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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Doctrinal_overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Recognition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Content" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Content"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Content </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Content-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinguishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinguishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Extinguishment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinguishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Percentage_of_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Percentage_of_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Percentage of land </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Percentage_of_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_by_jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_by_jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 History by jurisdiction </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_by_jurisdiction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History by jurisdiction subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History_by_jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belize" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belize"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Belize </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belize-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Botswana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Botswana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Botswana </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Botswana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mainland_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainland_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Mainland China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainland_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Malaysia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 New Zealand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Papua_New_Guinea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Papua_New_Guinea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Papua New Guinea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Papua_New_Guinea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 Russia </div> </a> <ul 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id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurisdiction_rejecting_the_doctrine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurisdiction_rejecting_the_doctrine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Jurisdiction rejecting the doctrine </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jurisdiction_rejecting_the_doctrine-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Jurisdiction rejecting the doctrine subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Jurisdiction_rejecting_the_doctrine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div 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<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Concept in common law of indigenous land rights persisting after colonization</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hikoi-foreshore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hikoi-foreshore.jpg/300px-Hikoi-foreshore.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hikoi-foreshore.jpg/450px-Hikoi-foreshore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hikoi-foreshore.jpg/600px-Hikoi-foreshore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_foreshore_and_seabed_controversy" title="New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy">Protests</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Foreshore_and_Seabed_Act_2004" title="Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004">Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004</a>, which extinguished claims to aboriginal title to the foreshore and seabeds in New Zealand</figcaption></figure> Aboriginal title is a <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> doctrine that the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">land rights of indigenous peoples</a> to <a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">customary tenure</a> persist after the assumption of <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> to that land by another <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonising</a> state. The requirements of proof for the recognition of aboriginal title, the content of aboriginal title, the methods of extinguishing aboriginal title, and the availability of compensation in the case of extinguishment vary significantly by jurisdiction. Nearly all jurisdictions are in agreement that aboriginal title is <a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">inalienable</a>, and that it may be held <a href="/wiki/Individual_and_group_rights" title="Individual and group rights">either individually or collectively</a>. Aboriginal title is also referred to as indigenous title, native title (<a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">in Australia</a>), original Indian title (<a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">in the United States</a>), and customary title (in New Zealand). Aboriginal title jurisprudence is related to <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">indigenous rights</a>, influencing and influenced by non-land issues, such as whether the government owes a <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a> to indigenous peoples. While the judge-made doctrine arises from <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">customary international law</a>, it has been codified nationally by legislation, treaties, and constitutions. Aboriginal title was first acknowledged in the early 19th century, in decisions in which <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a> were not a party. Significant aboriginal title litigation resulting in victories for indigenous peoples did not arise until recent decades. The majority of court cases have been litigated in Australia, Canada, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, New Zealand, and the United States. Aboriginal title is an important area of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">comparative law</a>, with many cases being cited as persuasive authority across jurisdictions. Legislated <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Indigenous land rights</a> often follow from the recognition of <a href="/wiki/Native_title" class="mw-redirect" title="Native title">native title</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_colonial_legacy">British colonial legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: British colonial legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sky_Tower,_Mohegan_Sun,_Uncasville,_CT.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Sky_Tower%2C_Mohegan_Sun%2C_Uncasville%2C_CT.jpg/220px-Sky_Tower%2C_Mohegan_Sun%2C_Uncasville%2C_CT.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Sky_Tower%2C_Mohegan_Sun%2C_Uncasville%2C_CT.jpg/330px-Sky_Tower%2C_Mohegan_Sun%2C_Uncasville%2C_CT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Sky_Tower%2C_Mohegan_Sun%2C_Uncasville%2C_CT.jpg/440px-Sky_Tower%2C_Mohegan_Sun%2C_Uncasville%2C_CT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5152" data-file-height="3864" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mohegan_Sun" title="Mohegan Sun">Mohegan Sun</a> casino commemorates the site of the world's first common-law indigenous land rights case, decided in 1773.</figcaption></figure> Aboriginal title arose at the intersection of three common law doctrines articulated by the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Judicial Committee of the Privy Council</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of State">Act of State</a> doctrine, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doctrine_of_Continuity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doctrine of Continuity (page does not exist)">Doctrine of Continuity</a>, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Recognition_Doctrine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Recognition Doctrine (page does not exist)">Recognition Doctrine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-m161-1">[1]</a> The Act of State doctrine held that the Crown could confiscate or extinguish real or personal property rights in the process of conquering, without scrutiny from any British court, but could not perpetrate an Act of State against its own subjects.<a href="#cite_note-m161-1">[1]</a> The Doctrine of Continuity presumed that the Crown did not intend to extinguish <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> upon acquiring sovereignty, and thus that pre-existing interests were enforceable under British law.<a href="#cite_note-m161-1">[1]</a> Its mirror was the Recognition Doctrine, which held that private property rights were presumed to be extinguished in the absence of explicit recognition.<a href="#cite_note-m161-1">[1]</a> In 1608, the same year in which the Doctrine of Continuity emerged,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Coke" title="Edward Coke">Edward Coke</a> delivered a famous dictum in <a href="/wiki/Calvin%27s_Case" title="Calvin's Case">Calvin's Case</a> (1608) that the laws of all non-Christians would be abrogated upon their conquest.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Coke's view was not put into practice, but was rejected by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mansfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Mansfield">Lord Mansfield</a> in 1774.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The two doctrines were reconciled, with the Doctrine of Continuity prevailing in nearly all situations (except, for example, public property of the predecessor state) in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oyekan_v_Adele&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oyekan v Adele (page does not exist)">Oyekan v Adele</a> (1957).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The first Indigenous land rights case under the common law, <a href="/wiki/Mohegan_Indians_v._Connecticut" title="Mohegan Indians v. Connecticut">Mohegan Indians v. Connecticut</a>, was litigated from 1705 to 1773, with the Privy Council affirming without opinion the judgement of a non-judicial tribunal.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[n 1]</a> Other important Privy Council decisions include <a href="/w/index.php?title=In_re_Southern_Rhodesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="In re Southern Rhodesia (page does not exist)">In re Southern Rhodesia</a> (1919)<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amodu_Tijani_v_Secretary,_Southern_Nigeria" title="Amodu Tijani v Secretary, Southern Nigeria">Amodu Tijani v. Southern Nigeria (Secretary)</a> (1921).<a href="#cite_note-amodu-10">[9]</a> The former rejected a claim for aboriginal title, noting that: <blockquote>Some tribes are so low in the scale of social organization that their usages and conceptions of rights and duties are not to be reconciled with the institutions or the legal ideas of civilized society. Such a gulf cannot be bridged.<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></blockquote> Two years later, Amodu Tijani laid the basis for several elements of the modern aboriginal title doctrine, upholding a customary land claim and urging the need to "study of the history of the particular community and its usages in each case."<a href="#cite_note-amodu-10">[9]</a> Subsequently, the Privy Council issued many opinions confirming the existence of aboriginal title, and upholding customary land claims; many of these arose in African colonies.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> Modern decisions have heaped criticism upon the views expressed in Southern Rhodesia.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Doctrinal_overview">Doctrinal overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Doctrinal overview">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition">Recognition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Recognition">edit</a>]</div> The requirements for establishing an aboriginal title to the land vary across countries, but generally speaking, the aboriginal claimant must establish (exclusive) occupation (or possession) from a long time ago, generally before the assertion of <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, and continuity to the present day. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Content">Content</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Content">edit</a>]</div> Aboriginal title does not constitute <a href="/wiki/Allodial_title" title="Allodial title">allodial title</a> or <a href="/wiki/Radical_title" title="Radical title">radical title</a> in any jurisdiction. Instead, its content is generally described as a <a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a>, i.e. a right to use, although in practice this may mean anything from a right to use land for specific, enumerated purposes, or a general right to use which approximates <a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">fee simple</a>. It is common ground among the relevant jurisdictions that aboriginal title is inalienable, in the sense that it cannot be transferred except to the general government (known, in many of the relevant jurisdictions, as "<a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a>")—although Malaysia allows aboriginal title to be sold between indigenous peoples, unless contrary to <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">customary law</a>. Especially in Australia, the content of aboriginal title varies with the degree to which claimants are able to satisfy the standard of proof for recognition. In particular, the content of aboriginal title may be tied to the traditions and customs of the indigenous peoples, and only accommodate growth and change to a limited extent. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinguishment">Extinguishment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Extinguishment">edit</a>]</div> Aboriginal title can be extinguished by the general government, but again, the requirement to do this varies by country. Some require the legislature to be explicit when it does this, others hold that extinguishment can be inferred from the government's treatment of the land. In Canada, the Crown cannot extinguish aboriginal title without the explicit prior informed consent of the proper aboriginal title holders. New Zealand formerly required consent, but today requires only a justification, akin to a <a href="/wiki/Public_purpose" class="mw-redirect" title="Public purpose">public purpose</a> requirement. Jurisdictions differ on whether the state is required to pay compensation upon extinguishing aboriginal title. Theories for the payment of compensation include the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">right to property</a>, as protected by constitutional or common law, and the breach of a <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Percentage_of_land">Percentage of land</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Percentage of land">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">Native title</a> in Australia - 8,099,264 square kilometres (3,127,143 sq mi)<a href="#cite_note-snapshot-14">[13]</a>: 2  (50.2% of the area of the country's land and waters)<a href="#cite_note-snapshot-14">[13]</a>: 4  as of 2023<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit">[update]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserves</a> in Canada - 28,000 square kilometres (11,000 sq mi) (0.2804% of the country's land area)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Community_Lands" title="Native Community Lands">Native Community Lands</a> in Bolivia - 168,000 square kilometres (65,000 sq mi) (15% of the country's land area)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_territory_(Brazil)" title="Indigenous territory (Brazil)">Indigenous territories</a> in Brazil - 1,105,258 square kilometres (426,742 sq mi) (13% of the country's land area)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_territory_(Colombia)" title="Indigenous territory (Colombia)">Indigenous territories</a> in Colombia - 1,141,748 square kilometres (440,831 sq mi) (31.5% of the country's land area)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a> in the United States - 227,000 square kilometres (88,000 sq mi) (2.308% of the country's land area)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_by_jurisdiction">History by jurisdiction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History by jurisdiction">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">Native title in Australia</a></div> Australia did not experience native title litigation until the 1970s, when <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a> (both <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginal">Aboriginal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islander" class="mw-redirect" title="Torres Strait Islander">Torres Strait Islander</a> people) became more politically active, after being included in the Australian citizenry as a result of the <a href="/wiki/1967_Australian_referendum_(Aboriginals)" title="1967 Australian referendum (Aboriginals)">1967 referendum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[n 2]</a> In 1971, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Blackburn" title="Richard Blackburn">Blackburn J</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Northern_Territory" title="Supreme Court of the Northern Territory">Supreme Court of the Northern Territory</a> rejected the concept in <a href="/wiki/Milirrpum_v_Nabalco_Pty_Ltd" title="Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd">Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd</a> (the "Gove land rights case").<a href="#cite_note-Milirrpum-16">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Land_Rights_Commission" title="Aboriginal Land Rights Commission">Aboriginal Land Rights Commission</a> was established in 1973 in the wake of Milirrpum. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Coe" title="Paul Coe">Paul Coe</a>, in Coe v Commonwealth (1979), attempted (unsuccessfully) to bring a <a href="/wiki/Class_action" title="Class action">class action</a> on behalf of all Aborigines claiming all of Australia.<a href="#cite_note-Coe_v_Cth-17">[15]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Land_Rights_Act_1976" title="Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976">Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Aboriginal_Land_Rights_Act-18">[16]</a> established a statutory procedure that returned approximately 40% of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a> to Aboriginal ownership; the <a href="/wiki/Anangu_Pitjantjatjara_Yankunytjatjara_Land_Rights_Act_1981" title="Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights Act 1981">Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights Act 1981</a>,<a href="#cite_note-APY_Act-19">[17]</a> had a similar effect in <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court of Australia</a>, after paving the way in <a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_1)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 1)">Mabo No 1</a> by striking down a State statute under the <a href="/wiki/Racial_Discrimination_Act_1975" title="Racial Discrimination Act 1975">Racial Discrimination Act 1975</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Mabo_#1-20">[18]</a> overruled Milirrpum in <a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2)">Mabo v Queensland (No 2)</a> (1992).<a href="#cite_note-Mabo_#2-21">[19]</a> Mabo No 2, rejecting <a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">terra nullius</a>, held that native title exists (6–1) and is extinguishable by the sovereign (7–0), without compensation (4–3). In the wake of the decision, the Australian Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/Native_Title_Act_1993" title="Native Title Act 1993">Native Title Act 1993</a> (NTA),<a href="#cite_note-Native_Title_Act-22">[20]</a> codifying the doctrine and establishing the <a href="/wiki/National_Native_Title_Tribunal" title="National Native Title Tribunal">National Native Title Tribunal</a> (NNTT). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Australia_v_Commonwealth_(1995)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western Australia v Commonwealth (1995) (page does not exist)">Western Australia v Commonwealth</a> upheld the NTA and struck down a conflicting Western Australia statute.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> In 1996, the High Court held that <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_lease" title="Pastoral lease">pastoral leases</a>, which cover nearly half of Australia, do not extinguish native title in <a href="/wiki/Wik_Peoples_v_Queensland" title="Wik Peoples v Queensland">Wik Peoples v Queensland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wik_HCA-24">[22]</a> In response, Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/Native_Title_Amendment_Act_1998" class="mw-redirect" title="Native Title Amendment Act 1998">Native Title Amendment Act 1998</a> (the "Ten Point Plan"), extinguishing a variety of Aboriginal land rights and giving state governments the ability to follow suit. <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia_v_Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Australia v Ward">Western Australia v Ward</a> (2002) held that native title is a <a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">bundle of rights</a>, which may be extinguished one by one, for example, by a mining lease.<a href="#cite_note-Ward_HCA-25">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yorta_Yorta_v_Victoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Yorta Yorta v Victoria">Yorta Yorta v Victoria</a> (2002), an appeal from the first native title claim to go to trial since the Native Title Act, adopted strict requirements of continuity of traditional laws and customs for native title claims to succeed.<a href="#cite_note-Yorta_Yorta_HCA-26">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belize">Belize</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Belize">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/w/index.php?title=A-G_for_British_Honduras_v_Bristowe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A-G for British Honduras v Bristowe (page does not exist)">A-G for British Honduras v Bristowe</a> (1880), the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Privy Council</a> held that the property rights of British subjects who had been living in <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a> under Spanish rule with limited property rights, were enforceable against the Crown, and had been upgraded to <a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">fee simple</a> during the gap between Spanish and British sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> This decision did not involve indigenous peoples, but was an important example of the key doctrines that underlie aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> In 1996, the Toledo Maya Cultural Council (TMCC) and the Toledo Alcaldes Association (TAA) filed a claim against the government of Belize in the <a href="/wiki/Belize_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Belize Supreme Court">Belize Supreme Court</a>, but the Court failed to act on the claim.<a href="#cite_note-maya_land_rights_1-29">[27]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya peoples</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Toledo_District" title="Toledo District">Toledo District</a> filed a complaint with the <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="Inter-American Commission on Human Rights">Inter-American Commission on Human Rights</a> (IACHR), which sided with the Maya in 2004 and stated that the failure of the government of Belize to demarcate and title the Maya cultural lands was a violation of the right to property in Article XXIII of the <a href="/wiki/American_Declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="American Declaration">American Declaration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> In 2007, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Abdulai_Conteh" title="Abdulai Conteh">Abdulai Conteh</a> ruled in favor of the Maya communities of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conejo_(Belize)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conejo (Belize) (page does not exist)">Conejo</a> and Santa Cruz, citing the IACHR judgement and key precedents from other common law jurisdictions.<a href="#cite_note-maya_land_rights_1-29">[27]</a> The government entered into negotiations with the Maya communities, but ultimately refused to enforce the judgement. In 2008, The TMCC and TAA, and many individual <a href="/wiki/Alcaldes" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcaldes">alcaldes</a>, filed a representative action on behalf of all the Maya communities of the Toledo District, and on 28 June 2010, CJ Conteh ruled in favor of the claimants, declaring that Maya customary land tenure exists in all the Maya villages of the Toledo District, and gives rise to collective and individual property rights under sections 3(d) and 17 of the <a href="/wiki/Belize_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Belize Constitution">Belize Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-maya_land_rights_2-31">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Botswana">Botswana</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Botswana">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> High Court recognized aboriginal title in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sesana_and_Others_v_Attorney_General&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sesana and Others v Attorney General (page does not exist)">Sesana and Others v Attorney General</a> (2006), a case brought by named plaintiff <a href="/wiki/Roy_Sesana" title="Roy Sesana">Roy Sesana</a>, which held that the <a href="/wiki/Bushmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushmen">San</a> have the right to reside in the <a href="/wiki/Central_Kalahari_Game_Reserve" title="Central Kalahari Game Reserve">Central Kalahari Game Reserve</a> (CKGR), which was violated by their 2001 eviction.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> The decision quoted Mabo and other international case law, and based the right on the San's occupation of their traditional lands from <a href="/wiki/Time_immemorial" title="Time immemorial">time immemorial</a>. The court described the right as a "right to use and occupy the lands" rather than a right of ownership. The government has interpreted the ruling very narrowly and has allowed only a small number of San to re-enter the CKGR. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indigenous_law" title="Canadian Indigenous law">Canadian Indigenous law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous land claims in Canada">Indigenous land claims in Canada</a></div> Aboriginal title has been recognized in Common Law in Canada since the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Privy Council</a>, in <a href="/wiki/St._Catherines_Milling_v._The_Queen" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Catherines Milling v. The Queen">St. Catharines Milling v. The Queen</a> (1888), characterized it as a personal <a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a> at the pleasure of the Queen.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> This case did not involve indigenous parties, but rather was a lumber dispute between the provincial government of Ontario and the federal government of Canada. St. Catharines was decided in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a> (1876), which laid out an assimilationist policy towards the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_peoples_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal peoples in Canada">Aboriginal peoples in Canada</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_people_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis people (Canada)">Métis</a>). It allowed provinces to abrogate treaties (until 1951), and, from 1927, made it a federal crime to prosecute First Nation claims in court, raise money, or organize to pursue such claims.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> St. Catharines was more or less the prevailing law until <a href="/wiki/Calder_v._British_Columbia_(Attorney_General)" class="mw-redirect" title="Calder v. British Columbia (Attorney General)">Calder v. British Columbia (Attorney General)</a> (1973). All seven of the judges in Calder agreed that the claimed Aboriginal title existed, and did not solely depend upon the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>.<a href="#cite_note-calder-35">[33]</a> Six of the judges split 3–3 on the question of whether Aboriginal title had been extinguished. The <a href="/wiki/Nisga%27a" title="Nisga'a">Nisga'a</a> did not prevail because the seventh justice, Pigeon J, found that the Court did not have jurisdiction to make a declaration in favour of the Nisga'a in the absence of a fiat of the Lieutenant-Governor of B.C. permitting suit against the provincial government.<a href="#cite_note-calder-35">[33]</a> Section 91(24) of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1867" title="Constitution Act, 1867">Constitution Act, 1867</a> ("British North America Act 1867") gives the federal government exclusive jurisdiction over First Nations, and thus the exclusive ability to extinguish Aboriginal title. <a href="/wiki/Section_Thirty-five_of_the_Constitution_Act,_1982" class="mw-redirect" title="Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982">Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982</a> explicitly recognized and preserved aboriginal rights. <a href="/wiki/R._v._Guerin" class="mw-redirect" title="R. v. Guerin">R. v. Guerin</a> (1982), the first <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a> decision handed down after the Constitution Act 1982, declared that Aboriginal title was <a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a> and that the federal government has a <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a> to preserve it.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=R._v._Simon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R. v. Simon (page does not exist)">R. v. Simon</a> (1985) overruled <a href="/w/index.php?title=R._v._Syliboy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R. v. Syliboy (page does not exist)">R. v. Syliboy</a> (1929)<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> which had held that Aboriginal peoples had no capacity to enter into treaties, and thus that the <a href="/wiki/Numbered_Treaties" title="Numbered Treaties">Numbered Treaties</a> were void.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> A variety of non-land rights cases, anchored on the Constitution Act 1982, have also been influential.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Delgamuukw_v._British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Delgamuukw v. British Columbia">Delgamuukw v. British Columbia</a> (1997) laid down the essentials of the current test to prove Aboriginal title: "in order to make out a claim for [A]boriginal title, the [A]boriginal group asserting title must satisfy the following criteria: (i) the land must have been occupied prior to sovereignty, (ii) if present occupation is relied on as proof of occupation pre-sovereignty, there must be a continuity between present and pre-sovereignty occupation, and (iii) at sovereignty, that occupation must have been exclusive."<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> Subsequent decisions have drawn on the fiduciary duty to limit the ways in which the Crown can extinguish Aboriginal title,<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> and to require prior consultation where the government has knowledge of a credible, but yet unproven, claim to Aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> In 2014 the Supreme Court ruled unanimously for the plaintiff in <a href="/wiki/Tsilhqot%27in_Nation_v._British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsilhqot'in Nation v. British Columbia">Tsilhqot'in Nation v. British Columbia</a>. Rejecting the government's claim that Aboriginal title applied only to villages and fishing sites, it instead agreed with the First Nation that Aboriginal title extends to the entire traditional territory of an indigenous group, even if that group was semi-nomadic and did not create settlements on that territory. It also stated that governments must have consent from First Nations which hold Aboriginal title in order to approve developments on that land, and governments can override the First Nation's wishes only in exceptional circumstances. The court reaffirmed, however, that areas under Aboriginal title are not outside the jurisdiction of the provinces, and provincial law still applies.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainland_China">Mainland China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mainland China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of China">Autonomous administrative divisions of China</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> In 2008, Japan gave partial recognition to the <a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> However, land rights were not given for another eleven years. In 2019, Japan fully recognised the Ainu people as the indigenous people of Japan and gave them some land rights if requested.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malaysia">Malaysia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Malaysia">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> recognised various statutory rights related to native customary laws (<a href="/wiki/Adat" title="Adat">adat</a>) before its courts acknowledged the independent existence of common law aboriginal title. Native Customary Rights (NCR) and Native Customary Land (NCL) are provided for under section 4(2) of the National Land Code 1965, the Sarawak Land Code 1957, the respective provisions of the National Land Code (Penang and Malacca Titles) Act 1963, and the Customary Tenure Enactment (FMS).<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> Rajah's Order IX of 1875 recognized aboriginal title by providing for its extinguishment where cleared land was abandoned. Rajah's Order VIII of 1920 ("Land Order 1920") divided "State Lands" into four categories, one of them being "native holdings", and provided for the registration of customary holdings. The Aboriginal People's Act 1954 creates aboriginal areas and reserves, also providing for state acquisition of land without compensation. Article 160 of the Federal Constitution declares that custom has the force of law. Malaysian court decisions from the 1950s on have held that customary lands were <a href="/wiki/Inalienable_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Inalienable right">inalienable</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> In the 1970s, aboriginal rights were declared to be property rights, as protected by the Federal Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> Decisions in the 1970s and 1980s blocked state-sanctioned logging on customary land.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> In 1997, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mokhtar_Sidin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mokhtar Sidin (page does not exist)">Mokhtar Sidin</a> JCA of the Jahore High Court became the first Malaysian judge to acknowledge common law aboriginal title in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adong_bin_Kuwau_v._Kerajaan_Negeri_Johor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adong bin Kuwau v. Kerajaan Negeri Johor (page does not exist)">Adong bin Kuwau v. Kerajaan Negeri Johor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> The High Court cited the Federal Constitution and the Aboriginal Peoples Act, as well as decisions from the Privy Council, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. That case was the first time where <a href="/wiki/Orang_Asli" title="Orang Asli">Orang Asli</a> directly and expressly challenged a state taking of their land. The opinion held that: "the aborigines' common law rights include, inter alia, the right to live on their land as their forefathers had lived." The case was upheld on appeal, but the Federal Court did not write an opinion.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Later High Court and Court of Appeal decisions built upon the foundation of Adong bin Kuwau.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> However, the ability for indigenous peoples to bring such suits was seriously limited by a 2005 ruling that claims must be brought under <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_the_High_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of the High Court">O. 53 RHC</a>, rather than the <a href="/wiki/Representative_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Representative action">representative action</a> provision.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Malaysia" title="Federal Court of Malaysia">Federal Court of Malaysia</a> wrote an opinion endorsing common law aboriginal title for the first time in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Superintendent_of_Lands_v._Madeli_bin_Salleh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Superintendent of Lands v. Madeli bin Salleh (page does not exist)">Superintendent of Lands v. Madeli bin Salleh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2007_6_CLJ_509-78">[76]</a> The Federal Court endorsed Mabo and Calder, stating that "the proposition of law as enunciated in these two cases reflected the common law position with regard to native titles throughout the Commonwealth."<a href="#cite_note-2007_6_CLJ_509-78">[76]</a>: para 19  The High Court of Kuching held in 2010, for the first time, that NCL may be transferred for <a href="/wiki/Consideration" title="Consideration">consideration</a> between members of the same community, as long as such transfers are not contrary to <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">customary law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: New Zealand">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treatyofwaitangi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Treatyofwaitangi.jpg/220px-Treatyofwaitangi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="412" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Treatyofwaitangi.jpg/330px-Treatyofwaitangi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Treatyofwaitangi.jpg/440px-Treatyofwaitangi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3091" data-file-height="5788" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a> (1840)</figcaption></figure> New Zealand was the second jurisdiction in the world to recognize aboriginal title, but a slew of extinguishing legislation (beginning with the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_land_confiscations" title="New Zealand land confiscations">New Zealand land confiscations</a>) has left the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> with little to claim except for <a href="/wiki/River_beds" class="mw-redirect" title="River beds">river beds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake_beds" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake beds">lake beds</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_foreshore_and_seabed_controversy" title="New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy">foreshore and seabed</a>. In 1847, in a decision that was not appealed to the Privy Council, the Supreme Court of the colony of New Zealand recognized aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/R_v_Symonds" title="R v Symonds">R v Symonds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-R_v_Symonds-80">[78]</a> The decision was based on common law and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a> (1840). <a href="/wiki/Henry_Samuel_Chapman" title="Henry Samuel Chapman">Chapman J</a> went farther than any judge—before or since—in declaring that aboriginal title "cannot be extinguished (at least in times of peace) otherwise than by the free consent of the Native occupiers".<a href="#cite_note-R_v_Symonds-80">[78]</a>: 390  The New Zealand Parliament responded with the Native Lands Act 1862, the Native Rights Act 1865 and the <a href="/wiki/Native_Lands_Act_1865" title="Native Lands Act 1865">Native Lands Act 1865</a> which established the Native Land Court (today the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_Land_Court" title="Māori Land Court">Māori Land Court</a>) to hear aboriginal title claims, and—if proven—convert them into freehold interests that could be sold to <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81keh%C4%81" title="Pākehā">Pākehā</a> (New Zealanders of European descent). That court created the "1840 rule", which converted Māori interests into <a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">fee simple</a> if they were sufficiently in existence in 1840, or else disregarded them.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> Symonds remained the guiding principle,<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> until <a href="/wiki/Wi_Parata_v_the_Bishop_of_Wellington" class="mw-redirect" title="Wi Parata v the Bishop of Wellington">Wi Parata v the Bishop of Wellington</a> (1877).<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> Wi Parata undid Symonds, advocating the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">terra nullius</a> and declaring the Treaty of Waitangi unenforceable. The Privy Council disagreed in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nireaha_Tamaki_v_Baker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nireaha Tamaki v Baker (page does not exist)">Nireaha Tamaki v Baker</a>,<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> and other rulings,<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> but courts in New Zealand continued to hand down decisions materially similar to Wi Parata.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Coal_Mines_Amendment_Act_1903&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coal Mines Amendment Act 1903 (page does not exist)">Coal Mines Amendment Act 1903</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[n 3]</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Native_Land_Act_1909&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Native Land Act 1909 (page does not exist)">Native Land Act 1909</a> declared aboriginal title unenforceable against the Crown. Eventually, the Privy Council acquiesced to the view that the Treaty was non-justiciable.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> Land was also lost under other legislation. The Counties Act 1886 s.245 said that tracks, "over any Crown lands or Native lands, and generally used without obstruction as roads, shall, for the purposes of this section, be deemed to be public roads, not exceeding sixty-six feet in width, and under the control of the Council".<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> Opposition to such confiscation was met by force, as at <a href="/wiki/Lake_Opuatia#History" title="Lake Opuatia">Opuatia</a> in 1894.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> A series of Acts, beginning a year after the Treaty of Waitangi with the Land Claims Ordinance 1841, allowed the government to take and sell 'Waste Lands'.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> Favorable court decisions turned aboriginal title litigation towards the lake beds,<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> but the Māori were unsuccessful in claiming the rivers<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> the beaches,<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> and customary fishing rights on the foreshore.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitation_Act_1950&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limitation Act 1950 (page does not exist)">Limitation Act 1950</a> established a 12-year <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> for aboriginal title claims (6 years for damages), and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maori_Affairs_Act_1953&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maori Affairs Act 1953 (page does not exist)">Maori Affairs Act 1953</a> prevented the enforcement of customary tenure against the Crown. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi_Act_1975" title="Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975">Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Waitangi_Tribunal" title="Waitangi Tribunal">Waitangi Tribunal</a> to issue non-binding decisions, concerning alleged breaches of the Treaty, and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi_claims_and_settlements" title="Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements">facilitate settlements</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Te_Weehi_v_Regional_Fisheries_Office&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Te Weehi v Regional Fisheries Office (page does not exist)">Te Weehi v Regional Fisheries Office</a> (1986) was the first modern case to recognize an aboriginal title claim in a New Zealand court since Wi Parata, granting non-exclusive customary fishing rights.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> The Court cited the writings of Dr <a href="/wiki/Paul_McHugh_(legal_scholar)" title="Paul McHugh (legal scholar)">Paul McHugh</a> and indicated that whilst the Treaty of Waitangi confirmed those property rights, their legal foundation was the common law principle of continuity. The Crown did not appeal Te Weehi which was regarded as the motivation for Crown settlement of the sea fisheries claims (1992). Subsequent cases began meanwhile—and apart from the common law doctrine—to rehabilitate the Treaty of Waitangi, declaring it the "fabric of New Zealand society" and thus relevant even to legislation of general applicability.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maori_Council_v_Attorney-General" title="New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney-General">New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney-General</a> held that the government owed a duty analogous to a <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a> toward the Māori.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> This cleared the way for a variety of Treaty-based non-land Māori customary rights.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> By this time the Waitangi Tribunal in its Muriwhenua Fishing Report (1988) was describing Treaty-based and common law aboriginal title derived rights as complementary and having an 'aura' of their own. Circa the <a href="/wiki/Te_Ture_Whenua_M%C4%81ori_Act_1993" title="Te Ture Whenua Māori Act 1993">Te Ture Whenua Māori Act 1993</a>, less than 5% of New Zealand was held as Māori customary land. In 2002, the Privy Council confirmed that the Maori Land Court, which does not have <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a> jurisdiction, was the exclusive forum for territorial aboriginal title claims (i.e. those equivalent to a customary title claim)<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> In 2003, <a href="/wiki/Ngati_Apa_v_Attorney-General" title="Ngati Apa v Attorney-General">Ngati Apa v Attorney-General</a> overruled <a href="/wiki/In_Re_the_Ninety-Mile_Beach" title="In Re the Ninety-Mile Beach">In Re the Ninety-Mile Beach</a> and Wi Parata, declaring that Māori could bring claims to the foreshore in Land Court.<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> The Court also indicated that customary aboriginal title interests (non-territorial) might also remain around the coastline. The <a href="/wiki/Foreshore_and_Seabed_Act_2004" title="Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004">Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004</a> extinguished those rights before any lower court could hear a claim to either territorial customary title (the Maori Land Court) or non-territorial customary rights (the High Court's inherent common law jurisdiction). That legislation has been condemned by the <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_the_Elimination_of_Racial_Discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination">Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination</a>. The 2004 Act was repealed with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Marine_and_Coastal_Area_(Takutai_Moana)_Act_2011" title="Marine and Coastal Area (Takutai Moana) Act 2011">Marine and Coastal Area (Takutai Moana) Act 2011</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Papua_New_Guinea">Papua New Guinea</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Papua New Guinea">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court of Australia</a>, which had appellate jurisdiction before 1975, recognized aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>—decades before it did so in Australia—in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geita_Sebea_v_Territory_of_Papua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geita Sebea v Territory of Papua (page does not exist)">Geita Sebea v Territory of Papua</a> (1941),<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Administration_of_Papua_and_New_Guinea_v_Daera_Guba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Administration of Papua and New Guinea v Daera Guba (page does not exist)">Administration of Papua and New Guinea v Daera Guba</a> (1973) (the "Newtown case"),<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a> and other cases.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea">Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea</a> followed suit.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> Schedule 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Papua New Guinea">Constitution of Papua New Guinea</a> recognizes <a href="/wiki/Customary_land_tenure" class="mw-redirect" title="Customary land tenure">customary land tenure</a>, and 97% of the land in the country remains unalienated. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Traditional_Natural_Resource_Use" title="Territory of Traditional Natural Resource Use">Territory of Traditional Natural Resource Use</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: South Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tylecodon_paniculatus-PICT2534.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tylecodon_paniculatus-PICT2534.jpg/220px-Tylecodon_paniculatus-PICT2534.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tylecodon_paniculatus-PICT2534.jpg/330px-Tylecodon_paniculatus-PICT2534.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tylecodon_paniculatus-PICT2534.jpg/440px-Tylecodon_paniculatus-PICT2534.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Richtersveld" title="Richtersveld">Richtersveld</a> desert</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Alexkor_v_Richtersveld_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexkor v Richtersveld Community">Alexkor v Richtersveld Community</a> (2003), a suit under the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Restitution_of_Land_Rights_Act_1994&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Restitution of Land Rights Act 1994 (page does not exist)">Restitution of Land Rights Act 1994</a>,<a href="#cite_note-alexkor-118">[115]</a> lawyers gathered case law from settler jurisdictions around the world, and judges of the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_South_Africa" title="Constitutional Court of South Africa">Constitutional Court</a> of South Africa talked frankly about Aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-cavanagh13-119">[116]</a> The Land Claims Court had dismissed the complaint of the <a href="/wiki/Richtersveld" title="Richtersveld">Richtersveld</a> peoples, whose land was seized by a government owned <a href="/wiki/List_of_diamond_mines" title="List of diamond mines">diamond mining operation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> The Supreme Court of Appeal disagreed, citing Mabo and Yorta Yorta, but held that the aboriginal title had been extinguished.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> Whether the precedent will be the start of further land rights claims by indigenous peoples is an open question, given the cut-off date of 1913 in the Restitution Act.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a> The case ultimately did not lead to the inclusion of the Aboriginal title in South African doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-cavanagh13-119">[116]</a> Legal scholars allege that this is because the application of terms like 'indigenous' and 'Aboriginal' in a South African context would lead to a number of contradictions.<a href="#cite_note-cavanagh13-119">[116]</a> The identity of the indigenous groups in South Africa is not self-evident.<a href="#cite_note-lehmann-125">[122]</a> The adoption of a strict definition, including only communities descended from <a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe" title="Khoekhoe">Khoekhoe</a> people, would entail the exclusion of black African communities, an approach deemed detrimental to the spirit of national unity.<a href="#cite_note-lehmann-125">[122]</a> The legacy of the <a href="/wiki/Natives_Land_Act,_1913" title="Natives Land Act, 1913">Natives Land Act</a> also means that few communities retain relationships with the land of which they held before 1913.<a href="#cite_note-lehmann-125">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Taiwan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/General_distribution_of_indigenous_people_in_Taiwan.svg/170px-General_distribution_of_indigenous_people_in_Taiwan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/General_distribution_of_indigenous_people_in_Taiwan.svg/255px-General_distribution_of_indigenous_people_in_Taiwan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/General_distribution_of_indigenous_people_in_Taiwan.svg/340px-General_distribution_of_indigenous_people_in_Taiwan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="980" usemap="#ImageMap_999ee388187e92cf" resource="/wiki/File:General_distribution_of_indigenous_people_in_Taiwan.svg" /><map name="ImageMap_999ee388187e92cf"><area href="/wiki/Yami_people" shape="circle" coords="121,251,6" alt="Yami people" title="Yami people" /><area href="/wiki/Paiwan_people" shape="poly" coords="76,256,62,245,55,194,65,192,65,201,74,209,84,205" alt="Paiwan people" title="Paiwan people" /><area href="/wiki/Rukai_people" shape="poly" coords="57,195,64,180,72,181,74,193,81,196,73,207,65,201,65,191" alt="Rukai people" title="Rukai people" /><area href="/wiki/Puyuma_people" shape="poly" coords="74,208,85,207,97,196,91,191,80,195" alt="Puyuma people" title="Puyuma people" /><area href="/wiki/Tsou_people" shape="poly" coords="60,166,72,166,81,149,73,138,67,139,62,155" alt="Tsou people" title="Tsou people" /><area href="/wiki/Bunun_people" shape="poly" coords="63,181,61,167,81,155,82,147,73,137,78,129,86,122,82,118,85,113,99,118,110,128,101,164,92,171,89,188,91,191,81,196,73,193" alt="Bunun people" title="Bunun people" /><area href="/wiki/Amis_people" shape="poly" coords="97,197,89,190,92,170,101,165,113,121,121,124,111,172" alt="Amis people" title="Amis people" /><area href="/wiki/Kavalan_people" shape="poly" coords="113,129,110,137,110,145,115,138" alt="Kavalan people" title="Kavalan people" /><area href="/wiki/Thao_people" shape="poly" coords="67,130,78,128,85,123,80,116,72,119" alt="Thao people" title="Thao people" /><area href="/wiki/Sediq_people" shape="poly" coords="72,119,79,116,81,117,84,113,74,100,69,100,67,110" alt="Sediq people" title="Sediq people" /><area href="/wiki/Atayal_people" shape="poly" coords="110,127,101,118,85,113,74,101,80,75,99,71,98,60,103,49,127,46,121,57,136,68,135,86,126,99,120,102" alt="Atayal people" title="Atayal people" /><area href="/wiki/Truku_people" shape="poly" coords="117,112,124,114,128,107,125,100,121,101" alt="Truku people" title="Truku people" /><area href="/wiki/Sakizaya_people" shape="poly" coords="113,121,118,113,124,114,122,123" alt="Sakizaya people" title="Sakizaya people" /><area href="/wiki/Saisiyat_people" shape="poly" coords="79,75,99,73,98,60,80,67" alt="Saisiyat people" title="Saisiyat people" /></map><figcaption>Clickable imagemap of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> showing traditional territories of indigenous highland peoples. Alternate spellings or names: Pazih (Pazeh); Taroko (Truku, Seediq); Yami (Tao).</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_indigenous_peoples" title="Taiwanese indigenous peoples">Taiwanese indigenous peoples</a> are <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian peoples</a>, making up a little over 2% of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>'s population; the rest of the population is composed of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">ethnic Chinese</a> who colonised the island from the 17th century onward. From 1895 <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan was under Japanese rule</a> and indigenous rights to land were extinguished.<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a> In 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912-49)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912-49)">Republic of China</a> (ROC) took control of Taiwan from the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Empire">Japanese Empire</a>; a <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">rump</a> Republic of China was established on Taiwan in 1949 after the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communists</a> won the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>. From then, indigenous people's access to traditional lands was limited, as the ROC built cities, railroads, national parks, mines and tourist attractions.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> In 2005 the Basic Law for Indigenous Peoples was passed.<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a> In 2017 the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Council of Indigenous Peoples">Council of Indigenous Peoples</a> declared 18,000 square kilometres (6,900 sq mi), about half of Taiwan's land area (mostly in the east of the island), to be "traditional territory"; about 90 percent is public land that indigenous people can claim, and to whose development they can consent or not; the rest is privately owned.<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tanzania">Tanzania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Tanzania">edit</a>]</div> In 1976, the <a href="/wiki/Barabaig_people" title="Barabaig people">Barabaig people</a> challenged their eviction from the Hanang District of the Manyara Region, due to the government's decision to grow wheat in the region, funded by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Canadian_Food_Aid_Programme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canadian Food Aid Programme (page does not exist)">Canadian Food Aid Programme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a> The wheat program would later become the National Agricultural and Food Corporation (NAFCO). NAFCO would lose a different suit to the Mulbadaw Village Council in 1981, which upheld customary land rights.<a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_Tanzania" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Appeal of Tanzania">Court of Appeal of Tanzania</a> overturned the judgement in 1985, without reversing the doctrine of aboriginal title, holding that the specific claimants had not proved that they were native.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> The Extinction of Customary Land Right Order 1987,<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a> which purported to extinguish Barabaig customary rights, was declared null and void that year.<a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> The Court of Appeal delivered a decision in 1994 that sided with the aboriginal title claimant on nearly all issues, but ultimately ruled against them, holding that the Constitution (Consequential, Transitional and Temporary Provisions) Act, 1984—which rendered the constitutional right to property enforceable in court—was not retroactive.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> In 1999, the <a href="/wiki/Maasai_people" title="Maasai people">Maasai</a> were awarded monetary compensation and alternative land by the Court of Appeal due to their eviction from the <a href="/wiki/Mkomazi_Game_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkomazi Game Reserve">Mkomazi Game Reserve</a> when a foreign investor started a <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhino</a> farm.<a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a> The government has yet to comply with the ruling. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></div> The United States, under the tenure of Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a>, became the first jurisdiction in the world to judicially acknowledge (in <a href="/wiki/Dicta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicta">dicta</a>) the existence of aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court">series of key decisions</a>. Marshall envisioned a <a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a>, whose content was limited only by "their own discretion", inalienable except to the federal government, and extinguishable only by the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a> Early state court decisions also presumed the existence of some form of aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a> Later cases established that aboriginal title could be terminated only by the "clear and plain intention" of the federal government, a test that has been adopted by most other jurisdictions.<a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a> The federal government was found to owe a <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a> to the holders of aboriginal title, but such duty did not become enforceable until the late-20th century.<a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a> Although the property right itself is not created by statute, <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">sovereign immunity</a> barred the enforcement of aboriginal title until the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission_Act_of_1946" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946">Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946</a>,<a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a> which created the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission</a> (succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Claims" title="United States Court of Claims">United States Court of Claims</a> in 1978, and later the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Federal_Claims" title="United States Court of Federal Claims">United States Court of Federal Claims</a> in 1982). These bodies have no authority to title land, only to pay compensation. <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Alcea_Band_of_Tillamooks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Alcea Band of Tillamooks (page does not exist)">United States v. Alcea Band of Tillamooks</a> (1946) was the first ever judicial compensation for a taking of Indian lands unrecognized by a specific treaty obligation.<a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a> (1955) established that the extinguishment of aboriginal title was not a "<a href="/wiki/Takings_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Takings Clause">taking</a>" within the meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a> On the strength of this precedent, claimants in the Court of Federal Claims have been denied interest—which otherwise would be payable under Fifth Amendment jurisprudence—totalling billions of dollars ($9 billion alone, as estimated by a footnote in Tee-Hit-Ton, in interest for claims then pending based on existing jurisdictional statutes).<a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a> Unlike Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, the United States allows aboriginal title to be created post-sovereignty; rather than existing since pre-sovereignty, aboriginal title need only have existed for a "long time" (as little as 30 years) to be compensable.<a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jurisdiction_rejecting_the_doctrine">Jurisdiction rejecting the doctrine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Jurisdiction rejecting the doctrine">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg/220px-Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg/330px-Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg/440px-Mutiny_HMS_Bounty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>Some of the <a href="/wiki/Mutiny_on_the_Bounty" title="Mutiny on the Bounty">Bounty mutineers</a> landed on the <a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a> and later on <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a>, hundreds of years after archaeologists estimate the original <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesian</a> inhabitants departed these islands.</figcaption></figure> There is no possibility for aboriginal title litigation in some <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> jurisdictions; for instance, <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a> were uninhabited for hundreds of years prior to colonization, although they had previously been inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Carib</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesian</a> peoples, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> Unlike most jurisdictions, the doctrine that aboriginal title is <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">inalienable</a> never took hold in India. Sales of land from indigenous persons to both British subjects and aliens were widely upheld.<a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pratt%E2%80%93Yorke_opinion" title="Pratt–Yorke opinion">Pratt–Yorke opinion</a> (1757), a joint opinion of England's Attorney-General and Solicitor-General, declared that land purchases by the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely states</a> were valid even without a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Crown_patent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crown patent (page does not exist)">Crown patent</a> authorizing the purchase. In a 1924 appeal from India, the Privy Council issued an opinion that largely corresponded to the Continuity Doctrine: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vaje_Singji_Jorava_Ssingji_v_Secretary_of_State_for_India&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vaje Singji Jorava Ssingji v Secretary of State for India (page does not exist)">Vaje Singji Jorava Ssingji v Secretary of State for India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a> This line of reasoning was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court of India</a> in a line of decisions, originating with the proprietary claims of the former rulers of the Princely states, as well as their heirs and assigns.<a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasi</a> land rights litigation has yielded little result. Most Adivasi live in state-owned forests. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_domain" title="Ancestral domain">Ancestral domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Tongue_Title" class="mw-redirect" title="Native Tongue Title">Native Tongue Title</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> For modern litigation over the same land, see Mohegan Tribe v. Connecticut, 483 F. Supp. 597 (D. Conn. 1980), aff'd, 638 F.2d 612 (2d Cir. 1980), cert. denied 452 U.S. 968, on remand, 528 F. Supp. 1359 (D. Conn. 1982). </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Several earlier cases tangentially involved issues of native title: Attorney-General v Brown <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWLeggeSC/1847/2.pdf">(1847) 1 Legge 312</a>; 2 SCR (NSW) App 30; Cooper v Stuart <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commonlii.org/uk/cases/UKLawRpAC/1889/7.html">[1889] UKLawRpAC 7</a>, (1889) 14 <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">App Cas</a> 286 (3 April 1889), <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Privy Council</a> (on appeal from NSW); Williams v Attorney General (NSW) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1913/33.html">[1913] HCA 33</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/Cth/HCA/1913/33.pdf">(1913) 16 <abbr title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</abbr> 404</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia); Randwick Corporation v Rutledge <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1959/63.html">[1959] HCA 63</a>, (1959) 102 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 54, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia); Wade v New South Wales Rutile Mining Co Pty Ltd <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1969/28.html">[1969] HCA 28</a>, (1969) 121 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 177, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia). </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Currently, section 261 of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Coal_Mines_Act_1979&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coal Mines Act 1979 (page does not exist)">Coal Mines Act 1979</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-m161-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-m161_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m161_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m161_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m161_1-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>McNeil, 1989, at 161–179. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The Case of Tanistry (1608) Davis 28 (conquest of Ireland). </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Witrong v. Blany (1674) 3 Keb. 401 (conquest of Wales). </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Calvin%27s_Case" title="Calvin's Case">Calvin's Case</a> (1608) 77 E.R. 377, 397–98 (K.B.): "All infidels are in law perpetui inimici, perpetual enemies (for the law presumes not that they will be converted, that being remota potentia, a remote possibility) for between them, as with the devils, whose subjects they be, and the Christian, there is perpetual hostility, and can be no peace; . . . And upon this ground there is a diversity between a conquest of a kingdom of a Christian King, and the conquest of a kingdom of an infidel; for if a King come to a Christian kingdom by conquest, . . . he may at his pleasure alter and change the laws of that kingdom: but until he doth make an alteration of those laws the ancient laws of that kingdom remain. But if a Christian King should conquer a kingdom of an infidel, and bring them under his subjection, there ipso facto the laws of the infidel are abrogated, for that they be not only against Christianity, but against the law of God and of nature, contained in the decalogue; and in that case, until certain laws be established amongst them, the King by himself, and such Judges as he shall appoint, shall judge them and their causes according to natural equity." </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Campbell v. Hall (1774) Lofft 655. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Oyekan & Ors v Adele [1957] 2 All ER 785 (Nigeria). </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Mark Walters, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohlj.ca/archive/articles/33_4_walters.pdf">"'Mohegan Indians v. Connecticut'(1705–1773) and the Legal Status of Aboriginal Customary Laws and Government in British North America"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706191329/http://www.ohlj.ca/archive/articles/33_4_walters.pdf">Archived</a> 6 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 33 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Osgoode Hall L.J. 4 (2007). </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> In re Southern Rhodesia [1919] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-amodu-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amodu_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amodu_10-1">b</a> Amodu Tijani v. Southern Nigeria (Secretary), [1921] 2 <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 399. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> In re Southern Rhodesia [1919] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 211, 233–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> In chronological order: Sobhuza II v Miller [1926] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 518 (Swaziland); Sunmonu v Disu Raphael (Deceased) [1927] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 881 (Nigeria); Bakare Ajakaiye v Lieutenant Governor of the Southern Provinces [1929] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 679 (Nigeria); Sakariyawo Oshodi v Moriamo Dakolo (4) [1930] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 667 (Nigeria); Stool of Abinabina v. Chief Kojo Enyimadu (1953) <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 207 (West African Gold Coast); Nalukuya (Rata Taito) v Director of Lands [1957] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 325 (Fiji); Adeyinka Oyekan v Musendiku Adele [1957]2 All ER 785 (West Africa). </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Nyali v Attorney General [1956] 1 QB 1 (Lord Denning). </li> <li id="cite_note-snapshot-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-snapshot_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-snapshot_14-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/NativeTitleNlr/2023/1.pdf">"Native title snapshot 2023"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Australasian_Legal_Information_Institute" title="Australasian Legal Information Institute">Australasian Legal Information Institute</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Native_Title_Tribunal" title="National Native Title Tribunal">National Native Title Tribunal</a>. 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australasian+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=Native+title+snapshot+2023&rft.date=2023&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassic.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FNativeTitleNlr%2F2023%2F1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAboriginal+title" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Milirrpum-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Milirrpum_16-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Milirrpum_v_Nabalco_Pty_Ltd" title="Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd">Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd</a> (1971) 17 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Law Reports">FLR</a> 141 (27 April 1971) <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Northern_Territory" title="Supreme Court of the Northern Territory">Supreme Court</a> (NT, Australia). </li> <li id="cite_note-Coe_v_Cth-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Coe_v_Cth_17-0">^</a> Coe v Commonwealth <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1979/68.html">[1979] HCA 68</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia) </li> <li id="cite_note-Aboriginal_Land_Rights_Act-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Aboriginal_Land_Rights_Act_18-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/alrta1976444/">Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976</a> (Cth). </li> <li id="cite_note-APY_Act-19"><a href="#cite_ref-APY_Act_19-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/apylra1981489/">Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights Act 1981</a> (SA). </li> <li id="cite_note-Mabo_#1-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Mabo_#1_20-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_1)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 1)">Mabo v Queensland (No 1)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1988/69.html">[1988] HCA 69</a>, (1988) 166 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 186 (8 December 1988), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia). </li> <li id="cite_note-Mabo_#2-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Mabo_#2_21-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2)">Mabo v Queensland (No 2)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/23.html">[1992] HCA 23</a>, (1992) 175 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1 (3 June 1992), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia). </li> <li id="cite_note-Native_Title_Act-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Native_Title_Act_22-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/nta1993147/">Native Title Act</a> (Cth). </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Australia_v_Commonwealth_(1995)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western Australia v Commonwealth (1995) (page does not exist)">Western Australia v Commonwealth</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1995/47.html">[1995] HCA 47</a>, (1988) 166 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 186 (16 March 1995), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia). </li> <li id="cite_note-Wik_HCA-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Wik_HCA_24-0">^</a> Wik Peoples v The State of Queensland <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1996/40.html">[1996] HCA 40</a>, (1996) 187 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1 (23 December 1996), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia). </li> <li id="cite_note-Ward_HCA-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Ward_HCA_25-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia_v_Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Australia v Ward">Western Australia v Ward</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2002/28.html">[2002] HCA 28</a>, (2002) 213 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1 (8 August 2002), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia) </li> <li id="cite_note-Yorta_Yorta_HCA-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Yorta_Yorta_HCA_26-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Members_of_the_Yorta_Yorta_Aboriginal_Community_v_Victoria" title="Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria">Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2002/58.html">[2002] HCA 58</a>, (2002) 214 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 422 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hcourt.gov.au/assets/publications/judgment-summaries/2002/hca58-2002-12-12.pdf">"Judgment Summary"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia). 12 December 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judgment+Summary&rft.pub=High+Court+%28Australia%29&rft.date=2002-12-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hcourt.gov.au%2Fassets%2Fpublications%2Fjudgment-summaries%2F2002%2Fhca58-2002-12-12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAboriginal+title" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Attorney-General for British Honduras v Bristowe <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/1880/1880_46.html">[1880] UKPC 46</a>, (1880) 6 <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 143, <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Privy Council</a> (on appeal from British Honduras). </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">McNeil, 1989, at 141–147. </li> <li id="cite_note-maya_land_rights_1-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-maya_land_rights_1_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-maya_land_rights_1_29-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://belizelaw.org/supreme_court/judgements/2007/Claims%20Nos.%20171%20and%20172%20of%202007%20(Consolidated)%20re%20Maya%20land%20rights.pdf">Supreme Court Claims Nos. 171 and 172 of 2007 (Consolidated) re Maya land rights</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100717040715/http://belizelaw.org/supreme_court/judgements/2007/Claims%20Nos.%20171%20and%20172%20of%202007%20%28Consolidated%29%20re%20Maya%20land%20rights.pdf">Archived</a> 17 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="Inter-American Commission on Human Rights">Inter-American Commission on Human Rights</a>. 12 October 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cidh.org/annualrep/2004eng/belize.12053eng.htm">Report Nº 40/04, Case 12.053, Merits, Maya Indigenous Communities of the Toledo District, Belize</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110609185746/http://www.cidh.org/annualrep/2004eng/belize.12053eng.htm">Archived</a> 9 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-maya_land_rights_2-31"><a href="#cite_ref-maya_land_rights_2_31-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://belizelaw.org/supreme_court/judgements/CJ%20Jugments/Claim%20No.%20366%20of%202008%20-%20The%20Maya%20Leaders%20Alliance%20and%20the%20Toledo%20Alcaldes%20et%20al%20and%20The%20Attorney%20General%20of%20Belize%20et%20al%20and%20Francis%20Johnston%20et%20al.pdf">Supreme Court Claim No. 366 of 2008 – The Maya Leaders Alliance and the Toledo Alcaldes et al v The Attorney General of Belize et al and Francis Johnston et al</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100716210435/http://belizelaw.org/supreme_court/judgements/CJ%20Jugments/Claim%20No.%20366%20of%202008%20-%20The%20Maya%20Leaders%20Alliance%20and%20the%20Toledo%20Alcaldes%20et%20al%20and%20The%20Attorney%20General%20of%20Belize%20et%20al%20and%20Francis%20Johnston%20et%20al.pdf">Archived</a> 16 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Sesana and Others v Attorney General (52/2002) [2006] BWHC 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> St. Catharines Milling v. 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The State of Uttar Pradesh [1954] INSC 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Vinod Kumar Shantilal Gosalia v. Gangadhar Narsingdas Agarwal & Ors [1981] INSC 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Sardar Govindrao & Ors v. State of Madhya Pradesh & Ors [1982] INSC 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> R.C. Poudyal & Anr. v. Union of India & Ors [1993] INSC 77. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>Comparative</dt></dl> <ul><li>Bartlett, Richard H., and Jill Milroy (eds.). 1999. Native Title Claims in Canada and Australia: Delgamuukw and Miriuwung Gajerrong.</li> <li>Richard A. Epstein, Property Rights Claims of Indigenous Populations: The View from the Common Law, 31 U. Toledo L. Rev. 1 (1999).</li> <li>Hazelhurst, Kayleen M. (ed.). 1995. Legal Pluralism and the Colonial Legacy.</li> <li>Hocking, Barbara Ann. 2005. Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination.</li> <li>IWGIA. 1993. "...Never Drink from the Same Cup": Proceedings of the conference on indigenous peoples in Africa.</li> <li>IWGIA. 2007. The Indigenous World.</li> <li>Liversage, Vincent. 1945. Land Tenure in the Colonies. pp. 2–18, 45—53</li> <li>Meek, C.K. 1946. Land Law and Custom in the Colonies.</li> <li>McHugh, PG. 2011. Aboriginal Title: The Modern Jurisprudence of Tribal Land Rights (Oxford: OUP, 2011)</li> <li>McNeil, Kent. 1989. Common Law Aboriginal Title. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>McNeil, Kent. 2001. Emerging Justice? essays on indigenous rights in Canada and Australia.</li> <li>Robertson, Lindsay G. 2005. Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514869-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514869-X">0-19-514869-X</a>.</li> <li>Slattery, Brian. 1983. Ancestral lands, alien laws: judicial perspectives on aboriginal title.</li> <li>Young, Simon. 2008. Trouble with tradition: native title and cultural change. Sydney: Federation Press.</li> <li>Blake A. Watson, The Impact of the American Doctrine of Discovery on Native Land Rights in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, 34 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Seattle U. L. Rev. 507 (2011).</li></ul> <dl><dt>Australia</dt></dl> <ul><li>Bartlett, R. 2004 (2d ed.). Native Title in Australia.</li> <li>Brockwell, Sally. 1979. Aborigines and the law: a bibliography.</li> <li>Law Reform Commission. 1986. The recognition of Aboriginal customary laws. Report No. 31. Parliamentary Paper No. 136/1986.</li> <li>McCorquodale, John. 1987. Aborigines and the law: a digest.</li> <li>Reynolds, Henry. M.A. Stephenson & Suri Ratnapala (eds.). 1993. Native Title and Pastoral Leases, in Mabo: A Judicial Revolution—The Aboriginal Land Rights Decision and Its Impact on Australian Law.</li> <li>Strelein, L. 2009 (2d ed.). Compromised Jurisprudence: Native Title Cases Since Mabo. Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Bangladesh</dt></dl> <ul><li>IWGIA. 2000. Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Belize</dt></dl> <ul><li>Grandi, Liza. 2006. Unsettling: land dispossession and the Guatemalan and Belizean frontier colonization process.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Canada</dt></dl> <ul><li>Borrows, John. 2002. Recovering Canada: the resurgence of Indigenous law.</li> <li>Clark, Bruce A. 1990. Native Liberty, Crown Sovereignty.</li> <li>Foster, Hamar, Heather Raven & Jeremy Webber. 2007. Let Right Be Done: Aboriginal title, the Calder case, and the future of indigenous rights.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Ghana</dt></dl> <ul><li>Ollennu, N.A. 1962. Customary Land Law in Ghana.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Guyana</dt></dl> <ul><li>Bennett, Gordon & Audrey Colson. 1978. The damned: the plight of the Akawaio Indians of Guyana.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Hong Kong</dt></dl> <ul><li>Nissim, Roger. 2008 (2d ed.). Land administration and practice in Hong Kong.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Kenya</dt></dl> <ul><li>Mackenzie, Fiona. 1998. Land, ecology, and resistance in Kenya, 1880–1952.</li> <li>Odhiambo, Atieno. 1981. Siasa: politics and nationalism in E.A..</li></ul> <dl><dt>Malaysia</dt></dl> <ul><li>Ramy Bulan. "Native Title as a Proprietary Right under the Constitution in Peninsula Malaysia: A Step in the Right Direction?" 9 Asia Pacific Law Review 83 (2001).</li> <li>Bulan, Ramy. "Native Title in Malaysia: A 'Complementary' Sui Generis Right Protected by the Federal Constitution", 11(1) Australian Indigenous Law Review 54 (2007).</li> <li>Gray, S. "Skeletal Principles in Malaysia's Common Law Cupboard: the Future of Indigenous Native Title in Malaysian Common Law" Lawasia Journal 99 (2002).</li> <li>Porter, A.F. 1967. Land administration in Sarawak.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Namibia</dt></dl> Legal Assistance Center. 2006. "Our land they took": San land rights under threat in Namibia. <dl><dt>New Zealand</dt></dl> <ul><li>Boast, Richard, Andrew Erueti, Doug McPhail & Norman F. Smith. 1999. Maori Land Law.</li> <li>Brookfield, F.M. 1999. Waitangi & Indigenous Rights.</li> <li>Erueti, A. "Translating Maori Customary Title into Common Law Title." New Zealand Law Journal 421–423 (2003).</li> <li>Gilling, Bryan D. "By whose Custom? The Operation of the Native Land Court in the Chatham Islands." 23(3) Victoria University of Wellington Law Review (1993).</li> <li>Gilling, Bryan D. "Engine of Destruction? An Introduction to the History of the Maori Land Court." Victoria U. Wellington L. Rev. (1994).</li> <li>Hill, R. "Politicising the past: Indigenous scholarship and crown—Maori reparations processes in New Zealand." 16 Social and Legal Studies 163 (2007).</li> <li>Leane, G. "Fighting them on the Benches: the Struggle for Native Title Recognition in New Zealand." 8(1) Newcastle Law Review 65 (2004).</li> <li>Mikaere, Ani and Milroy, Stephanie. "Treaty of Waitangi and Maori Land Law", NZ Law Review 363 (2000).</li> <li>McHugh, Paul G. 1983. Maori land laws of New Zealand: two essays.</li> <li>McHugh, Paul G. 1984. "Aboriginal title in New Zealand courts", 2 University of Canterbury Law Review 235–265.</li> <li>McHugh, Paul G. 1991. The Maori Magna Carta..</li> <li>Williams, David V. 1999. "Te Kooti tango whenua": the Native Land Court 1864–1909.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Papua New Guinea</dt></dl> <ul><li>Mugambwa, J.T. 2002. Land law and policy in Papua New Guinea.</li> <li>Sack, Peter G. 1973. Land Between Two Laws: Early European land acquisitions in New Guinea.</li></ul> <dl><dt>South Africa</dt></dl> <ul><li>Claasens, Aninka & Ben Cousins. 2008. Land, power, and custom: Controversies generated by South Africa's Communal Land Rights Act.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Tanzania</dt></dl> <ul><li>Japhet, Kirilo. 1967. The Meru Land Case.</li> <li>Peter, Chris Maina. 1997. Human Rights in Tanzania: Selected Cases and Materials. pp. 214–269.</li> <li>Peter, Chris Maina, and Helen Kijo-Bisimba. 2007. Law and Justice in Tanzania: Quarter a Century of the Court of Appeal.</li> <li>Shivji, Issa G. 1990. State Coercion and Freedom in Tanzania. Human & People's Rights Monograph Series No. 8, Institute of Southern African Studies.</li> <li>Tenga, Ringo Willy. 1992. Pastoral Land Rights in Tanzania.</li> <li>Widner, Jennifer A. 2001. Building the rule of law.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Zambia</dt></dl> <ul><li>Mvunga, Mphanza P. 1982. Land Law and Policy in Zambia.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate (landed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia">Acequia (watercourse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido">Ejido (agrarian land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(transit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (transit)">Right of way (transit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(property_access)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (property access)">Right of way (property access)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li> <li>spousal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars (key work)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Law_(Bastiat_book)" title="The Law (Bastiat book)">The Law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">What Is Property?</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Property" title="Category:Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law" title="Category:Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law_by_country" title="Category:Property law by country">by country</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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