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These German speakers had predominated in the border districts of [[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]], and [[Czech Silesia]] since the [[Middle Ages]]. Since the 9th century the Sudetenland had been an integral part of the Czech state (first within the [[Duchy of Bohemia]] and later the [[Kingdom of Bohemia]]) both geographically and politically. The word "Sudetenland" did not come into being until the early part of the 20th century and did not come to prominence until almost two decades into the century, after [[World War I]], when [[Austria-Hungary]] was dismembered and the Sudeten Germans [[Germans in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)|found themselves living in]] the new country of [[Czechoslovakia]]. The ''Sudeten crisis'' of 1938 was provoked by the [[Pan-Germanism|Pan-Germanist]] demands of [[Nazi Germany]] that the Sudetenland be annexed to Germany, [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|which happened]] after the later [[Munich Agreement]]. Part of the borderland was invaded and [[Trans-Olza#Part of Poland (1938–1939)|annexed by Poland]]. Afterwards, the formerly unrecognized Sudetenland became an [[Reichsgau Sudetenland|administrative division]] of Germany. When Czechoslovakia was reconstituted after [[World War II]], the Sudeten Germans were [[Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia|expelled]] and the region today is inhabited almost exclusively by Czech speakers. The word ''Sudetenland'' is a German compound of ''Land'', meaning "country", and ''Sudeten'', the name of the [[Sudetes|Sudeten Mountains]], which run along the northern Czech border and [[Lower Silesia]] (now in [[Poland]]). The Sudetenland encompassed areas well beyond those mountains, however. Parts of the now-Czech regions of [[Karlovy Vary Region|Karlovy Vary]], [[Liberec Region|Liberec]], [[Olomouc Region|Olomouc]], [[Moravian-Silesian Region|Moravia-Silesia]], [[South Moravian Region|South Moravia]] and [[Ústí nad Labem Region|Ústí nad Labem]] are within the former Sudetenland. ==History== The areas later known as the Sudetenland never formed a single [[historical regions of Central Europe|historical region]], which makes it difficult to distinguish the history of the Sudetenland separately from that of [[Bohemia]] until the advent of [[nationalism]] in the 19th century. ===Early origins=== {{See also|History of German settlement in Central and Eastern Europe}} The [[Celts|Celtic]] and [[Boii]] tribes settled there and the region was first mentioned on the map of [[Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemaios]] in the 2nd century AD. The [[Germanic tribes|Germanic tribe]] of the [[Marcomanni]] dominated the entire core of the region in later centuries. Those tribes already built cities like [[Brno]], but moved west during the [[Migration Period]]. In the 7th century AD [[Slavic people]] moved in and were united under [[Samo]]'s realm. Later in the [[High Middle Ages]] Germans settled into the less populated border region. [[File:Osadnictwo niemieckie na wschodzie.PNG|thumb|Stages of German eastern settlement, 700–1400]] In the [[Middle Ages]] the regions situated on the mountainous border of the [[Duchy of Bohemia|Duchy]] and the [[Kingdom of Bohemia]] (Crown of Saint Václav) had since the Migration Period been settled mainly by [[West Slavs|western Slavic]] [[Czechs]]. Along the [[Bohemian Forest]] in the west, the [[Czech lands]] bordered on the German Slavic tribes (German Sorbs) [[stem duchy|stem duchies]] of [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]] and [[Duchy of Franconia|Franconia]]; [[march (territory)|marches]] of the medieval [[Kingdom of Germany|German kingdom]] had also been established in the adjacent [[March of Austria|Austrian]] lands south of the [[Bohemian-Moravian Highlands]] and the northern [[Margraviate of Meissen|Meissen]] region beyond the [[Ore Mountains]]. In the course of the ''[[Ostsiedlung]]'' (settlement of the east) German settlement from the 13th century onwards continued to move into the [[Upper Lusatia]] region and the [[duchies of Silesia]] north of the [[Sudetes]] mountain range. From as early as the second half of the 13th century onwards these Bohemian border regions were settled by [[ethnic Germans]], who were invited by the [[Přemyslid dynasty|Přemyslid]] Bohemian kings—especially by [[Ottokar II of Bohemia|Ottokar II]] (1253–1278) and [[Wenceslaus II of Bohemia|Wenceslaus II]] (1278–1305). After the extinction of the Přemyslid dynasty in 1306, the Bohemian nobility backed [[John of Bohemia|John of Luxembourg]] as king against his rival Duke [[Henry of Bohemia|Henry of Carinthia]]. In 1322 King John of Bohemia acquired (for the third time) the formerly Imperial [[Egerland]] region in the west and vassalized most of the [[Silesian Piasts|Piast]] Silesian duchies, as acknowledged by King [[Casimir III of Poland]] by the 1335 [[Treaty of Trentschin]]. His son, Bohemian King [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]], was elected [[King of the Romans]] in 1346 and crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in 1355. He added the [[Lusatia]]s to the [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown]], which then comprised large territories with a significant German population. In the hilly border regions German settlers established major manufactures of [[forest glass]]. The situation of the German population was aggravated by the [[Hussite Wars]] (1419–1434), though there were also some Germans among the [[Hussite]] insurgents. By then Germans largely settled the hilly Bohemian border regions as well as the cities of the lowlands; mainly people of Bavarian descent in the [[South Bohemian Region|South Bohemian]] and [[South Moravian Region]], in [[Brno]], [[Jihlava]], [[České Budějovice]] and the West Bohemian [[Plzeň Region]]; Franconian people in [[Žatec]]; Upper [[Upper Saxony|Saxons]] in adjacent [[North Bohemia]], where the border with the [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxon Electorate]] was fixed by the 1459 [[Treaty of Eger|Peace of Eger]]; Germanic [[Silesia]]ns in the adjacent Sudetes region with the [[County of Kladsko]], in the [[Moravian–Silesian Region]], in [[Svitavy]] and [[Olomouc]]. The city of Prague had a German-speaking majority from the last third of the 17th century until 1860, but after 1910 the proportion of German speakers had decreased to 6.7% of the population. From the Luxembourgs, rule over Bohemia passed through [[George of Podiebrad]] to the [[Jagiellon dynasty]] and finally to the [[House of Habsburg]] in 1526. Both Czech and German Bohemians suffered heavily in the [[Thirty Years' War]]. Bohemia lost 70% of its population. From the defeat of the Bohemian Revolt that collapsed at the 1620 [[Battle of White Mountain]], the Habsburgs gradually integrated the Kingdom of Bohemia into their [[Habsburg monarchy|monarchy]]. During the subsequent [[Counter-Reformation]], less populated areas were resettled with [[Catholic Germans]] from the Austrian lands. From 1627, the Habsburgs enforced the so-called ''Verneuerte Landesordnung'' ("Renewed Land's Constitution"), and one of its consequences was that German, according to mother tongue, gradually became the primary and official language, while Czech declined to a secondary role in the Empire. In 1749, the Austrian Empire enforced German as the official language again. Emperor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] in 1780 renounced the coronation ceremony as Bohemian king and unsuccessfully tried to push German through as sole official language in all Habsburg lands (including Hungary). Nevertheless, German cultural influence grew stronger during the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and [[Weimar Classicism]]. Contrastingly, in the course of the [[Romanticism]] movement national tensions arose, both in the form of the [[Austroslavism]] ideology developed by Czech politicians like [[František Palacký]] and [[German nationalism in Austria|Pan-Germanist]] activist raising the [[German question]]. Conflicts between Czech and German nationalists emerged in the 19th century, for instance in the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas|Revolutions of 1848]]: while the German-speaking population of Bohemia and Moravia wanted to participate in the building of a German nation state, the Czech-speaking population insisted on keeping Bohemia out of such plans. The Bohemian Kingdom remained a part of the [[Austrian Empire]] and [[Austria-Hungary]] until its dismemberment after the World War I. ===Emergence of the term=== [[File:Germans in western Austro-Hungaria.gif|thumb|Ethnic distribution in [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1911: regions with a German majority are depicted in pink, those with Czech majorities in blue.]] In the wake of growing nationalism, the name "''Sudetendeutsche''{{-"}} (Sudeten Germans) emerged by the early 20th century. It originally constituted part of a larger classification of three groupings of Germans within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which also included "''[[Alpine Deutschen]]''{{-"}} (''Alpine Germans'') in what later became the Republic of Austria and "''[[Balkandeutsche]]''{{-"}} (''Balkan Germans'') in Hungary and the regions east of it. Of these three terms, only the term "''Sudetendeutsche''{{-"}} survived, because of the ethnic and cultural conflicts within Bohemia. ===World War I and aftermath=== During [[World War I]], what later became known as the Sudetenland experienced a rate of war deaths that was higher than most other German-speaking areas of [[Austria-Hungary]] and exceeded only by [[German South Moravia]] and [[Duchy of Carinthia|Carinthia]]. Thirty-four of each 1,000 inhabitants were killed.<ref>Rothenburg, G. ''The Army of Francis Joseph''. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 1976. p. 218.</ref> Austria-Hungary broke apart at the end of World War I. In late October 1918, an independent [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] state, consisting of the lands of the Bohemian kingdom and areas belonging to the Kingdom of Hungary, was proclaimed. The German deputies of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia in the [[Imperial Council (Austria)|Imperial Council]] (''Reichsrat'') referred to the [[Fourteen Points]] of US President [[Woodrow Wilson]] and the right proposed therein to [[self-determination]] and attempted to negotiate the union of the German-speaking territories with the new Republic of [[German Austria]], which itself aimed at joining [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Germany]]. The German-speaking parts of the former [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown]] remained in a newly-created [[Czechoslovakia]], a multi-ethnic state of several nations: [[Czechs]], [[Germans]], [[Slovaks]], [[Hungarians]], [[Polish people|Poles]] and [[Ruthenians]]. On 20 September 1918, the [[Prague]] government asked for the opinion of the United States on the Sudetenland. Wilson sent Ambassador [[Archibald Coolidge]] into Czechoslovakia. Coolidge insisted on respecting the Germans' right to [[self-determination]] and uniting all German-speaking areas with either Germany or Austria, with the exception of northern Bohemia.<ref>{{cite book |date= |title=Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States 1919 – the Paris Peace Conference, Volume XII |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1919Parisv12/pg_274 |location=Washington |pages=273–274}}</ref> However, the American delegation at the Paris talks decided not to follow Coolidge's proposal. [[Allen Dulles]] was the American's chief diplomat in the Czechoslovak Commission and emphasized preserving the unity of the Czech lands.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwI9AAAAIAAJ&q=Sudeten+germans+in+Czechoslovakia&pg=PA200 |title=Czechoslovakia Before Munich |first=Johann Wolfgang |last=Bruegel |work=Cambridge University Press |year=1973 |page= 44|publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-08687-5}}</ref> Four regional governmental units were established: * [[Province of German Bohemia]] (''Provinz Deutschböhmen''), the regions of northern and western Bohemia; proclaimed a constitutive state (''Land'') of the German-Austrian Republic with Reichenberg ([[Liberec]]) as capital, administered by a ''[[Landeshauptmann]]'' (state captain), consecutively: Rafael Pacher (1857–1936), 29 October{{snd}}6 November 1918, and Rudolf Ritter von Lodgman von Auen (1877–1962), 6 November{{snd}}16 December 1918 (the last principal city was conquered by the Czech army but he continued in exile, first at Zittau in Saxony and then in Vienna, until 24 September 1919). * [[Province of the Sudetenland]] (''Provinz Sudetenland''), the regions of northern [[Moravia]] and [[Austrian Silesia]]; proclaimed a constituent state of the German-Austrian Republic with Troppau ([[Opava]]) as capital, governed by a ''Landeshauptmann'': Robert Freissler (1877–1950), 30 October – 18 December 1918. This province's boundaries do not correspond to what would later be called the Sudetenland, which contained all the German-speaking parts of the Czech lands. * [[Bohemian Forest Region]] (''Böhmerwaldgau''), the region of [[Bohemian Forest]]/[[South Bohemia]]; proclaimed a district (''Kreis'') of the existing Austrian Land of [[Upper Austria]]; administered by ''Kreishauptmann'' (district captain): Friedrich Wichtl (1872–1922) from 30 October 1918. * [[German South Moravia]] (''Deutschsüdmähren''), proclaimed a District (''Kreis'') of the existing Austrian land [[Lower Austria]], administered by a ''Kreishauptmann'': Oskar Teufel (1880–1946) from 30 October 1918. The U.S. commission to the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] issued a declaration, which gave unanimous support for "unity of Czech lands".<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LwI9AAAAIAAJ&q=Sudeten+germans+in+Czechoslovakia&pg=PA200 |title=Czechoslovakia Before Munich |first=Johann Wolfgang |last=Bruegel |work=Cambridge University Press |year=1973 |page= 45|publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-08687-5 }}</ref> In particular the declaration stated: {{blockquote|The Commission was... unanimous in its recommendation that the separation of all areas inhabited by the German-Bohemians would not only expose Czechoslovakia to great dangers but equally create great difficulties for the Germans themselves. The only practicable solution was to incorporate these Germans into Czechoslovakia.}} Several German minorities according to their mother tongue in Moravia, including German-speaking populations in [[Brno]], [[Jihlava]] and [[Olomouc]], also attempted to proclaim their union with German Austria. The Czechs thus rejected the aspirations of the German Bohemians and demanded the inclusion of the lands inhabited by ethnic Germans in their state, despite the presence of more than 90% (as of 1921) ethnic Germans, which led to the presence of 23.4% of Germans in all of Czechoslovakia, on the grounds they had always been part of lands of the Bohemian Crown. The [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]] in 1919 affirmed the inclusion of the German-speaking territories within Czechoslovakia. Over the next two decades, some Germans in the Sudetenland continued to strive for a separation of the German-inhabited regions from Czechoslovakia. According to [[Elizabeth Wiskemann]], despite the initial resistance to the Czechoslovak rule, the Sudeten German population was not entirely opposed to annexation by Czechoslovakia. Sudeten economy and industry relied on the rest of Bohemia, and local industrialists were afraid of "Reich German competition and therefore of the talk of handing them over". Many Sudeten Germans also opposed joining Austria, arguing that being incorporated into Austria would turn Sudeten lands into "economically helpless Austrian enclaves". Because of this, Sudetenland becoming part of Czechoslovakia was the preferable choice of "a good deal of cautious middle-class" amongst Sudeten Germans. Silesian-Sudeten Germans were particularly pro-Czechoslovak, as they strongly preferred Czechoslovak rule to the prospect of becoming a part of Poland.<ref>{{cite book |title=Czechs and Germans: A Study of the Struggle in the Historic Province of Bohemia and Moravia |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1938 |pages=85–86 |first=Elizabeth |last=Wiskemann |author-link=Elizabeth Wiskemann}}</ref> ===Within the Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938)=== {{Main|Germans in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)}} [[File:Flag of Province Sudetenland.svg|thumb|Flag flown by Sudeten Germans<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flaggenlexikon.de/fsudeten.htm |title=Sudetenland (flag) |publisher=Flaggenlexikon.de |access-date=2013-05-01}}</ref>]] According to the February 1921 census, 3,123,000 native German speakers lived in Czechoslovakia, 23.4% of the total population. The controversies between the Czechs and the German-speaking minority lingered on throughout the 1920s and intensified in the 1930s. During the [[Great Depression]], the mostly-mountainous regions populated by the German minority, together with other peripheral regions of [[Czechoslovakia]], were hurt by the [[economic depression]] more than the interior of the country was. Unlike the less developed regions ([[Carpathian Ruthenia]], [[Moravian Wallachia]]), the Sudetenland had a high concentration of vulnerable export-dependent industries (such as glass works, [[textile industry]], paper-making and toy-making industry). Sixty percent of the [[Costume jewellery|bijouterie]] and glassmaking industry were located in the Sudetenland, and 69% of employees in the sector were German-speaking according to mother tongue, and 95% of bijouterie and 78% of other glassware was produced for export. The glass-making sector was affected by decreased spending power and by protective measures in other countries, and many German workers lost their work.<ref>Kárník, Zdeněk. České země v éře první republiky (1918–1938). Vol. 2. Prague 2002.</ref> The high unemployment, as well as the imposition of Czech in schools and all public spaces, made people more open to [[populism|populist]] and extremist movements such as [[fascism]], [[communism]] and German [[irredentism]]. In those years, parties of German nationalists and later the [[Sudeten German Party]] (SdP), with its radical demands gained immense popularity, among [[Germans in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)|Germans in Czechoslovakia]]. ===Sudeten Crisis=== {{main|Munich Agreement|Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)}} [[File:Zamazávání českých nápisů 3.jpg|thumb|upright|Czech inscriptions smeared by Sudeten German activists, March 1938, [[Teplice]]]] The increasing aggressiveness of Hitler prompted the Czechoslovak military to start to build extensive [[Czechoslovak border fortifications|border fortifications]] in 1936 to defend the troubled border region. Immediately after the ''[[Anschluss]]'' of [[Federal State of Austria|Austria]] into the [[Nazi Germany|German Reich]] in March 1938, Hitler made himself the advocate of ethnic Germans living in Czechoslovakia, which triggered the Sudeten Crisis. The following month, Sudeten Nazis, led by [[Konrad Henlein]], agitated for autonomy. On 24 April 1938, the SdP proclaimed the [[Karlsbader Programm]], which demanded in eight points the complete equality between the [[Germans in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)|Sudeten Germans]] and the [[Czechs|Czech]] people. The government accepted those claims on 30 June 1938.{{Clarify|date=April 2011}}<ref>Zayas, Alfred Maurice de: Die Nemesis von Potsdam. Die Anglo-Amerikaner und die Vertreibung der Deutschen, überarb. u. erweit. Neuauflage, Herbig-Verlag, München, 2005.</ref> In August, [[British Prime Minister]] [[Neville Chamberlain]] sent [[Walter Runciman, 1st Viscount Runciman of Doxford|Lord Runciman]] on a [[Runciman Mission|mission to Czechoslovakia]] to see if he could obtain a settlement between the Czechoslovak government and the Germans in the Sudetenland. Runciman's first day included meetings with President Beneš and Prime Minister [[Milan Hodža]] as well as a direct meeting with the Sudeten Germans from Henlein's SdP. On the next day, he met with Dr and Mme Beneš and later met non-Nazi Germans in his hotel.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,788287-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104051412/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,788287-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 4, 2011 |title=CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Pax Runciman |magazine=Time |date=1938-08-15 |access-date=2013-05-01}}</ref> A full account of his report, including summaries of the conclusions of his meetings with the various parties, which he made in person to the Cabinet on his return to the United Kingdom, is found in the Document CC 39(38).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/cabinet-gov/cab23-interwar-conclusions.htm#Cabinet%20Conclusions%201937%20to%201939 |title=The Cabinet Papers &#124; CAB 23 interwar conclusions |publisher=Nationalarchives.gov.uk |access-date=2013-05-01}}</ref> Lord Runciman<ref>Note that what he reportsled is an expression of his opinion on the situation. He may have been entirely mistaken on that, but it helps to understand how he saw the situation. For example, he felt that the Czechoslovakian government was blind to the situation, but that does not make it true.</ref> expressed sadness that he could not bring about agreement with the various parties, but he agreed with [[E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Lord Halifax]] that the time that had been gained was important. He reported on the situation of the Sudeten Germans and gave details of four plans that had been proposed to deal with the crisis, each of which had points that, he reported, made it unacceptable to the other parties to the negotiations. The four plans included, first, the transfer of the Sudetenland to the Reich, second, holding a [[plebiscite]] on the transfer of the Sudetenland to the Reich, third, organising a Four-Power Conference on the matter and, fourth, creating a federal Czechoslovakia. At the meeting, he said that he was very reluctant to offer his own solution and had not seen that as his task. The most that Halifax said was that the great centres of opposition were in [[Cheb|Eger]] and [[Aš|Asch]], in the northwestern corner of Bohemia, where about 800,000 Germans and very few others lived. Halifax said that the transfer of these areas to Germany would almost certainly be a good thing adding that the Czechoslovak army would certainly oppose that very strongly and that Beneš had said that it would fight, rather than accept it.<ref>http://filestore.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pdfs/large/cab-23-95.pdf p. 71; CC 39(38) p 4.</ref> British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] met [[Adolf Hitler]] in [[Berchtesgaden]] on 15 September and agreed to the [[cession]] of the Sudetenland. Three days later, [[French Prime Minister]] [[Édouard Daladier]] did the same. No Czechoslovak representative was invited to the discussions. Germany was now able to walk into the Sudetenland without firing a shot. Chamberlain met Hitler in [[Bad Godesberg|Godesberg]] on 22 September 1938 to confirm the agreements. Hitler, aiming to use the crisis as a pretext for war, now demanded not only the annexation of the Sudetenland but also the immediate military occupation of Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia, thus giving the Czechoslovak army no time to adapt its defence measures to the new borders. Hitler, in a speech at the Sportpalast in Berlin, claimed that the Sudetenland was "the last territorial demand I have to make in Europe"<ref name=sudetenland1>{{cite book|author1=Max Domarus|author2=Adolf Hitler|title=Hitler: speeches and proclamations, 1932–1945: the chronicle of a dictatorship|year=1990|page=1393}}</ref> and gave Czechoslovakia a deadline of 28 September 1938 at 2:00&nbsp;p.m. to cede the Sudetenland to Germany or face war.<ref name="Santi Corvaja 2008. Pp. 73">Santi Corvaja, Robert L. Miller. ''Hitler & Mussolini: The Secret Meetings.'' New York, New York, USA: Enigma Books, 2008. {{ISBN|978-1-929631-42-1}}. p. 73.</ref> To achieve a solution, the Italian dictator, [[Benito Mussolini]], suggested a conference of the major powers in [[Munich]], and on 29 September, Hitler, Daladier and Chamberlain met and agreed to Mussolini's proposal (actually prepared by [[Hermann Göring]]) and signed the [[Munich Agreement]]. They accepted the immediate occupation of the Sudetenland. The Czechoslovak government, though not party to the talks, submitted to compulsion and promised to abide by the agreement on 30 September. The Sudetenland was assigned to Germany between 1 and 10 October 1938. The Czech part of Czechoslovakia was subsequently [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|invaded by Germany]] in March 1939, with a portion being annexed and the remainder turned into the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]]. The Slovak part declared its independence from Czechoslovakia and became the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]] (Slovak State), a [[satellite state]] allied to Germany. (The Ruthenian part, Subcarpathian Rus, made also an attempt to declare its sovereignty as [[Carpatho-Ukraine]] but only with ephemeral success since the area was soon annexed by [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]].) Although "Henlein and the SdP had become accessories in Hitler's escalating campaign to annex the Sudetenland to the German Reich" by the summer of 1938, the supporters of the SdP supported autonomy within Czechoslovakia rather than annexation into Germany.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cleansing the Czechoslovak Borderlands: Migration, Environment and Health in the Former Sudetenland |first=Eagle |last=Glassheim |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-8229-6426-1 |page=35}}</ref> Contemporary reports of [[The Times]] found that there was a "large number of Sudetenlanders who actively opposed annexation", and that the pro-German policy was challenged by the moderates within the SdP as well; according to [[Wickham Steed]], over 50% of Henlein's supporters favoured greater autonomy within Czechoslovakia rather than joining Germany.<ref name="gossen">{{cite thesis |author1=David J. Gossen |date=June 1994 |title=Public Opinion, Appeasement, and The Times: Manipulating Consent in the 1930s |location=Vancouver |publisher=The University of British Columbia |page=63 |doi=10.14288/1.0094711}}</ref> Sudeten German historian [[:de:Emil Franzel|Emil Franzel]] argues that the mainstream wing of Henlein's party was "not striving for annexation to Germany, but for genuine autonomy", and the majority of negotiators who conducted talks with Hodža and Beneš belonged to the pro-autonomy wing and were unaware of Henlein's agreements with Hitler.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sudetendeutsche Geschichte: eine volkstümliche Darstellung |first=Emil |last=Franzel |author-link=:de:Emil Franzel |language=de |year=1958 |isbn=3-8083-1131-2 |publisher=Adam Kraft Verlag München |page=387}}</ref> Part of the borderland had an ethnic Polish majority and was invaded and [[Trans-Olza#Part of Poland (1938–1939)|annexed by Poland]] in 1938. <gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H13160, Beim Einmarsch deutscher Truppen in Eger.jpg|Ethnic Germans in the city of Eger (now [[Cheb]]) greeting Hitler with the [[Nazi salute]] after he crossed the border into the Czechoslovak Sudetenland on 3 October 1938 Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1986-042-14, Anschluss sudetendeutscher Gebiete.jpg|Volunteers of the Sudeten German Free Corps ({{Langx|de|link=no|Sudetendeutsches Freikorps}}) receiving refreshments from the local population in the city of Eger/Cheb) Bundesarchiv Bild 137-004055, Eger, Besuch Adolf Hitlers.jpg|Adolf Hitler drives through the crowd in Eger/Cheb on 3 October 1938 </gallery> ===Sudetenland as part of Germany=== The Sudetenland was initially put under military administration, with General [[Wilhelm Keitel]] as military governor. On 14 April 1939, the annexed territories were divided, with the southern parts being incorporated into the neighbouring Reichsgaue of ''[[Reichsgau Niederdonau|Niederdonau]]'', ''[[Reichsgau Oberdonau|Oberdonau]]'' and ''[[Gau Bayreuth|Bayerische Ostmark]]''. [[File:Volební fraška v Sudetech.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Election ballot, Reichsgau Sudetenland, December 1938]] The northern and the western parts were reorganised as the ''[[Reichsgau Sudetenland]]'', with the city of Reichenberg (present-day [[Liberec]]) established as its capital. [[Konrad Henlein]] (now openly a [[NSDAP]] member) administered the district first as ''[[Reichskommissar]]'' (until 1 May 1939) and then as ''[[Reichsstatthalter]]'' (1 May 1939{{snd}}4 May 1945). The Sudetenland consisted of three administrative districts (''[[Regierungsbezirk]]e''): [[Egerland|Eger]] (with [[Karlovy Vary|Karlsbad]] as capital), [[Ústí nad Labem Region|Aussig]] ([[Ústí nad Labem|Aussig]]) and [[Opava District|Troppau]] ([[Opava|Troppau]]). [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 121-0008, Sudetenland, Besuch Wilhelm Frick (cropped Konrad Henlein).jpg|thumb|''Sudetenland'' was administered by Konrad Henlein for the duration of the war.]] Before the occupation, Jews in the area had become targeted during the [[Holocaust in the Sudetenland]]. Only a few weeks later, the [[Kristallnacht]] occurred. As elsewhere in Germany, many synagogues were set on fire and numerous leading Jews were sent to [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]]. Jews and Czechs were not the only afflicted peoples since German socialists, communists and pacifists were widely persecuted as well. Some of the German socialists fled the Sudetenland via Prague and London to other countries. The ''[[Gleichschaltung]]'' would permanently alter the community in the Sudetenland. However, on 4 December 1938, there were elections in Reichsgau Sudetenland in which 97.32% of the adult population voted for the [[NSDAP]]. About a half million Sudeten Germans joined the [[Nazi Party]], 17.34% of the total German population in the Sudetenland (the average NSDAP membership participation in Germany was merely 7.85% in 1944). That means the Sudetenland was one of the most pro-Nazi regions of Nazi Germany.<ref>Zimmermann, Volker: Die Sudetendeutschen im NS-Staat. Politik und Stimmung der Bevölkerung im Reichsgau Sudetenland (1938–1945). Essen 1999. ({{ISBN|3-88474-770-3}})</ref> Because of their knowledge of the [[Czech language]], many Sudeten Germans were employed in the administration of the [[Czech people|ethnic Czech]] [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] as well as in Nazi organizations (Gestapo etc.). The most notable one was [[Karl Hermann Frank]], the SS and police general and Secretary of State in the Protectorate. Nazi Germany occupied Sudetenland from 1938–1945.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Glassheim |first=Eagle |date=2006 |title=Ethnic Cleansing, Communism, and Environmental Devastation in Czechoslovakia's Borderlands, 1945–1989 |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/499795 |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=78 |issue=1|pages=65–92 |doi=10.1086/499795 |s2cid=142647561 }}</ref> [[File:Sudetenland Reichsgau 1944.png|thumb|center|upright=2.05|Administrative Divisions of Reichsgau Sudetenland]] {{Clear}} ===Expulsions and resettlement after World War II=== {{main|Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia}} [[File:Vertreibung.jpg|thumb|The [[expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia]] as the result of the end of World War II]] [[File:Vertreibung 1938.gif|thumb|From the territory occupied by the Third Reich, 160,000 to 170,000 Czech-speaking inhabitants were forced to leave or were expelled]] Shortly after the liberation of Czechoslovakia in May 1945, the use of the term ''Sudety'' (Sudetenland) in official communications was banned and replaced by the term ''pohraniční území'' (border territory).<ref>Zdeněk Beneš. ''Facing history: the evolution of Czech-German relations in the Czech provinces, 1848–1948''. Gallery, 2002. p. 218.</ref> The [[Berlin Declaration (1945)|Berlin Declaration]] of 5 June 1945 disabled German annexation of Sudetenland legally. In the summer of 1945, the [[Potsdam Conference]] decided that Sudeten Germans would have to leave Czechoslovakia (see [[flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)]]). As a consequence of the immense hostility against all Germans that had grown within Czechoslovakia because many of them had helped the Nazis, the overwhelming majority of Germans were expelled though the relevant Czechoslovak legislation had provided for Germans to remain if they could prove their anti-Nazi affiliation. The number of expelled Germans in the early phase (spring-summer 1945) is estimated to be around 500,000 people. After the Beneš decrees, nearly all Germans were expelled starting in 1946 and in 1950 only 159,938 (from 3,149,820 in 1930) still lived in the Czech Republic. The remaining Germans, who were proven antifascists and skilled laborers, were allowed to stay in Czechoslovakia but were later forcefully dispersed within the country.<ref>"Přesun v rámci rozptylu občanů německé národnosti."</ref> Some German refugees from Czechoslovakia are represented by the [[Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft]]. [[File:Wappen der Sudetendeutschen.png|thumb|left|Coat of arms of ''Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft'']] Many of the Germans who stayed in Czechoslovakia later emigrated to [[West Germany]] (more than 100,000). As the German population was transferred out of the country, the former Sudetenland was resettled mostly by [[Czechs]] but also by other nationalities of Czechoslovakia: [[Slovaks]], [[Greeks in the Czech Republic|Greeks]] (arriving in the wake of the [[Greek Civil War]] 1946–49), [[Carpathian Ruthenia]]ns, [[Romani people]] and Jews who had survived [[the Holocaust]], and [[Hungarians]] (though the Hungarians were forced into that and later returned home—see [[Hungarians in Slovakia#Population exchanges|Hungarians in Slovakia: Population exchanges]]). Some areas, such as part of Czech Silesian-Moravian borderland, southwestern Bohemia ([[Šumava National Park]]), western and northern parts of Bohemia, remained depopulated for several strategic reasons (extensive mining and military interests) or are now protected national parks and landscapes. Moreover, before the establishment of the [[Iron Curtain]] in 1952 to 1955, the so-called "forbidden zone" was established by means of [[Czechoslovak border fortifications during the Cold War|engineer equipment]] up to 2&nbsp;km (1.2&nbsp;mi) from the border in which no civilians could reside. A wider region, or "border zone", existed up to 12&nbsp;km (7 miles) from the border in which no "disloyal" or "suspect" civilians could reside or work. Thus, the entire [[Aš|Aš-Bulge]] fell within the border zone, a status that remained until the [[Velvet Revolution]] in 1989. There remained areas with noticeable German minorities in the westernmost borderland around [[Cheb]], where skilled ethnic German miners and workers continued in mining and industry, until 1955, as sanctioned under the [[Yalta Conference]] protocols;{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} in the [[Egerland]], German minority organizations continue to exist. In the 2021 census, 24,632 people in the Czech Republic claimed German ethnicity, out of which 15,504 in combination with another ethnicity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Národnost|url=https://www.czso.cz/csu/scitani2021/narodnost|work=Census 2021|publisher=[[Czech Statistical Office]]|language=cs|access-date=7 June 2022}}</ref> ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} *[[Areas annexed by Nazi Germany]] *[[Beneš decrees]] *[[Bohemian Forest Region]] *[[British Committee for Refugees from Czechoslovakia]] *[[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] *[[Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia]] *[[German Austria]] *[[German occupation of Czechoslovakia]] *[[German South Moravia]] *[[Germans in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)]] *[[Pursuit of Nazi collaborators#Czechoslovakia|Pursuit of Nazi collaborators in Czechoslovakia]] *[[Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft]] *[[Sudetenland Medal]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Czechoslovakia timeline|state=collapsed}} {{Silesia topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Sudetenland| ]] [[Category:Historical geography of Germany]] [[Category:Historical regions]] [[Category:History of Czech Silesia]] [[Category:Jews and Judaism in Czechoslovakia]] [[Category:Republic of German-Austria]] [[Category:Regions of Europe]] [[Category:Territorial disputes of Czechoslovakia]] [[Category:Territorial disputes of Germany]] [[Category:World War II occupied territories]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:-%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:-"">Template:-"</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:-%22&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:-"">view source</a>) (extended confirmed protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:About" 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