsystem-small.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A series of concentric circles surround a fanciful representation of the Earth at center. Latin words and astrological symbols lie around the perimeter." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/220px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/330px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/440px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Geocentric model of the Universe.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Greeks used the word <i>planēton</i> to refer to the seven celestial bodies that moved with respect to the background stars and they held a <a href="/wiki/Geocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentric">geocentric</a> view that these bodies moved about the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. In his work, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a></i> (X.616E–617B), the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> provided the oldest known statement defining the order of the planets in Greek astronomical tradition. His list, in order of the nearest to the most distant from the Earth, was as follows: the Moon, Sun, Venus, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>, Mars, <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>, and the fixed stars. In his dialogue <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i>, Plato proposed that the progression of these objects across the skies depended on their distance, so that the most distant object moved the slowest.<sup id="cite_ref-brumbaugh87_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brumbaugh87-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, a student of Plato, observed an <a href="/wiki/Occultation" title="Occultation">occultation</a> of Mars by the Moon on 4 May 357 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this he concluded that Mars must lie further from the Earth than the Moon. He noted that other such occultations of stars and planets had been observed by the Egyptians and Babylonians.<sup id="cite_ref-lloyd96_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lloyd96-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-william2000_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-william2000-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-china69BCE_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-china69BCE-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle used this observational evidence to support the Greek sequencing of the planets.<sup id="cite_ref-heidarzadeh08_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heidarzadeh08-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">De Caelo</a></i> presented a model of the universe in which the Sun, Moon, and planets circle about the Earth at fixed distances. A more sophisticated version of the geocentric model was developed by the Greek astronomer <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> when he proposed that Mars moved along a circular track called the <a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">epicycle</a> that, in turn, orbited about the Earth along a larger circle called the <a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">deferent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kolb96_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kolb96-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hummel1986_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hummel1986-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> during the 2nd century CE, <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Ptolemaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius Ptolemaeus">Claudius Ptolemaeus</a> (Ptolemy) attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Observations of Mars had shown that the planet appeared to move 40% faster on one side of its orbit than the other, in conflict with the Aristotelian model of uniform motion. Ptolemy modified the model of planetary motion by adding a <a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">point offset</a> from the center of the planet's circular orbit about which the planet moves at a uniform <a href="/wiki/Angular_velocity" title="Angular velocity">rate of rotation</a>. He proposed that the order of the planets, by increasing distance, was: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars.<sup id="cite_ref-linton2004_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-linton2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i>, which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-hummel1986_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hummel1986-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1543, <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> published a heliocentric model in his work <i><a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a></i>. This approach placed the Earth in an orbit around the Sun between the circular orbits of Venus and Mars. His model successfully explained why the planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were on the opposite side of the sky from the Sun whenever they were in the middle of their retrograde motions. Copernicus was able to sort the planets into their correct heliocentric order based solely on the period of their orbits about the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-gingerich_maclachlan05_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gingerich_maclachlan05-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His theory gradually gained acceptance among European astronomers, particularly after the publication of the <i><a href="/wiki/Prutenic_Tables" title="Prutenic Tables">Prutenic Tables</a></i> by the German astronomer <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Reinhold" title="Erasmus Reinhold">Erasmus Reinhold</a> in 1551, which were computed using the Copernican model.<sup id="cite_ref-seop_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seop-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On October 13, 1590, the German astronomer <a href="/wiki/Michael_Maestlin" title="Michael Maestlin">Michael Maestlin</a> observed an <a href="/wiki/Occultation" title="Occultation">occultation</a> of Mars by Venus.<sup id="cite_ref-sat57_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sat57-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of his students, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, quickly became an adherent to the Copernican system. After the completion of his education, Kepler became an assistant to the Danish nobleman and astronomer, <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a>. With access granted to Tycho's detailed observations of Mars, Kepler was set to work mathematically assembling a replacement to the Prutenic Tables. After repeatedly failing to fit the motion of Mars into a circular orbit as required under Copernicanism, he succeeded in matching Tycho's observations by assuming the orbit was an <a href="/wiki/Ellipse" title="Ellipse">ellipse</a> and the Sun was located at one of the <a href="/wiki/Focus_(geometry)" title="Focus (geometry)">foci</a>. His model became the basis for <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a>, which were published in his multi-volume work <i><a href="/wiki/Epitome_Astronomiae_Copernicanae" title="Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae">Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae</a></i> (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy) between 1615 and 1621.<sup id="cite_ref-longair03_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longair03-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_telescope_observations">Early telescope observations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early telescope observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At its closest approach, the <a href="/wiki/Angular_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Angular size">angular size</a> of Mars is 25 <a href="/wiki/Arcsecond" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcsecond">arcseconds</a> (a unit of <a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degree</a>); this is much too small for the <a href="/wiki/Naked_eye_resolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Naked eye resolution">naked eye to resolve</a>. Hence, prior to the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, nothing was known about the planet besides its red hue and its position on the sky.<sup id="cite_ref-bone2003_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bone2003-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Italian scientist <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> was the first person known to use a telescope to make astronomical observations. His records indicate that he began observing Mars through a telescope in September 1610.<sup id="cite_ref-jha15_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jha15-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This instrument was too primitive to display any surface detail on the planet,<sup id="cite_ref-harland_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harland-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so he set the goal of seeing if Mars exhibited <a href="/wiki/Planetary_phase" title="Planetary phase">phases</a> of partial darkness similar to <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. Although uncertain of his success, by December he did note that Mars had shrunk in angular size.<sup id="cite_ref-jha15_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jha15-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polish astronomer <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius" title="Johannes Hevelius">Johannes Hevelius</a> succeeded in observing a phase of Mars in 1645.<sup id="cite_ref-jbaa94_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jbaa94-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_and_Syrtis_Major_-_GPN-2000-000923.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An orange disk with a darker region at center and darker bands in the upper and lower halves. A white patch at the top is an ice cap, and fuzzy white regions at the bottom and the right side of the disk are cloud formations." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Mars_and_Syrtis_Major_-_GPN-2000-000923.jpg/220px-Mars_and_Syrtis_Major_-_GPN-2000-000923.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Mars_and_Syrtis_Major_-_GPN-2000-000923.jpg/330px-Mars_and_Syrtis_Major_-_GPN-2000-000923.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Mars_and_Syrtis_Major_-_GPN-2000-000923.jpg/440px-Mars_and_Syrtis_Major_-_GPN-2000-000923.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="1023" /></a><figcaption>The low albedo feature Syrtis Major is visible at the disk center. <i><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">HST</a> image</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1644, the Italian Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Daniello_Bartoli" title="Daniello Bartoli">Daniello Bartoli</a> reported seeing two darker patches on Mars. During the <a href="/wiki/Opposition_(planets)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition (planets)">oppositions</a> of 1651, 1653 and 1655, when the planet made its closest approaches to the Earth, the Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Riccioli" title="Giovanni Battista Riccioli">Giovanni Battista Riccioli</a> and his student <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Maria_Grimaldi" title="Francesco Maria Grimaldi">Francesco Maria Grimaldi</a> noted patches of differing <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">reflectivity</a> on Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-harland_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harland-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first person to draw a map of Mars that displayed terrain features was the Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>. On November 28, 1659, he made an illustration of Mars that showed the distinct dark region now known as <a href="/wiki/Syrtis_Major_Planum" title="Syrtis Major Planum">Syrtis Major Planum</a>, and possibly one of the polar <a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">ice caps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sheehan_ch2_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sheehan_ch2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same year, he succeeded in measuring the rotation period of the planet, giving it as approximately 24 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-jbaa94_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jbaa94-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He made a rough estimate of the diameter of Mars, guessing that it is about 60% of the size of the Earth, which compares well with the modern value of 53%.<sup id="cite_ref-ferris03_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ferris03-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps the first definitive mention of Mars's southern polar ice cap was by the Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini" title="Giovanni Domenico Cassini">Giovanni Domenico Cassini</a>, in 1666. That same year, he used observations of the surface markings on Mars to determine a rotation period of 24<sup>h</sup> 40<sup>m</sup>. This differs from the currently-accepted value by less than three minutes. In 1672, Huygens noticed a fuzzy white cap at the north pole.<sup id="cite_ref-rabkin05_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rabkin05-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Cassini became the first director of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Observatory" title="Paris Observatory">Paris Observatory</a> in 1671, he tackled the problem of the physical scale of the Solar System. The relative size of the planetary orbits was known from <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_third_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's third law">Kepler's third law</a>, so what was needed was the actual size of one of the planet's orbits. For this purpose, the position of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> was measured against the background stars from different points on the Earth, thereby measuring the <a href="/wiki/Diurnal_parallax" class="mw-redirect" title="Diurnal parallax">diurnal parallax</a> of the planet. During this year, the planet was moving past the point along its orbit where it was nearest to the Sun (a <a href="/wiki/Perihelia" class="mw-redirect" title="Perihelia">perihelic</a> opposition), which made this a particularly close approach to the Earth. Cassini and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Picard" title="Jean Picard">Jean Picard</a> determined the position of Mars from <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, while the French astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Richer" title="Jean Richer">Jean Richer</a> made measurements from <a href="/wiki/Cayenne" title="Cayenne">Cayenne</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. Although these observations were hampered by the quality of the instruments, the parallax computed by Cassini came within 10% of the correct value.<sup id="cite_ref-hirschfeld01_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hirschfeld01-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ejp30_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ejp30-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English astronomer <a href="/wiki/John_Flamsteed" title="John Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a> made comparable measurement attempts and had similar results.<sup id="cite_ref-taton03_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taton03-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1704, Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Philippe_Maraldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Philippe Maraldi">Jacques Philippe Maraldi</a> "made a systematic study of the southern cap and observed that it underwent" variations as the planet rotated. This indicated that the cap was not centered on the pole. He observed that the size of the cap varied over time.<sup id="cite_ref-harland_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harland-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iaj3_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iaj3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German-born British astronomer Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a> began making observations of the planet Mars in 1777, particularly of the planet's polar caps. In 1781, he noted that the south cap appeared "extremely large", which he ascribed to that pole being in darkness for the past twelve months. By 1784, the southern cap appeared much smaller, thereby suggesting that the caps vary with the planet's seasons and thus were made of ice. In 1781, he estimated the rotation period of Mars as 24<sup>h</sup> 39<sup>m</sup> 21.67<sup>s</sup> and measured the <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">axial tilt</a> of the planet's poles to the orbital plane as 28.5°. He noted that Mars had a "considerable but moderate atmosphere, so that its inhabitants probably enjoy a situation in many respects similar to ours".<sup id="cite_ref-iaj3_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iaj3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-macpherson19_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macpherson19-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pa38_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pa38-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-markus08_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markus08-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1796 and 1809, the French astronomer <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Flaugergues" title="Honoré Flaugergues">Honoré Flaugergues</a> noticed obscurations of Mars, suggesting "ochre-colored veils" covered the surface. This may be the earliest report of yellow clouds or storms on Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-blo157_7_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blo157_7-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sheehan_ch3_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sheehan_ch3-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographical_period">Geographical period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Geographical period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the start of the 19th century, improvements in the size and quality of telescope optics proved a significant advance in observation capability. Most notable among these enhancements was the two-component <a href="/wiki/Achromatic_lens" title="Achromatic lens">achromatic lens</a> of the German optician <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Fraunhofer" title="Joseph von Fraunhofer">Joseph von Fraunhofer</a> that essentially eliminated <a href="/wiki/Coma_(optics)" title="Coma (optics)">coma</a>—an optical effect that can distort the outer edge of the image. By 1812, Fraunhofer had succeeded in creating an achromatic objective lens 190 mm (7.5 in) in diameter. The size of this primary lens is the main factor in determining the light gathering ability and resolution of a <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope" title="Refracting telescope">refracting telescope</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson00_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson00-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sheehan_ch4_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sheehan_ch4-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the opposition of Mars in 1830, the German astronomers <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_M%C3%A4dler" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Heinrich Mädler">Johann Heinrich Mädler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Beer" title="Wilhelm Beer">Wilhelm Beer</a> used a 95 mm (3.7 in) Fraunhofer <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope" title="Refracting telescope">refracting telescope</a> to launch an extensive study of the planet. They chose a feature located 8° south of the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> as their point of reference. (This was later named the <a href="/wiki/Sinus_Meridiani" title="Sinus Meridiani">Sinus Meridiani</a>, and it would become the zero <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(astronomy)" title="Meridian (astronomy)">meridian</a> of Mars.) During their observations, they established that most of Mars' surface features were permanent, and more precisely determined the planet's rotation period. In 1840, Mädler combined ten years of observations to draw the first map of Mars. Rather than giving names to the various markings, Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters; thus Meridian Bay (Sinus Meridiani) was feature "<i>a</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-jbaa94_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jbaa94-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sheehan_ch4_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sheehan_ch4-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-morton03_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morton03-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Working at the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Observatory" title="Vatican Observatory">Vatican Observatory</a> during the opposition of Mars in 1858, Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Angelo_Secchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pietro Angelo Secchi">Angelo Secchi</a> noticed a large blue triangular feature, which he named the "Blue Scorpion". This same seasonal cloud-like formation was seen by English astronomer <a href="/wiki/J._Norman_Lockyer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Norman Lockyer">J. Norman Lockyer</a> in 1862, and it has been viewed by other observers.<sup id="cite_ref-jalpo34_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jalpo34-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1862 opposition, Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kaiser" title="Frederik Kaiser">Frederik Kaiser</a> produced drawings of Mars. By comparing his illustrations to those of Huygens and the English natural philosopher <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>, he was able to further refine the rotation period of Mars. His value of 24<sup>h</sup> 37<sup>m</sup> 22.6<sup>s</sup> is accurate to within a tenth of a second.<sup id="cite_ref-sheehan_ch4_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sheehan_ch4-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mnras33_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mnras33-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:229px;max-width:229px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Proctor_Mars_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A rectangular grid overlays meandering patterns of light and dark. Selected regions are labelled with names." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Proctor_Mars_Map.jpg/225px-Proctor_Mars_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Proctor_Mars_Map.jpg/338px-Proctor_Mars_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Proctor_Mars_Map.jpg/450px-Proctor_Mars_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="553" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A later version of Proctor's map of Mars, published in 1905</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Niesten_Mars_globe_segments.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A shaded drawing of Martian albedo features is shown in a horizontal sequence of sinusoidal projections. The map is marked up with named features." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Niesten_Mars_globe_segments.jpg/225px-Niesten_Mars_globe_segments.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Niesten_Mars_globe_segments.jpg/338px-Niesten_Mars_globe_segments.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Niesten_Mars_globe_segments.jpg/450px-Niesten_Mars_globe_segments.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4705" data-file-height="2817" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">1892 atlas of Mars by the Belgian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Louis_Niesten" title="Louis Niesten">Louis Niesten</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Father Secchi produced some of the first color illustrations of Mars in 1863. He used the names of famous explorers for the distinct features. In 1869, he observed two dark linear features on the surface that he referred to as <i>canali</i>, which is Italian for 'channels' or 'grooves'.<sup id="cite_ref-bakich00_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bakich00-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aspl8_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aspl8-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-greeley2007_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greeley2007-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1867, English astronomer <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Proctor" title="Richard A. Proctor">Richard A. Proctor</a> created a more detailed map of Mars based on the 1864 drawings of English astronomer <a href="/wiki/William_R._Dawes" class="mw-redirect" title="William R. Dawes">William R. Dawes</a>. Proctor named the various <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">lighter or darker</a> features after astronomers, past and present, who had contributed to the observations of Mars. During the same decade, comparable maps and nomenclature were produced by the French astronomer <a href="/wiki/Camille_Flammarion" title="Camille Flammarion">Camille Flammarion</a> and the English astronomer <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Everett_Green" title="Nathaniel Everett Green">Nathan Green</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-greeley2007_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greeley2007-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a> in 1862–64, German astronomer <a href="/wiki/Johann_Karl_Friedrich_Z%C3%B6llner" title="Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner">Johann K. F. Zöllner</a> developed a custom <a href="/wiki/Photometer" title="Photometer">photometer</a> to measure the reflectivity of the Moon, planets and bright stars. For Mars, he derived an <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> of 0.27. Between 1877 and 1893, German astronomers <a href="/wiki/Gustav_M%C3%BCller_(astronomer)" title="Gustav Müller (astronomer)">Gustav Müller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Friedrich_Ferdinand_Kempf" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Friedrich Ferdinand Kempf">Paul Kempf</a> observed Mars using Zöllner's photometer. They found a small <a href="/wiki/Phase_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase coefficient">phase coefficient</a>—the variation in reflectivity with angle—indicating that the surface of Mars is smooth and without large irregularities.<sup id="cite_ref-pannekoek89_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pannekoek89-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1867, French astronomer <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Janssen" title="Pierre Janssen">Pierre Janssen</a> and British astronomer <a href="/wiki/William_Huggins" title="William Huggins">William Huggins</a> used <a href="/wiki/Spectroscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscope">spectroscopes</a> to examine the atmosphere of Mars. Both compared the <a href="/wiki/Optical_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical spectrum">optical spectrum</a> of Mars to that of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. As the spectrum of the latter did not display <a href="/wiki/Absorption_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption lines">absorption lines</a> of water, they believed they had detected the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars. This result was confirmed by German astronomer <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Carl_Vogel" title="Hermann Carl Vogel">Herman C. Vogel</a> in 1872 and English astronomer <a href="/wiki/Edward_W._Maunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward W. Maunder">Edward W. Maunder</a> in 1875, but would later come into question.<sup id="cite_ref-harland05_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harland05-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1882, an article appeared in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> discussing snow on the polar regions of Mars and speculation on the probability of ocean currents.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A particularly favorable perihelic opposition occurred in 1877. The English astronomer <a href="/wiki/David_Gill_(astronomer)" title="David Gill (astronomer)">David Gill</a> used this opportunity to measure the diurnal parallax of Mars from <a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a>, which led to a parallax estimate of <span class="nowrap">8.78 ± 0.01 <a href="/wiki/Arcsecond" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcsecond">arcseconds</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-shirley1997_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shirley1997-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using this result, he was able to more accurately determine the distance of the Earth from the Sun, based upon the relative size of the orbits of Mars and the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-massa2_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-massa2-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He noted that the edge of the disk of Mars appeared fuzzy because of its atmosphere, which limited the precision he could obtain for the planet's position.<sup id="cite_ref-webb99_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-webb99-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1877, the American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Asaph_Hall" title="Asaph Hall">Asaph Hall</a> discovered the two <a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" title="Moons of Mars">moons of Mars</a> using a 660 mm (26 in) telescope at the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Naval_Observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Naval Observatory">U.S. Naval Observatory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jha1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jha1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The names of the two satellites, <a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a>, were chosen by Hall based upon a suggestion by <a href="/wiki/Henry_George_Madan" title="Henry George Madan">Henry Madan</a>, a science instructor at <a href="/wiki/Eton_College" title="Eton College">Eton College</a> in England.<sup id="cite_ref-jcs02_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jcs02-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Martian_canals">Martian canals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Martian canals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Martian_canals" title="Martian canals">Martian canals</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Giovanni_map_mars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A cylindrical projection map of mars showing light and dark regions accompanied by various linear features. The major features are labelled." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Giovanni_map_mars.jpg/200px-Giovanni_map_mars.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Giovanni_map_mars.jpg/300px-Giovanni_map_mars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Giovanni_map_mars.jpg/400px-Giovanni_map_mars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1393" data-file-height="826" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map of Mars by Giovanni Schiaparelli, compiled between 1877 and 1886, showing <i>canali</i> features as fine lines</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two disks show darker patches connected by linear features." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg/200px-Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg/300px-Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg/400px-Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="409" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Mars sketched as observed by Lowell sometime before 1914. (South top)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>During the 1877 opposition, Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Schiaparelli" title="Giovanni Schiaparelli">Giovanni Schiaparelli</a> used a 22 cm (8.7 in) telescope to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained features he called <i>canali</i>, which were later shown to be an <a href="/wiki/Optical_illusion" title="Optical illusion">optical illusion</a>. These <i>canali</i> were supposedly long straight lines on the surface of Mars to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term <i>canali</i> was popularly mistranslated in English as <i><a href="/wiki/Martian_canals" title="Martian canals">canals</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-milone_wilson08_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milone_wilson08-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sagan80_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sagan80-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1886, the English astronomer <a href="/wiki/William_F._Denning" class="mw-redirect" title="William F. Denning">William F. Denning</a> observed that these linear features were irregular in nature and showed concentrations and interruptions. By 1895, English astronomer <a href="/wiki/Edward_Maunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Maunder">Edward Maunder</a> became convinced that the linear features were merely the summation of many smaller details.<sup id="cite_ref-pa21_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pa21-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his 1892 work <i>La planète Mars et ses conditions d'habitabilité</i>, <a href="/wiki/Camille_Flammarion" title="Camille Flammarion">Camille Flammarion</a> wrote about how these channels resembled man-made canals, which an intelligent race could use to redistribute water across a dying Martian world. He advocated for the existence of such inhabitants, and suggested they may be more advanced than humans.<sup id="cite_ref-lang03_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lang03-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Influenced by the observations of Schiaparelli, <a href="/wiki/Percival_Lowell" title="Percival Lowell">Percival Lowell</a> founded an <a href="/wiki/Lowell_Observatory" title="Lowell Observatory">observatory</a> with 30-and-45 cm (12-and-18 in) telescopes. The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894 and the following less favorable oppositions. He published books on Mars and life on the planet, which had a great influence on the public.<sup id="cite_ref-basalla06_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-basalla06-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>canali</i> were found by other astronomers, such as <a href="/wiki/Henri_Joseph_Perrotin" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri Joseph Perrotin">Henri Joseph Perrotin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Thollon" title="Louis Thollon">Louis Thollon</a> using a 38 cm (15 in) <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope" title="Refracting telescope">refractor</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Nice_Observatory" title="Nice Observatory">Nice Observatory</a> in France, one of the largest telescopes of that time.<sup id="cite_ref-isis96_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isis96-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ba3_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ba3-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in 1901, American astronomer <a href="/wiki/A._E._Douglass" title="A. E. Douglass">A. E. Douglass</a> attempted to photograph the canal features of Mars. These efforts appeared to succeed when American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Carl_O._Lampland" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl O. Lampland">Carl O. Lampland</a> published photographs of the supposed canals in 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-pasp33_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pasp33-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although these results were widely accepted, they became contested by Greek astronomer <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_M._Antoniadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugène M. Antoniadi">Eugène M. Antoniadi</a>, English naturalist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> and others as merely imagined features.<sup id="cite_ref-pa21_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pa21-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wallace07_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wallace07-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight <i>canali</i> were observed. During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with an 84 cm (33 in) telescope, irregular patterns were observed, but no <i>canali</i> were seen.<sup id="cite_ref-nature412_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature412-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in 1909 <a href="/wiki/E._M._Antoniadi" title="E. M. Antoniadi">Eugène Antoniadi</a> was able to help disprove the theory of Martian <i>canali</i> by viewing through the <a href="/wiki/Meudon_Great_Refractor" title="Meudon Great Refractor">great refractor of Meudon</a>, the Grande Lunette (83 cm lens).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A trifecta of observational factors synergize; viewing through the third largest refractor in the World, Mars was at opposition, and exceptional clear weather.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>canali</i> dissolved before Antoniadi's eyes into various "spots and blotches" on the surface of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Refining_planetary_parameters">Refining planetary parameters</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Refining planetary parameters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_duststorm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two orange-hued disks. The one at left shows distinct darker regions along with cloudy areas near the top and bottom. In the right image, features are obscured by an orange haze. An white ice cap is visible at the bottom of both disks." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mars_duststorm.jpg/220px-Mars_duststorm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mars_duststorm.jpg/330px-Mars_duststorm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mars_duststorm.jpg/440px-Mars_duststorm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2844" data-file-height="1701" /></a><figcaption>In the left image, thin Martian clouds are visible near the polar regions.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa010626_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa010626-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At right, the surface of Mars is obscured by a <a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">dust storm</a>. <i>NASA/HST images</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Surface obscuration caused by yellow clouds had been noted in the 1870s when they were observed by Schiaparelli. Evidence for such clouds was observed during the oppositions of 1892 and 1907. In 1909, Antoniadi noted that the presence of yellow clouds was associated with the obscuration of albedo features. He discovered that Mars appeared more yellow during oppositions when the planet was closest to the Sun and was receiving more energy. He suggested windblown sand or dust as the cause of the clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-jbaa106_4_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jbaa106_4-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jbas103_5_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jbas103_5-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1894, American astronomer <a href="/wiki/William_Wallace_Campbell" title="William Wallace Campbell">William W. Campbell</a> found that the spectrum of Mars was identical to the spectrum of the Moon, throwing doubt on the burgeoning theory that the atmosphere of Mars is similar to that of the Earth. Previous detections of water in the atmosphere of Mars were explained by unfavorable conditions, and Campbell determined that the water signature came entirely from the Earth's atmosphere. Although he agreed that the ice caps did indicate there was water in the atmosphere, he did not believe the caps were sufficiently large to allow the water vapor to be detected.<sup id="cite_ref-pasp6_37_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pasp6_37-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, Campbell's results were considered controversial and were criticized by members of the astronomical community, but they were confirmed by American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Walter_S._Adams" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter S. Adams">Walter S. Adams</a> in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-qjras18_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qjras18-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Baltic_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic German">Baltic German</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Struve" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermann Struve">Hermann Struve</a> used the observed changes in the orbits of the Martian moons to determine the gravitational influence of the planet's <a href="/wiki/Oblate_spheroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Oblate spheroid">oblate</a> shape. In 1895, he used this data to estimate that the equatorial diameter was 1/190 larger than the polar diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-iaj3_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iaj3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-an138_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-an138-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1911, he refined the value to 1/192. This result was confirmed by American meteorologist <a href="/wiki/Edgar_William_Woolard" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar William Woolard">Edgar W. Woolard</a> in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-aj51_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aj51-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using a vacuum <a href="/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple">thermocouple</a> attached to the 2.54 m (100 in) <a href="/wiki/Hooker_Telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Hooker Telescope">Hooker Telescope</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory" title="Mount Wilson Observatory">Mount Wilson Observatory</a>, in 1924 the American astronomers <a href="/wiki/Seth_Barnes_Nicholson" title="Seth Barnes Nicholson">Seth Barnes Nicholson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edison_Pettit" title="Edison Pettit">Edison Pettit</a> were able to measure the thermal energy being radiated by the surface of Mars. They determined that the temperature ranged from −68 °C (−90 °F) at the pole up to 7 °C (45 °F) at the midpoint of the disk (corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pasp36_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pasp36-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the same year, <a href="/wiki/Radiometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiometric">radiated energy measurements</a> of Mars were made by American physicist <a href="/wiki/William_Coblentz" title="William Coblentz">William Coblentz</a> and American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Carl_Otto_Lampland" title="Carl Otto Lampland">Carl Otto Lampland</a>. The results showed that the night time temperature on Mars dropped to −85 °C (−121 °F), indicating an "enormous <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diurnal" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:diurnal">diurnal</a> fluctuation" in temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-apj63_177_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apj63_177-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The temperature of Martian clouds was measured as −30 °C (−22 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-pasp60_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pasp60-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1926, by measuring spectral lines that were <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshifted</a> by the orbital motions of Mars and Earth, American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Walter_Sydney_Adams" title="Walter Sydney Adams">Walter Sydney Adams</a> was able to directly measure the amount of oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars. He determined that "extreme desert conditions" were prevalent on Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-apj63_133_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apj63_133-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1934, Adams and American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Dunham_Jr." title="Theodore Dunham Jr.">Theodore Dunham Jr.</a> found that the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere of Mars was less than one percent of the amount over a comparable area on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-apj79_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apj79-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1927, Dutch graduate student Cyprianus Annius van den Bosch made a determination of the mass of Mars based upon the motions of the Martian moons, with an accuracy of 0.2%. This result was confirmed by the Dutch astronomer <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">Willem de Sitter</a> and published posthumously in 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-iau21_139_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iau21_139-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using observations of the <a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">near Earth</a> <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> <a href="/wiki/433_Eros" title="433 Eros">Eros</a> from 1926 to 1945, German-American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Eugene_K._Rabe" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene K. Rabe">Eugene K. Rabe</a> was able to make an independent estimate the mass of Mars, as well as the other planets in the <a href="/wiki/Inner_Solar_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner Solar System">inner Solar System</a>, from the planet's gravitational <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_(astronomy)" title="Perturbation (astronomy)">perturbations</a> of the asteroid. His estimated margin of error was 0.05%,<sup id="cite_ref-aj55_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aj55-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but subsequent checks suggested his result was poorly determined compared to other methods.<sup id="cite_ref-aj72_852_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aj72_852-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1920s, French astronomer <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lyot" title="Bernard Lyot">Bernard Lyot</a> used a <a href="/wiki/Polarimeter" title="Polarimeter">polarimeter</a> to study the surface properties of the Moon and planets. In 1929, he noted that the <a href="/wiki/Polarized_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarized light">polarized light</a> emitted from the Martian surface is very similar to that radiated from the Moon, although he speculated that his observations could be explained by frost and possibly vegetation. Based on the amount of sunlight scattered by the Martian atmosphere, he set an upper limit of 1/15 the thickness of the Earth's atmosphere. This restricted the surface pressure to no greater than 2.4 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">kPa</a> (24 <a href="/wiki/Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">mbar</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-aop8_1_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aop8_1-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> spectrometry, in 1947 the Dutch-American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Kuiper" title="Gerard Kuiper">Gerard Kuiper</a> detected <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> in the Martian atmosphere. He was able to estimate that the amount of carbon dioxide over a given area of the surface is double that on the Earth. However, because he overestimated the surface pressure on Mars, Kuiper concluded erroneously that the ice caps could not be composed of frozen carbon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-horowitz86_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horowitz86-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1948, American meteorologist <a href="/wiki/Seymour_L._Hess" class="mw-redirect" title="Seymour L. Hess">Seymour L. Hess</a> determined that the formation of the thin Martian clouds would only require 4 mm (0.16 in) of water precipitation and a <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> of 0.1 kPa (1.0 mbar).<sup id="cite_ref-pasp60_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pasp60-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first standard nomenclature for Martian albedo features was introduced by the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">International Astronomical Union</a> (IAU) when in 1960 they adopted 128 names from the 1929 map of Antoniadi named <i>La Planète Mars</i>. The Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN) was established by the IAU in 1973 to standardize the naming scheme for Mars and other bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-shirley97_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shirley97-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Remote sensing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ALH84001_meteorite_Smithsonian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A rough-hewn rock with a yellowish sheen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ALH84001_meteorite_Smithsonian.jpg/220px-ALH84001_meteorite_Smithsonian.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ALH84001_meteorite_Smithsonian.jpg/330px-ALH84001_meteorite_Smithsonian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/ALH84001_meteorite_Smithsonian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of the Martian meteorite <a href="/wiki/Allan_Hills_84001" title="Allan Hills 84001">ALH84001</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Planetary_Patrol_Program" title="International Planetary Patrol Program">International Planetary Patrol Program</a> was formed in 1969 as a consortium to continually monitor planetary changes. This worldwide group focused on observing dust storms on Mars. Their images allow Martian seasonal patterns to be studied globally, and they showed that most Martian dust storms occur when the planet is closest to the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-greeley_iversen87_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greeley_iversen87-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1960s, robotic <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> have been sent to <a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">explore Mars</a> from orbit and the <a href="/wiki/Mars_landing" title="Mars landing">surface</a> in extensive detail. In addition, remote sensing of Mars from Earth by ground-based and orbiting telescopes has continued across much of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>. These include <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> observations to determine the composition of the surface,<sup id="cite_ref-baas20_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baas20-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Submillimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Submillimeter">submillimeter</a> observation of the atmospheric composition,<sup id="cite_ref-apj538_1_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apj538_1-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-apj539_2_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apj539_2-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> measurements of wind velocities.<sup id="cite_ref-apj383_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apj383-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> (HST) has been used to perform systematic studies of Mars<sup id="cite_ref-baas29_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baas29-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has taken the highest resolution images of Mars ever captured from Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-hubble010705_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hubble010705-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This telescope can produce useful images of the planet when it is at an <a href="/wiki/Angular_distance" title="Angular distance">angular distance</a> of at least 50° from the Sun. The HST can take images of a <a href="/wiki/Sphere" title="Sphere">hemisphere</a>, which yields views of entire weather systems. Earth-based telescopes equipped with <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled devices</a> can produce useful images of Mars, allowing for regular monitoring of the planet's weather during oppositions.<sup id="cite_ref-baas25_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baas25-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> emission from Mars was first observed by astronomers in 2001 using the <a href="/wiki/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory" title="Chandra X-ray Observatory">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a>, and in 2003 it was shown to have two components. The first component is caused by X-rays from the Sun scattering off the upper Martian atmosphere; the second comes from interactions between <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> that result in an exchange of charges.<sup id="cite_ref-aaa394_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaa394-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emission from the latter source has been observed out to eight times the radius of Mars by the <a href="/wiki/XMM-Newton" title="XMM-Newton">XMM-Newton</a> orbiting observatory.<sup id="cite_ref-aaa451_2_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaa451_2-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1983, the analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Shergotty_meteorite" title="Shergotty meteorite">shergottite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nakhlite" title="Nakhlite">nakhlite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chassigny_(meteorite)" title="Chassigny (meteorite)">chassignite</a> (SNC) group of meteorites showed that they may have <a href="/wiki/Mars_meteorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars meteorite">originated on Mars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pass48_12-14_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pass48_12-14-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Allan_Hills_84001" title="Allan Hills 84001">Allan Hills 84001</a> meteorite, discovered in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> in 1984, is believed to have originated on Mars but it has an entirely different composition than the SNC group. In 1996, it was announced that this meteorite might contain evidence for microscopic <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> of Martian <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. However, this finding remains controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-geca73_21_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geca73_21-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical analysis of the Martian meteorites found on Earth suggests that the ambient near-surface temperature of Mars has most likely been below the freezing point of water (0 °C) for much of the last four billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-science309_5734_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science309_5734-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observations">Observations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_Mars_During_1999.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hubble_Mars_During_1999.jpg/450px-Hubble_Mars_During_1999.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hubble_Mars_During_1999.jpg/675px-Hubble_Mars_During_1999.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hubble_Mars_During_1999.jpg/900px-Hubble_Mars_During_1999.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2845" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption>Mars during the 1999 opposition as seen by space telescope</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Opposition.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mars_Opposition.png/450px-Mars_Opposition.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="450" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mars_Opposition.png/675px-Mars_Opposition.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mars_Opposition.png/900px-Mars_Opposition.png 2x" data-file-width="1041" data-file-height="1041" /></a><figcaption>Mars at its 2018 opposition, with its atmosphere clouded by a global dust storm that snuffed out the solar-powered <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)">Opportunity</a> rover</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Is_Mighty_in_First_Webb_Observations_of_Red_Planet_(first-observations-mars-1).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mars_Is_Mighty_in_First_Webb_Observations_of_Red_Planet_%28first-observations-mars-1%29.jpeg/450px-Mars_Is_Mighty_in_First_Webb_Observations_of_Red_Planet_%28first-observations-mars-1%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="450" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mars_Is_Mighty_in_First_Webb_Observations_of_Red_Planet_%28first-observations-mars-1%29.jpeg/675px-Mars_Is_Mighty_in_First_Webb_Observations_of_Red_Planet_%28first-observations-mars-1%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mars_Is_Mighty_in_First_Webb_Observations_of_Red_Planet_%28first-observations-mars-1%29.jpeg/900px-Mars_Is_Mighty_in_First_Webb_Observations_of_Red_Planet_%28first-observations-mars-1%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5475" data-file-height="4538" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> captured its first images and spectra of Mars on 5 September 2022. <sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Exploration of Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars in history">Mars in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_lander" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars lander">Mars lander</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mars_observation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20151001-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20151001_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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University of Chicago Press. pp. 48–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-59441-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-59441-5"><bdi>978-0-226-59441-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmos%3A+an+illustrated+history+of+astronomy+and+cosmology&rft.pages=48-52&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-226-59441-5&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=John+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqq8Luhs7rTUC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-swerdlow98-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-swerdlow98_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwerdlow1998" class="citation book cs1">Swerdlow, Noel M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Df8Ma-zpgIC&pg=PA34">"Periodicity and Variability of Synodic Phenomenon"</a>. <i>The Babylonian theory of the planets</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 34–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01196-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01196-6"><bdi>0-691-01196-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611060244/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Df8Ma-zpgIC&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-07-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Periodicity+and+Variability+of+Synodic+Phenomenon&rft.btitle=The+Babylonian+theory+of+the+planets&rft.pages=34-72&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-691-01196-6&rft.aulast=Swerdlow&rft.aufirst=Noel+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Df8Ma-zpgIC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-emp40_2_111-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-emp40_2_111_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCiyuan1988" class="citation journal cs1">Ciyuan, Liu (February 1988). "Ancient Chinese Observations of Planetary Positions and a Table of Planetary Occultations". <i>Earth, Moon, and Planets</i>. <b>40</b> (2): 111–117. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988EM&P...40..111C">1988EM&P...40..111C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00056020">10.1007/BF00056020</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:124343759">124343759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth%2C+Moon%2C+and+Planets&rft.atitle=Ancient+Chinese+Observations+of+Planetary+Positions+and+a+Table+of+Planetary+Occultations&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=111-117&rft.date=1988-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A124343759%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00056020&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988EM%26P...40..111C&rft.aulast=Ciyuan&rft.aufirst=Liu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span> in particular, see table 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-emp40_2-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-emp40_2_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCiyuan1988" class="citation journal cs1">Ciyuan, Liu (February 1988). "Ancient chinese observations of planetary positions and a table of planetary occultations". <i>Earth, Moon, and Planets</i>. <b>40</b> (2): 111–117. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988EM&P...40..111C">1988EM&P...40..111C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00056020">10.1007/BF00056020</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:124343759">124343759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth%2C+Moon%2C+and+Planets&rft.atitle=Ancient+chinese+observations+of+planetary+positions+and+a+table+of+planetary+occultations&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=111-117&rft.date=1988-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A124343759%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00056020&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988EM%26P...40..111C&rft.aulast=Ciyuan&rft.aufirst=Liu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chang_wu_88-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chang_wu_88_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangWu1988" class="citation conference cs1">Chang, Shuyen; Wu, Zhongliang (1988). <i>An introduction to the historical records of China about Mars</i>. <i>MEVTV Workshop on Nature and Composition of Surface Units on Mars</i>. Lunar and Planetary Institute. pp. 40–42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988ncsu.work...40C">1988ncsu.work...40C</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=conference&rft.jtitle=MEVTV+Workshop+on+Nature+and+Composition+of+Surface+Units+on+Mars&rft.atitle=An+introduction+to+the+historical+records+of+China+about+Mars&rft.pages=40-42&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988ncsu.work...40C&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Shuyen&rft.au=Wu%2C+Zhongliang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jha32_4_109-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jha32_4_109_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYork2001" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">York, Tom J. (November 2001). "An analysis of close conjunctions recorded in ancient China". <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. 32, Part 4 (109): 337–344. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JHA....32..337Y">2001JHA....32..337Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860103200403">10.1177/002182860103200403</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:115908222">115908222</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=An+analysis+of+close+conjunctions+recorded+in+ancient+China&rft.volume=32%2C+Part+4&rft.issue=109&rft.pages=337-344&rft.date=2001-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A115908222%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182860103200403&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001JHA....32..337Y&rft.aulast=York&rft.aufirst=Tom+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-valery_cumont12-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-valery_cumont12_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValeryCumont1912" class="citation book cs1">Valery, Franz; Cumont, Marie (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_82wKgaD_3dEC"><i>Astrology and religion among the Greeks and Romans</i></a>. American lectures on the history of religions. Vol. VIII. G. P. Putnam. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_82wKgaD_3dEC/page/n75">46</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astrology+and+religion+among+the+Greeks+and+Romans&rft.series=American+lectures+on+the+history+of+religions&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=G.+P.+Putnam&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Valery&rft.aufirst=Franz&rft.au=Cumont%2C+Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_82wKgaD_3dEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-evans98-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-evans98_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1998" class="citation book cs1">Evans, James (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qg0_uiaWhT8C&pg=PA297"><i>The history & practice of ancient astronomy</i></a>. Oxford University Press US. p. 297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509539-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509539-1"><bdi>0-19-509539-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611060245/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qg0_uiaWhT8C&pg=PA297#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-07-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+%26+practice+of+ancient+astronomy&rft.pages=297&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-509539-1&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQg0_uiaWhT8C%26pg%3DPA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brumbaugh87-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brumbaugh87_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrumbaugh1987" class="citation book cs1">Brumbaugh, Robert S. (1987). Hendley, Brian Patrick (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zrcHzsEWKhoC&pg=PA85"><i>Plato, time, and education: essays in honor of Robert S. Brumbaugh</i></a>. SUNY Press. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88706-733-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-88706-733-6"><bdi>0-88706-733-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plato%2C+time%2C+and+education%3A+essays+in+honor+of+Robert+S.+Brumbaugh&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-88706-733-6&rft.aulast=Brumbaugh&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzrcHzsEWKhoC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCookFranklin1958" class="citation journal cs1">Cook, Allan F.; Franklin, Fred A. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1958SCoA....2..377C">"1958SCoA....2..377C Page 377"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics</i>. <b>2</b>: 377. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958SCoA....2..377C">1958SCoA....2..377C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5479%2Fsi.00810231.2-13.377">10.5479/si.00810231.2-13.377</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191205062758/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1958SCoA....2..377C">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Contributions+to+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=1958SCoA....2..377C+Page+377&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=377&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5479%2Fsi.00810231.2-13.377&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1958SCoA....2..377C&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Allan+F.&rft.au=Franklin%2C+Fred+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Ffull%2F1958SCoA....2..377C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lloyd96-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lloyd96_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1996" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Geoffrey Ernest Richard (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=92G-oNpKX_gC&pg=PA162"><i>Aristotelian explorations</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-55619-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-55619-8"><bdi>0-521-55619-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611060245/https://books.google.com/books?id=92G-oNpKX_gC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotelian+explorations&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-521-55619-8&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+Ernest+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D92G-oNpKX_gC%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-william2000-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-william2000_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2000" class="citation book cs1">Price, Fred William (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/planetobserversh00pric"><i>The planet observer's handbook</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/planetobserversh00pric/page/148">148</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78981-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-78981-8"><bdi>0-521-78981-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+planet+observer%27s+handbook&rft.pages=148&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-78981-8&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Fred+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplanetobserversh00pric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-china69BCE-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-china69BCE_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In China, astronomers recorded an occultation of Mars by the Moon in 69 BCE. See Price (2000:148).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-heidarzadeh08-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-heidarzadeh08_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidarzadeh2008" class="citation book cs1">Heidarzadeh, Tofigh (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fo-GY4J1h4cC&pg=PA2"><i>A history of physical theories of comets, from Aristotle to Whipple</i></a>. New Studies in the History of Science and Technology: Archimedes Series. Vol. 19. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8322-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8322-8"><bdi>978-1-4020-8322-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611060245/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fo-GY4J1h4cC&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+physical+theories+of+comets%2C+from+Aristotle+to+Whipple&rft.series=New+Studies+in+the+History+of+Science+and+Technology%3A+Archimedes+Series&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-8322-8&rft.aulast=Heidarzadeh&rft.aufirst=Tofigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFo-GY4J1h4cC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kolb96-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kolb96_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolbKolb1996" class="citation book cs1">Kolb, Edward W.; Kolb, Rocky (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blindwatchersofs00kolb/page/29"><i>Blind watchers of the sky: the people and ideas that shaped our view of the universe</i></a>. Basic Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blindwatchersofs00kolb/page/29">29–30</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-48992-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-48992-9"><bdi>0-201-48992-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blind+watchers+of+the+sky%3A+the+people+and+ideas+that+shaped+our+view+of+the+universe&rft.pages=29-30&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-201-48992-9&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Edward+W.&rft.au=Kolb%2C+Rocky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblindwatchersofs00kolb%2Fpage%2F29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hummel1986-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hummel1986_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hummel1986_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHummel1986" class="citation book cs1">Hummel, Charles E. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galileoconnectio00humm/page/35"><i>The Galileo connection: resolving conflicts between science & the Bible</i></a>. InterVarsity Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galileoconnectio00humm/page/35">35–38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87784-500-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87784-500-X"><bdi>0-87784-500-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Galileo+connection%3A+resolving+conflicts+between+science+%26+the+Bible&rft.pages=35-38&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-87784-500-X&rft.aulast=Hummel&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgalileoconnectio00humm%2Fpage%2F35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-linton2004-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-linton2004_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinton2004" class="citation book cs1">Linton, Christopher M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aJuwFLGWKF8C&pg=PA62"><i>From Eudoxus to Einstein: a history of mathematical astronomy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82750-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-82750-7"><bdi>0-521-82750-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Eudoxus+to+Einstein%3A+a+history+of+mathematical+astronomy&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-82750-7&rft.aulast=Linton&rft.aufirst=Christopher+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaJuwFLGWKF8C%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gingerich_maclachlan05-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gingerich_maclachlan05_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGingerichMacLachlan2005" class="citation book cs1">Gingerich, Owen; MacLachlan, James H. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9k-pHc8l-TgC&pg=PA57"><i>Nicolaus Copernicus: making the Earth a planet</i></a>. Oxford portraits in science. Oxford University Press US. pp. 57–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516173-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516173-4"><bdi>0-19-516173-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611060246/https://books.google.com/books?id=9k-pHc8l-TgC&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-07-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicolaus+Copernicus%3A+making+the+Earth+a+planet&rft.series=Oxford+portraits+in+science&rft.pages=57-61&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-516173-4&rft.aulast=Gingerich&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft.au=MacLachlan%2C+James+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9k-pHc8l-TgC%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-seop-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-seop_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta2005" class="citation journal cs1">Zalta, Edward N., ed. (April 18, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/">"Nicolaus Copernicus"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161211023238/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-12-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Nicolaus+Copernicus&rft.date=2005-04-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcopernicus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sat57-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sat57_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreyer1979" class="citation journal cs1">Breyer, Stephen (March 1979). "Mutual occultation of planets". <i>Sky and Telescope</i>. <b>57</b> (3): 220. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979S&T....57..220A">1979S&T....57..220A</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sky+and+Telescope&rft.atitle=Mutual+occultation+of+planets&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=220&rft.date=1979-03&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1979S%26T....57..220A&rft.aulast=Breyer&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-longair03-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-longair03_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongair2003" class="citation book cs1">Longair, M. S. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bA9Lp2GH6OEC&pg=PA25"><i>Theoretical concepts in physics: an alternative view of theoretical reasoning in physics</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-52878-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-52878-X"><bdi>0-521-52878-X</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611062256/https://books.google.com/books?id=bA9Lp2GH6OEC&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-07-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoretical+concepts+in+physics%3A+an+alternative+view+of+theoretical+reasoning+in+physics&rft.pages=25-28&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-52878-X&rft.aulast=Longair&rft.aufirst=M.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbA9Lp2GH6OEC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bone2003-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bone2003_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBone2003" class="citation book cs1">Bone, Neil (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781552978023"><i>Mars Observer's Guide</i></a></span>. Firefly Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781552978023/page/39">39</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55297-802-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-55297-802-8"><bdi>1-55297-802-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mars+Observer%27s+Guide&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Firefly+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-55297-802-8&rft.aulast=Bone&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781552978023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jha15-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jha15_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jha15_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters1984" class="citation journal cs1">Peters, W. T. (October 1984). "The appearance of Venus and Mars in 1610". <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>15</b> (3): 211–214. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984JHA....15..211P">1984JHA....15..211P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182868401500306">10.1177/002182868401500306</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118187803">118187803</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=The+appearance+of+Venus+and+Mars+in+1610&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=211-214&rft.date=1984-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118187803%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182868401500306&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984JHA....15..211P&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=W.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harland-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harland_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harland_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harland_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarland2005" class="citation book cs1">Harland, David Michael (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FjJsciqfccgC&pg=PA2"><i>Water and the search for life on Mars</i></a>. Springer. pp. 2–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-26020-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-26020-X"><bdi>0-387-26020-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+and+the+search+for+life+on+Mars&rft.pages=2-3&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-387-26020-X&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=David+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFjJsciqfccgC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jbaa94-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jbaa94_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jbaa94_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jbaa94_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1984" class="citation journal cs1">Moore, P. (February 1984). "The mapping of Mars". <i>Journal of the British Astronomical Association</i>. <b>94</b> (2): 45–54. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984JBAA...94...45M">1984JBAA...94...45M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+British+Astronomical+Association&rft.atitle=The+mapping+of+Mars&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=45-54&rft.date=1984-02&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984JBAA...94...45M&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sheehan_ch2-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sheehan_ch2_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan1996" class="citation web cs1">Sheehan, William (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap02.htm">"Chapter 2: pioneers"</a>. <i>The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery</i>. University of Arizona. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426163500/http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/MARS/CHAP02.HTM">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-04-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Planet+Mars%3A+A+History+of+Observation+and+Discovery&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+pioneers&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sheehan&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uapress.arizona.edu%2Fonlinebks%2Fmars%2Fchap02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ferris03-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ferris03_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerris2003" class="citation book cs1">Ferris, Timothy (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k0vCHGD5Y00C&pg=PA125"><i>Coming of age in the Milky Way</i></a>. HarperCollins. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-053595-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-053595-4"><bdi>0-06-053595-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coming+of+age+in+the+Milky+Way&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-06-053595-4&rft.aulast=Ferris&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk0vCHGD5Y00C%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rabkin05-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rabkin05_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabkin2005" class="citation book cs1">Rabkin, Eric S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a2QP30zybNkC&pg=PA60"><i>Mars: a tour of the human imagination</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 60–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-98719-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-98719-1"><bdi>0-275-98719-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mars%3A+a+tour+of+the+human+imagination&rft.pages=60-61&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-275-98719-1&rft.aulast=Rabkin&rft.aufirst=Eric+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da2QP30zybNkC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hirschfeld01-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hirschfeld01_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirshfeld2001" class="citation book cs1">Hirshfeld, Alan (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QaIl5kF4qoQC&pg=PA60"><i>Parallax: the race to measure the cosmos</i></a>. Macmillan. pp. 60–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-3711-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-3711-6"><bdi>0-7167-3711-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parallax%3A+the+race+to+measure+the+cosmos&rft.pages=60-61&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7167-3711-6&rft.aulast=Hirshfeld&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQaIl5kF4qoQC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ejp30-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ejp30_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenadelliZeniBernagozziCalcidese2009" class="citation journal cs1">Cenadelli, D.; et al. (January 2009). "An international parallax campaign to measure distance to the Moon and Mars". <i>European Journal of Physics</i>. <b>30</b> (1): 35–46. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009EJPh...30...35C">2009EJPh...30...35C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F30%2F1%2F004">10.1088/0143-0807/30/1/004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122684047">122684047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=An+international+parallax+campaign+to+measure+distance+to+the+Moon+and+Mars&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-46&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122684047%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F30%2F1%2F004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009EJPh...30...35C&rft.aulast=Cenadelli&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Zeni%2C+M.&rft.au=Bernagozzi%2C+A.&rft.au=Calcidese%2C+P.&rft.au=Ferreira%2C+L.&rft.au=Hoang%2C+C.&rft.au=Rijsdijk%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taton03-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taton03_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaton2003" class="citation book cs1">Taton, Reni (2003). Taton, Reni; Wilson, Curtis; Hoskin, Michael (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hMgXh8jMSGgC&pg=PA116"><i>Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics, part A, Tycho Brahe to Newton</i></a>. The General History of Astronomy. Vol. 2A. Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54205-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54205-7"><bdi>0-521-54205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planetary+astronomy+from+the+Renaissance+to+the+rise+of+astrophysics%2C+part+A%2C+Tycho+Brahe+to+Newton&rft.series=The+General+History+of+Astronomy&rft.pages=116-117&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-54205-7&rft.aulast=Taton&rft.aufirst=Reni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhMgXh8jMSGgC%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iaj3-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iaj3_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iaj3_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iaj3_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzgerald1954" class="citation journal cs1">Fitzgerald, A. P. (June 1954). "Problems of Mars". <i>Irish Astronomical Journal</i>. <b>3</b> (2): 37–52. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954IrAJ....3...37F">1954IrAJ....3...37F</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Irish+Astronomical+Journal&rft.atitle=Problems+of+Mars&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=37-52&rft.date=1954-06&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1954IrAJ....3...37F&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-macpherson19-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-macpherson19_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacPherson1919" class="citation book cs1">MacPherson, Hector Copland (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/herschel00macprich"><i>Herschel</i></a>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1919hers.book.....M">1919hers.book.....M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Herschel&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1919&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1919hers.book.....M&rft.aulast=MacPherson&rft.aufirst=Hector+Copland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fherschel00macprich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pa38-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pa38_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickering1930" class="citation journal cs1">Pickering, William H. (1930). "Report on Mars, No. 44". <i>Popular Astronomy</i>. <b>38</b>: 263–273. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1930PA.....38..263P">1930PA.....38..263P</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Report+on+Mars%2C+No.+44&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=263-273&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1930PA.....38..263P&rft.aulast=Pickering&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span> In particular, see p. 272 for Herschel's value for the axial tilt.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-markus08-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-markus08_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHotakainen2008" class="citation book cs1">Hotakainen, Markus (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sPs3S5TYOEMC&pg=PA23"><i>Mars: from myth and mystery to recent discoveries</i></a>. Springer. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-76507-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-76507-5"><bdi>978-0-387-76507-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mars%3A+from+myth+and+mystery+to+recent+discoveries&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-387-76507-5&rft.aulast=Hotakainen&rft.aufirst=Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsPs3S5TYOEMC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-blo157_7-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-blo157_7_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapenMartin1971" class="citation journal cs1">Capen, Charles F.; Martin, Leonard J. (1971). "The developing stages of the Martian yellow storm of 1971". <i>Bulletin of the Lowell Observatory</i>. <b>7</b> (157): 211–216. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971LowOB...7..211C">1971LowOB...7..211C</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Lowell+Observatory&rft.atitle=The+developing+stages+of+the+Martian+yellow+storm+of+1971&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=157&rft.pages=211-216&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971LowOB...7..211C&rft.aulast=Capen&rft.aufirst=Charles+F.&rft.au=Martin%2C+Leonard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sheehan_ch3-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sheehan_ch3_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan1996" class="citation web cs1">Sheehan, William (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100625044434/http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap03.htm">"Chapter 3: a situation similar to ours"</a>. <i>The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery</i>. University of Arizona. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap03.htm">the original</a> on 2010-06-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Planet+Mars%3A+A+History+of+Observation+and+Discovery&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+a+situation+similar+to+ours&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sheehan&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uapress.arizona.edu%2Fonlinebks%2Fmars%2Fchap03.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jackson00-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jackson00_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2000" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Myles W. (2000). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spectrumbeliefjo00jack_969"><i>Spectrum of belief: Joseph von Fraunhofer and the craft of precision optics</i></a></span>. Transformations: Studies in the History of Science and Technology. MIT Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spectrumbeliefjo00jack_969/page/n68">56</a>–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-10084-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-10084-3"><bdi>0-262-10084-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spectrum+of+belief%3A+Joseph+von+Fraunhofer+and+the+craft+of+precision+optics&rft.series=Transformations%3A+Studies+in+the+History+of+Science+and+Technology&rft.pages=56-74&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-262-10084-3&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Myles+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspectrumbeliefjo00jack_969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sheehan_ch4-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sheehan_ch4_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sheehan_ch4_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sheehan_ch4_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan1996" class="citation web cs1">Sheehan, William (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap04.htm">"Chapter 4: Areographers"</a>. <i>The planet Mars: a history of observation and discovery</i>. University of Arizona. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701062415/http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/MARS/CHAP04.HTM">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-07-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+planet+Mars%3A+a+history+of+observation+and+discovery&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Areographers&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sheehan&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uapress.arizona.edu%2Fonlinebks%2Fmars%2Fchap04.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-morton03-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-morton03_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton2003" class="citation book cs1">Morton, Oliver (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mappingmars00oliv/page/12"><i>Mapping Mars: science, imagination, and the birth of a world</i></a>. Macmillan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mappingmars00oliv/page/12">12–13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-42261-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-42261-X"><bdi>0-312-42261-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mapping+Mars%3A+science%2C+imagination%2C+and+the+birth+of+a+world&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-312-42261-X&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmappingmars00oliv%2Fpage%2F12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jalpo34-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jalpo34_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkerBeishHernandez1990" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, Donald C.; Beish, Jeffrey D.; Hernandez, Carlos E. (April 1990). "The 1983–85 aphelic apparition of Mars. II". <i>Journal of the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers</i>. <b>34</b>: 62–79. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990JALPO..34...62P">1990JALPO..34...62P</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Association+of+Lunar+and+Planetary+Observers&rft.atitle=The+1983%E2%80%9385+aphelic+apparition+of+Mars.+II&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=62-79&rft.date=1990-04&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990JALPO..34...62P&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Donald+C.&rft.au=Beish%2C+Jeffrey+D.&rft.au=Hernandez%2C+Carlos+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mnras33-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mnras33_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProctor1873" class="citation journal cs1">Proctor, R. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03373-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03373-2"><bdi>978-0-521-03373-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planetary+mapping&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-03373-2&rft.aulast=Greeley&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dztodv66A1VsC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pannekoek89-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pannekoek89_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPannekoek1989" class="citation book cs1">Pannekoek, Anton (1989). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyastronomy00pann"><i>A history of astronomy</i></a></span>. 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Courier Dover Publications. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyastronomy00pann/page/n394">386</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-65994-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-65994-1"><bdi>0-486-65994-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+astronomy&rft.series=Dover+books+on+astronomy&rft.pages=386&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-486-65994-1&rft.aulast=Pannekoek&rft.aufirst=Anton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryastronomy00pann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harland05-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harland05_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarland2005" class="citation book cs1">Harland, David Michael (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FjJsciqfccgC&pg=PA10"><i>Water and the search for life on Mars</i></a>. Springer. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-26020-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-26020-X"><bdi>0-387-26020-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+and+the+search+for+life+on+Mars&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-387-26020-X&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=David+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFjJsciqfccgC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zoE9AQAAIAAJ"><i>Scientific American</i></a>. Munn & Company. 1882-01-14. p. 22. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611060244/https://books.google.com/books?id=zoE9AQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+American&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Munn+%26+Company&rft.date=1882-01-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzoE9AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shirley1997-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shirley1997_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShirley1997" class="citation book cs1">Shirley, James H. (1997). 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Random House. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-50294-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-50294-9"><bdi>0-394-50294-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611062800/https://books.google.com/books?id=1gR8lSPrPq4C&pg=PA107">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(March 1977). "W. W. Campbell's spectroscopic study of the Martian atmosphere". <i>Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>. <b>18</b>: 37–53. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977QJRAS..18...37D">1977QJRAS..18...37D</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=W.+W.+Campbell%27s+spectroscopic+study+of+the+Martian+atmosphere&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=37-53&rft.date=1977-03&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977QJRAS..18...37D&rft.aulast=Devorkin&rft.aufirst=David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-an138-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-an138_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStruve1895" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Struve, H. (July 1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1424745">"Bestimmung der abplattung und des aequators von Mars"</a>. <i>Astronomische Nachrichten</i> (in German). <b>138</b> (14): 217–228. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1895AN....138..217S">1895AN....138..217S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasna.18951381402">10.1002/asna.18951381402</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191207063353/https://zenodo.org/record/1424745">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomische+Nachrichten&rft.atitle=Bestimmung+der+abplattung+und+des+aequators+von+Mars&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=217-228&rft.date=1895-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fasna.18951381402&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1895AN....138..217S&rft.aulast=Struve&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1424745&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aj51-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aj51_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolard1944" class="citation journal cs1">Woolard, Edgar W. (August 1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F105793">"The secular perturbations of the satellites of Mars"</a>. <i>Astronomical Journal</i>. <b>51</b>: 33–36. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1944AJ.....51...33W">1944AJ.....51...33W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F105793">10.1086/105793</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+secular+perturbations+of+the+satellites+of+Mars&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=33-36&rft.date=1944-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F105793&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1944AJ.....51...33W&rft.aulast=Woolard&rft.aufirst=Edgar+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F105793&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pasp36-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pasp36_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettitNicholson1924" class="citation journal cs1">Pettit, Edison; Nicholson, Seth B. (October 1924). "Radiation measures on the planet Mars". <i>Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific</i>. <b>36</b> (213): 269–272. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1924PASP...36..269P">1924PASP...36..269P</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40693334">40693334</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Astronomical+Society+of+the+Pacific&rft.atitle=Radiation+measures+on+the+planet+Mars&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=213&rft.pages=269-272&rft.date=1924-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40693334%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1924PASP...36..269P&rft.aulast=Pettit&rft.aufirst=Edison&rft.au=Nicholson%2C+Seth+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Mars+observation" class="Z3988"></span> Note: there is an error in table II where the temperatures are listed in °C but are clearly intended to be in kelvins.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-apj63_177-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-apj63_177_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenzelCoblentzLampland1926" class="citation journal cs1">Menzel, D. H.; Coblentz, W. W.; Lampland, C. O. (April 1926). 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mars" title="Template:Mars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mars" title="Template talk:Mars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Mars" title="Outline of Mars">Outline of Mars</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Areography" title="Areography">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">Atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_general_circulation_model" title="Mars general circulation model">Circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Mars" title="Climate of Mars">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_dust_devils" title="Martian dust devils">Dust devil tracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_methane_on_Mars" title="Natural methane on Mars">Methane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_terrae_on_Mars" title="List of terrae on Mars">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Terra" title="Arabia Terra">Arabia Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerberus_(Mars)" title="Cerberus (Mars)">Cerberus (Mars)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cydonia_(Mars)" title="Cydonia (Mars)">Cydonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eridania_Lake" title="Eridania Lake">Eridania Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iani_Chaos" title="Iani Chaos">Iani Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia_Undae" title="Olympia Undae">Olympia Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">Planum Australe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Boreum" title="Planum Boreum">Planum Boreum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quadrangles_on_Mars" title="List of quadrangles on Mars">Quadrangles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinus_Meridiani" title="Sinus Meridiani">Sinus Meridiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempe_Terra" title="Tempe Terra">Tempe Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Cimmeria" title="Terra Cimmeria">Terra Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sabaea" title="Terra Sabaea">Terra Sabaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis" title="Tharsis">Tharsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_dune_fields" title="List of extraterrestrial dune fields">Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Polar_Lander#Landing_zone" title="Mars Polar Lander">Ultimi Scopuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis">Vastitas Borealis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Common_surface_features_of_Mars" title="Common surface features of Mars">Physical<br />features</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martian_canals" title="Martian canals">"Canals"</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Martian_canals" title="List of Martian canals">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chasma#Mars" title="Chasma">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crater_chain" title="Crater chain">Catenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_terrain" title="Chaos terrain">Chaos terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Mars" title="List of craters on Mars">Craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossa_(planetary_nomenclature)" title="Fossa (planetary nomenclature)">Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullies_on_Mars" title="Gullies on Mars">Gullies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mensa_(geology)" title="Mensa (geology)">Mensae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_nomenclature#Descriptor_terms_(feature_types)" title="Planetary nomenclature">Labyrinthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_Mars" title="List of mountains on Mars">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_Mars_by_height" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mountains on Mars by height">by height</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">Observed rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">Outflow channels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plains_on_Mars" title="List of plains on Mars">Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_network_(Mars)" title="Valley network (Mars)">Valley network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallis_(planetary_geology)" title="Vallis (planetary geology)">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Mars" title="Gravity of Mars">Gravity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_terrain" title="Brain terrain">Brain terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonates_on_Mars" title="Carbonates on Mars">Carbonates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_of_chaos_terrain_on_Mars" title="List of areas of chaos terrain on Mars">Chaos terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_surface_color" title="Mars surface color">Color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_of_Mars" title="Composition of Mars">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_crater_fill" title="Concentric crater fill">Concentric crater fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_slope_streak" title="Dark slope streak">Dark slope streak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_dichotomy" title="Martian dichotomy">Dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fretted_terrain" title="Fretted terrain">Fretted terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geysers_on_Mars" title="Geysers on Mars">Geysers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciers_on_Mars" title="Glaciers on Mars">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars" title="Groundwater on Mars">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullies_on_Mars" title="Gullies on Mars">Gullies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_on_Mars" title="Lakes on Mars">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_lava_tube" title="Martian lava tube">Lava tubes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_apron" title="Lobate debris apron">Lobate debris apron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsquake" title="Marsquake">Marsquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite" title="Martian meteorite">Meteorites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Martian_meteorites" title="List of Martian meteorites">on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">on Mars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud_cracks_on_Mars" title="Mud cracks on Mars">Mud cracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Polar_Basin_(Mars)" title="North Polar Basin (Mars)">North Polar Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_ocean_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars ocean hypothesis">Ocean hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore_resources_on_Mars" title="Ore resources on Mars">Ore resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_polar_ice_caps" title="Martian polar ice caps">Polar caps</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/True_polar_wander_on_Mars" title="True polar wander on Mars">polar wander</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">Recurring slope lineae (RSL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_mold_crater" title="Ring mold crater">Ring mold craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cone" title="Rootless cone">Rootless cones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">Seasonal flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_spherules" title="Martian spherules">Spherules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_surface" title="Martian surface">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_cheese_features" title="Swiss cheese features">"Swiss cheese" feature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrain_softening" title="Terrain softening">Terrain softening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis#Location_and_Size" title="Tharsis">Tharsis bulge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Mars" title="Volcanism on Mars">Volcanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_on_Mars" title="Water on Mars">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yardangs_on_Mars" title="Yardangs on Mars">Yardangs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Mars" title="Geological history of Mars">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_(Mars)" title="Amazonian (Mars)">Amazonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noachian" title="Noachian">Noachian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Observation history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars" title="Classical albedo features on Mars">Classical albedo features</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_on_Mars" title="Astronomy on Mars">Astronomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" title="Moons of Mars">Moons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stickney_(crater)" title="Stickney (crater)">Stickney crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limtoc" title="Limtoc">Limtoc crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_monolith" title="Phobos monolith">Monolith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swift_(Deimian_crater)" title="Swift (Deimian crater)">Swift crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire_(crater)" title="Voltaire (crater)">Voltaire crater</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_transit" title="Astronomical transit">Transits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipses_on_Mars" title="Solar eclipses on Mars">Solar eclipses on Mars</a></li> <li>Satellite transits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Phobos_from_Mars" title="Transit of Phobos from Mars">Phobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Deimos_from_Mars" title="Transit of Deimos from Mars">Deimos</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planetary transits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Earth_from_Mars" title="Transit of Earth from Mars">Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Mercury_from_Mars" title="Transit of Mercury from Mars">Mercury</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impact_events_on_Mars" title="Impact events on Mars">Impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mars-crossing minor planets">Mars-crossers</a> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2007_WD5" title="2007 WD5">2007 WD<span style="position: relative; top: 0.3em;"><span style="font-size:80%;">5</span></span></a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_trojan" title="Mars trojan">Trojans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5261_Eureka" title="5261 Eureka">5261 Eureka</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/(101429)_1998_VF31" title="(101429) 1998 VF31">1998 VF<sub>31</sub></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/(121514)_1999_UJ7" title="(121514) 1999 UJ7">1999 UJ<sub>7</sub></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/(311999)_2007_NS2" title="(311999) 2007 NS2">2007 NS<sub>2</sub></a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Comets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C/2013_A1_(Siding_Spring)" title="C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)">C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbit_of_Mars" title="Orbit of Mars">Orbit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_flyby" title="Mars flyby">Flyby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars_orbiters" title="List of Mars orbiters">Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_landing" title="Mars landing">Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_rover" title="Mars rover">Rover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_sample-return_mission" title="Mars sample-return mission">Sample return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">Human mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_to_Stay" title="Mars to Stay">Permanent settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars" title="Colonization of Mars">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars" title="Terraforming of Mars">Terraforming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mars_spacecraft" title="Template:Mars spacecraft">Missions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_Mars" title="List of missions to Mars">List of missions to Mars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mars_Project" title="The Mars Project">The Mars Project</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Case_for_Mars" title="The Case for Mars">The Case for Mars</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars_Foundation" title="Inspiration Mars Foundation">Inspiration Mars Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Institute" title="Mars Institute">Mars Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Society" title="Mars Society">Mars Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_race" title="Mars race">Mars race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_on_Mars" title="List of artificial objects on Mars">Artificial objects on Mars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_memorials#Mars" title="List of extraterrestrial memorials">Memorials on Mars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_in_fiction" title="Mars in fiction">Fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_on_Mars" title="List of films set on Mars">List of films set on Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_scientist" title="Martian scientist">Martian scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mythology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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